4.

3 Video compression
• There is not just a single standard associated with video
but rather a range of standards, each targeted at a
particular application domain.

4.3.1 Video compression principles

• Video is simply a sequence of digitized pictures and it is
also referred to as moving pictures.

• A video sequence can be encoded with JPEG algorithm

frame by frame and this approach is known as motion
JPEG.

• In addition to the spatial redundancy present in each

frame, considerable redundancy is often present between
successive frames.

• Frames are classified as 1 of 3 basic frame types (I-, P-

and B- frames) and encoded differently.

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 • I-frames:

• I-frames are encoded independently using the JPEG

algorithm.

• I-frames are inserted into the output stream relatively

frequently.

• I-frames are used as access points for random access

and FF/FR functionality in the bit stream.

• P-frames:

• Frames are partitioned into blocks of size 16x16

(macroblocks).

• To encode a P-frame, the contents of each macroblock

in the target frame are compared on a pixel-by-pixel
basis with the contents of the reference frame to find a
best-matched block of equal size.

• The reference frame can be a P- or I- frame.

• The (x,y) offset of the macroblock being encoded and

the best-matched block is known as motion vector.

• This motion-vector-searching process is known as

motion estimation.

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 • A prediction of the target frame is made with the
reference frame based on the motion vectors obtained.

• The difference between the predicted frame and the

actual target frame is known as the prediction error.

• Motion compensation: Additional bits are required to

encode the prediction error so as to compensate for the
difference if necessary.

• B-frames:

• To encoded a B-frame, any motion is estimated with

reference to both the immediately preceding I- or P-
frame and the immediately succeeding P- or I-frame.

• B-frames provide the highest level of compression.

• B-frames are not involved in the coding of other

frames and hence they do not propagate errors.

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 • The number of frames between successive I-frames is
known as a group of pictures (GOP).

• The number of frames between a P-frame and the

immediately preceding I- or P-frame is called the
prediction span.

• The order of encoding and transmission of the frames is

changed to minimize the time required to decode the
frames.

• A 4th type of frame known as a PB-frame has also been

defined. Two neighboring P- and B-frames are encoded
as if they were a single frame.

• A 5th type of frame known as a D-frame has been

defined for use in movie/video-on-demand applications.

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 • Basic bitstream format:
• Type : type of frame , I, P or B
• Address : identifies the location of the macroblock in
the frame
• Quantization value: the threshold value used to
quantize all DCT coefficients in the macroblock.
• Motion vector: encoded vector
• Block present: indicates which block in the
macroblock are present

• Typical figures of the compression ratios

• I-frames: 10~20:1
• P-frames: 20~30:1
• B-frames: 30~50:1

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4.3.2 H.261
• Encoding format:
• H.261 has been defined by the ITU-T for the provision
• Type: indicates if the macroblock is intracoded or
of video telephony and videoconferencing services over
intercoded
an ISDN.
• Address: identifies the location of the macroblock in
• Supports I- and P-frames only. the frame
• Quantization value: the threshold value used to
quantize all DCT coefficients in the macroblock.
• Motion vector: encoded vector
• Coded block pattern: indicates which block in the
macroblock are present
• Picture start code: indicates the start of a new frame.
• Temporal reference: a timestamp for the decoder to
synchronize the video information with the audio
information.
• Picture type: indicates if the frame is encoded as I- or
P-frame.
• GOB start code: is a resynchronization marker which
is used for resynchronization in case of error.

• Group of (macro)block (GOP) is a structure consists of

3x11 macroblocks.

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 4.3.3 H.263
• H.263 has been defined by the ITU-T for use in a range
of real-time video applications over wireless and PSTNs.

• The applications include video telephony,

videoconferencing, security surveillance, interactive
games playing and so on.

