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Chapter 1

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Chapter 1

calculus1

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toygun6363
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| PRELIMINARIES THIS CHAPTER IS ABOUT @ Functions and Their Graphs @ Lines @ Partial Fractions @ Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions (J Summation Notation 1-1. Functions and Their Graphs ‘A. Funetions A relationship between two variables x and y give: each value of x there corresponds just one value of y 2a funetion of x if to 4 EXAMPLE 1-1 For which of the following equations is y a function of x: @) P+ y= 3,0) y+ x= 3) VT FT = wl ~ 9, @) [yl = x? Solution: (a) You can solve this equation for y ye3—xt 4 Now you can see that a value of x determines a unique value of y. (b) IF you try to solve for y in terms of x, yousee that yisn’t a function of x. The plus or minus sign gives you two values of y for most values of x, For example, if x = 2 then y could be +1 or ~1 (6 In spite of the square root, you can solve for y and see that y is a function of x, (@) When x = 1, ycan beeither +1 or ~1, so y isn’t a function of x Another notation for a function of xis f(x) (f evaluated at x, or f of x). For example, f(x) = x? ~ 7s a function of x: For any value of x, the value of J (3) isa unique number: fQ= 2 S(-3 = (-37 -7 fla) =a? -7 al 2 Caleulus To compose two functions f and g, you apply them successively: (Fate) = floes) of g of x, or f composed with g). EXAMPLE 1-2: If f(x) Sale). 0) a F14) and ol fC) ‘Solution: {a) To find /(g(9)), find g(9) and then evaluate f at g(9): a) =4-/9=1 Thus f evaluated at (9) is just f(1): Hla) = £0) = For the general case, (g(x) = (g(x)]? ~ (b) To find g{f(4)), evaluate g at f(4): fa)=#-3=1 al ft4)) = (13) = 4 - JB You can find a general expression for gi f{x)}: aos) = 4 = JI) = 4 = JF =3 3 and g(x) — JX, find (a) f(g) and B. Domain and range 4 ‘The domain of a function f(x)is the set of values of x for which f(x)is defined and real. The range of f(x) isthe set of all possible values of f(x). Interval notation will help you to describe the domain and range of a function. If a and b are numbers, with a a “xin (@ 00)" represents x > a “xin(—oo,a]" represents x 0. Also, ./x can’t be negative, so yx — 3 must be at least —3. Thus the domain of fis [0, 20) and the range is [ ~3, 0) () The funetion gix) = ( + 1)? is defined for all values of x, but any number raised to the 2/3 power is nonnegative. The domain of g is(~ co, oo) and the range is [0, 20} (©) The function h(x) = JX + J¥—4 is only defined for x > 4 because Vix = A requires x > 4. If x > 4, then ,/x is at least two and fx — 4is at least zero. The domain of f(x) is F4, oo) and the range is [2, co). Preliminaries 3 (@) In order that 3 — = be defined, 3 — x? must be nonnegative: ~Jficxe 3 But the denominator mustn't be zero, so 3 — x? can't be zero. Thus the domain of jis(—4/3, ./3). To find the range, notice that ./3 — x? is always between O and 3. Thus (x) isat least 1//3 = ./3/3, The range is [,/3/3, 00). C. The graph of a funetion ‘The graph of «function f(x)is he set of points(s, y)in the x-y plane for which y= Je. hs =A) (ea, sacar EXAMPLE 1-4: Graph the function f(x) ~ |x} Solution; You must graph all points (x, y) for which y = |x|. The graph will : contain points at all distances from the y axis because f(x) = |x| is defined for all 4 values of x (ie, the domain of f is (—co, 00). If x is positive then y = x5 fx is negative thea y= —x. Thus for positive values of x graph (x, ») = (05); for Figure 1+ negative values of x graph (x, —x), as shown in Figure 1-1. A(x) = [a : D. Inverse functions } i If f(x) and g(x) are functions and f(g(x)) = g(flx)) = x, then f and g are a inverse functions. For example, f(x) = 2x — 3 and g(x) = }(x + 3) are i inverse functions: 1 fla(e)) = 2g(x) - 3 = az + a] 3549) g t 1 