• H.263 standard has a number of advanced coding options

compared with H.261:
• Progressive scanning with a refresh rate of either 15 or
7.5 fps.
• Support I-, P-, B- and PB- frames
• Motion vectors, if necessary, are allowed to point
outside of the frame area.
• Schemes such as error tracking, independent segment
decoding and reference picture selection are included
in the standard that aim at minimizing the effects of
errors on neighboring GOBs.
• Error concealment scheme is incorporated into the
decoder to mask the error from the viewer.

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4.3.4 MPEG • Typical figures of the compression ratios
• I-frames: 10:1
• The Motion Pictures Expert Group (MPEG) was formed
by the ISO to formulate a set of standards relating to a • P-frames: 20:1
range of multimedia applications that involve the use of • B-frames: 50:1
video with sound.

MPEG1 : ISO Recommendation 11172

• Similar video compression technique as H.261.

• Progressive scanning with a refresh rate of 30Hz (for

NTSC) and 25Hz (for PAL)

• Support I-, P- and B- frames

• I-frames must be used for the various random-access

functions associated with VCRs.

• Improvement with respect to H.261:

1. A new layer called slice is added in the structure of
the stream such that the decoder can resynchronize
more quickly in case of error.
2. support B-frames
3. larger searching window of motion vectors and finer
resolution of its representation

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 • Bitstream format:

• Sequence start code: indicates the start of a sequence

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• Video parameters: specify the screen size and aspect MPEG2 : ISO Recommendation 13818
ratio
• Bitstream parameters: indicate the bit rate and the size • It supports four levels - low, main, high 1440 and high -
of the memory/ frame buffers that are required each targeted at a particular application domain.
• Quantization parameters: contain the contents of the
quantization tables that are to be used. • There are 5 profiles associated with each level: simple,
- main, spatial resolution, quantization accuracy and high.
• GOP start code: indicates the start of a GOP
• The different combinations of levels and profiles form a
• Time stamp: used for synchronization purposes framework for all standards activities associated with
• Parameters: defines the particular sequence of frame MPEG-2.
types that are used in each GOP (e.g. IPPBPP)
- • One of the most popular setting is the MP@ML standard
• Picture start code: indicates the start of a frame which is for digital television broadcasting.
• Type: indicates if it's a I-, P- or B-frame • There are 3 standards associated with HDTV: advanced
• Buffer parameters: indicate how full the buffer should television (ATV) in North America, digital video
be before the decoding operation should start broadcast (DVB) in Europe, and multiple sub-Nyquist
• Encode parameters: indicate the resolution of a motion sampling encoding (MUSE) in Japan.
vector.
ATV DVB MUSE
-
Aspect ratio 16/9 4/3 16/9
• Slice start code: indicates the start of a slice Resolution 1280x720 1440x1152 1920x1035
• Vertical position: indicates the scan line in which the Compression MP@HL of SSP@H1440 Similar to
slice is (video) MPEG2 of MPEG2 MP@HL
Compression Dolby AC-3 MP2
• Quantization parameters: indicates the scaling factor
(Audio)
that applies to this slice.

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• Summary of video compression standards
Standard Digitization Compressed Example applications
format bit rate
H.261 CIF/QCIF x64kbps Video telephony/
conferencing over ISDN
and LANs
H.263 S-QCIF/ <64kbps Video telephony/
QCIF conferencing and security
surveillance over low bit
rate channels
MPEG-1/ SIF <1.5Mbps Storage of VHS-quality
ISO11172 video on CD-ROMs
MPEG-2/
ISO13818
Low SIF <4Mbps Recording of VHS-quality
video
Main 4:2:0 <15Mbps Digital video broadcasting
4:2:2 <20Mbps
High 1440 4:2:0 <60Mbps HDTV (4/3 aspect ratio)
4:2:2 <80Mbps
High 4:2:0 <80Mbps HDTV (16/9 aspect ratio)
4:2:2 <100Mbps
MPEG-4 Various 5kbps- Versatile multimedia
tens Mbps coding standard

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