1 I afl) = 5(F09 + 3) = 5 [2x — 3) + 3] = 3 Dx1=x ‘ If you are given a function f(x) and asked to find its inverse function, set y ‘equal to f(x) and solve the equation for x in terms of y. If you are successful and if this expression for x in terms of y isa function g of y, then g and f are inverse. EXAMPLE 1-5: Find the inverse function for f(x) = 5x° + 1 Solution: Set y = f(x) and solve for x: y=5e 41 yo dase 1 30) ' x= fy pee a Thus if g(y) = [A(y ~ 1)]*”, then f and g are inverse functions. To check this, i recognize that y is justa variable used in describing the action of g,and you could just as well write glz) = [§(z ~ 1)}"? or glx) = [x — D}!*. Now find f(g(x)) and of f(x) raters) sf oP [Jaa] +s -Y+l=x # Caleulus al FC) [i You've verified that f and g are inverse functions. Many functions don't have inverse functions. The equation y = f(x) may not give x as a function of y. That is, although each x yields a unique y (because f isa function, it is possible that certain values of y give more than ‘one value of x. For example, f(x) = x7 doesn't have an inverse function because theequation y = x7 describes two values of x for every positive value of y:x = +,/y. In particular, y = 4 corresponds to x = 2and x = —2. If you have a graph of y = f(x) and f has an inverse function g, then the ‘graph of g is easy to find: Simply reflect the graph of f about the line y = x (the 45° line through the origin) as in Figure 1-2. This procedure works for a simple reason. The equation y = (x) relates x and y. The equation y = g(x) is the same equation, with x and y interchanged, 1-2. Lines A. Slope ‘Two distinct points in the plane (xp, yo) and (x,, y,) determine a line. The slope m of that line is iliac ascitic seneusnioesancsnetltls SLOPE OF d= Yo ALINE m (4) If this denominator is zero, then the lines vertical and the slope is undefined. You can find the slope of a line using any pair of distinet points on the line— you'll always find the same value for m, The slope measures the tangent of the positive angle that the line makes ‘with the x axis. A positive slope indicates a line that rises from left to right; a , negative stope indicates a line that falls from left to right. A fine with numerically large slope is steep; a line with slope close to zero is nearly horizontal. If m = 0 then the line is horizontal EXAMPLE 1-6: Find the slope of the line joining (a) (1,2) and (5, —1), (b) (3, —4) and (2 2), (¢ (1, 3) and (—4, 3), (@) (5, 1) and (5, ~2), Solution: (@) The line joining (1, 2) and (5, —1) has slope -1-2_-3 m i= ry ec ola (b) The line joining (3, ~4) and (2, 2) has slope (©) The line joining (1, 3) and (—4,3) has slope 3-3 and is horizontal, (@) The line joining (5, 1) and (5, —2) has slope Ne m which is undefined, This line is vertical : i | ‘Two lines are parallel if and only if they have the same slope or are both vertical. Two lines are perpendicular if their slopes m, and m, are negative reciprocals: m= a or if one has slope 0 and the other has undefined slope, EXAMPLE 1-7: Which of the following lines are parallel and which ate perpendicular: L, passes through (1, —4) and (2, ~ I); passes through (~3, 2) ‘and (0,1); Ly passes through (4,1) and (—1, 0); L passes through (~3, —3) and (9 Solution: Ly has slope m, = [—1 ~ (—4)]/(2 ~ 1) = 3, Ly has slope m, = (1 = 2[0 = (—3)] = =1/3. Ly has slope my = (0 ~ 1/(=1 — 4) = 1/5. Ly has slope mg = [9 — (—3)]/[1 — (—3)] = 3. So, Ly and L, are parallel and Ly is perpendicular to Ly and Ly. B, Equation of a line 1, Point-slope form If (x9, yo) and (x, y,) are two points on a line, then you can find the slope m of that line, For any other point (x, y) on the line, the slope between (x,, y,) and (x, ») will also be m: sli a POINT-SLOPE FORM y= = mlx — x) (1-2) ‘This equation in x and y describes the line through the point (x, y) with slope ‘m. This is called the point-slope form for the equation of the line EXAMPLE 1-8: Find an equation for the line through the point (7,2) with slope —3. Solution: Use Equation 1-2 Y= y= mb ~ xy) y-2= 3-7) EXAMPLE 1-9: Find an equation for the line that passes through (1, ~ 2) and (3,1). Solution: This tine has slope m 3-1 4 This line has slope m = —3/4 and passes through the point (x, 91) = (—3, DL Use Equation 1-2 and either of the given points to find the equation of the line: YY = mlx — x1) 3 &-(-3] Gers 2. Slope-intercept form If a line intersects the x axis at (a, 0)and the y axis at (0,b),then a is called the x intercept of the line and b is called the y intercept Preliminaries § 6 Caleulus Figure 1-3, 2x ay of the line. A line with slope m and y intercept b has equation YH = mle — x4) ee) yo b= m ‘SLOPE-INTERCEPT FORM =m +b (13) This equation is called the slope-intereept form for the equation of the line, EXAMPLE 1-10: Find the slope-intercept form of the equation for the line with slope 5 that intersects the y axis at (0 3) ‘Solution: This line has slope m = 5 and y intercept b = 3. Use Equation 1-3: yam +b ysSxe3 EXAMPLE I-11: Find the equation in slope-intercept form of the line that asses through (1, 7) and (~2, 3) Solution: First find the slope of the line: matt it 4 ‘The (point-slope) equation of the line is ¥ > Ve = mx ~ x4) Now solve for y to obtain the equation in slope-interoept fort: 4 yas +Q43 3 Sbag yazrtgt 4 oo yaar This equation isin slope-intercept form. You see thatthe line intersects the paxis at (0,4). Any equation of the form Ax + By = C, where A, Band C are constants (4 and B not both zero} is the equation of a line. C. Graphs There are several ways to graph a line when you aze given its equation. One ‘way is to find two points on the line —two ordered pairs (x, y) that satisly the equation—plot them, and draw the line they determine, EXAMPLE 1-12: Graph the line 2x ~ 3y = 6 Solution: One way to find two points on the line is to find the two interoapts When x = 0, —3y = 6, and y = ~2, so (0, -2) is on the line. When y= 0, 2x = 6,and x = 3,80 3, 0) ison the line, Now plot the points (0, ~2) and 3,0) and the line they determine (sce Figure 13, crassa Ifthe equation is in slope-intercept form, you may find it easiest to graph the line by locating the y intercept and drawing the line through that point with the given slope. EXAMPLE 1-13: Graph the line y = 2x + 1 ‘Solution: This line has y intercept 1 and slope 2, so plot the point (0, 1). Now draw the line through (0, 1) with slope 2—for every change of +1 in the x direetion, the change in the y direction is +-2—as shown in Figure 1-4 D. Linear funetions AA linear function is any function of the form f(x) = mx + b for constants m and b, IL is called linear because the graph of y = f(x) is a line EXAMPLE 1-14: Graph the function f(x) = —2x + 1 Solution: The graph of y = f(x) has slope —2 and y intercept 1, as shown in Figure 1-5. Figure 1-5 Ho) = —2e 441 }. Partial Fractions ‘ pan function isa function of the form f(x) = ay + ax + ax? $+ + ax", Where dg, dy... dg ane real numbers and the powers of x are nonnegative integers, For example, f(x) = 2 + 3x ~ 4x? isa polynomial function while htx) = x? — x 4 2 isn’t (2 isn't an integer). A rational function eat ee bobo functions, that is, x) = ple}/a(x). For example, S03) = (x) — Tx + Dye? + 3x ~ 2) is a rational fimetion. Also, g(x) = 2x? + [(Sx — 3c? + 2)] is a rational function because it can be expressed as 2xx? + 2) + Sx — 3 _ xt + Ax + Se —3 oe xed xe? ‘A rational function is proper if the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator. Otherwise, itis improper. By performing division, you can express an improper rational function as the sum of a polynomial and a proper rational function, EXAMPLE 1-15: Express f(x) = (e* — 2x + 1)/(? +3) as the sum of a polynomial and a proper fractional function, Preliminaries 7 8 Calculus Solution: Divide the denominator to the numerator: eee w+ de? 2x $1 xt + 3x? Thus x4 — 2x + L-= (x? — 3a? + 3) + (—2x + 10), and so Det) gy okt waa etd Every proper rational function can be expressed as a sum of other proper rational functions, where each term in the sum has a denominator that isa power of an irreducible polynomial, In order to achieve this decomposition, you must first factor the denominator completely, that is, into irreducible factors. Then proceed as follows: 1. If @ linear factor ax +b appears in the denominator n times, then the decomposition will include rational terms of the form AA AR too tet (ax +B)" (ae + 5P fax +5)" for some constants A,, A2,..., dq. In particular, if the linear factor appears only once in the denominator, then the decomposition will simply include @ term of the form A/(ax + b), where A is a constant. 2. If the irreducible quadratic factor ax? + bx + ¢ (b? ~ dac < 0) appears nn times in the denominator, then the decomposition will include rational terms of the form Ay + Bex Art Bx Apt Bax FE we ox te” (ax + bx +o) Co ar EXAMPLE 1-16: Find the partial fraction decomposition of Jo) = (Bx — Ay (x? + x — 3), Solution: First factor the denominator: x? + 2x — ___o-4 &F39e—-H (e+ 3)lx = Iso fo Because the denominator consists of linear terms, each appeating only once, you anticipate a decomposition into terms of the form __&e-4 A B &+3@-° @+H RD for some constants 4 and B. In order (o find A and B, simply multiply both sides by the denominator (x + 3\(x ~ 1) in order to clear all denominators: 8x = 4 = Ale = 1) + BE +3) Combine terms to express the right side as a polynomial in x 8x — 4 = (A + B)x + GB A) Because two polynomials are equal only when the coefficients of x" are equal (for cach n}, you can equate coefficients B=A+B -4=3B-A ' ' ets $0) = ei a+ Seh-3 +3) EXAMPLE 1-17: Find the partial fraction decomposition of Slx) = (Sx? ~ 3x 4+ Aye? — 1), Solution: First factor the deriominator. Because 1 isa root of x? — 1, you find ) (Det +xt a factorization into irreducible factors. So, Se-3x+4 Set 3x44 eat &- DOF +41 Bx+€ wexgel for some constants A, B, and C, Multiply both sides by (x — Ifa? + x + 1): Sx? = 3x +4 = Ale? + x + 1) + (Bx + CY — 1) =(A + Bx? +(A- B+ Cx + (A-C) Equating coefliients you find S=A+B Solve simultaneously and find A = 2, B Sxt- 3x +4 7 -1 9 (&-) ix Feat EXAMPLE 1-18: Find the partial fraction decomposition of SO) = (6x? + x + 10)(x? — 3x ~ 2) Solution: Factor x* — 3x ~ 2 and set up the form for the partial fraction decomposition: 6x? +x 4 10 4 B G+ Reo eet esa tx -3 6x? +x +10 = Ale + INlx — 2) + Bx — 24 Cle + IP = (A + Cx? + (BA + 2C)x + (C ~ 24 — 2B) 6=A4C 1=B-A+2C Ws SoA = 2,B = ~S,and C = 4: IQ) = - 24-28 Se yal eae 1-4, Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions A. Trigonometric functions ‘Unless otherwise noted, angles will be measured in radians in this book, rather than degrees. To convert from degrees to radians and back, use the fact that 2x radians = 360 degrees. Thus if an angle @ is a°, then 0 = a(s%q) radians, Similarly, if 0 is f radians, then @ = BER) degrees. Let &be a positive number. Rotate the positive x axis about the origin in a counterclockwise direction by the angle 0. If @is a negative number, rotate in a clockwise direction by the angle —6. The point (1, 0) will be moved to the Preliminaries 9 ol 10 Calculus Figure 1-6 Figure 17 fx) position (x,y), where: cos@ and y=sind a4) (Gee Figure 1-6) ‘Thus f(0) = sin 0 and g(8) = cos 8 have domain (~co, 00) and range [1,1]. The other trigonometric functions (tangent, secant, cosecant, and cotangent) are defined in terms of sine and cosine: sind 1 eoacas) @ ueniand cos 8 aoe 1) 9nd 8 Sin oy ‘The graphs of the trigonometric functions are shown in Figures 1-7 through 1-12, You will’ need to know that sin n/6 = 1/2, cos 9/6 = 3/2, sin x/4 = ,/2/2,andcos x/4 = /2/2. If you know these values, then you can readily construct the following chart: foe eet agen ele dn z eel eit a la 7 zfa),e|* — = po sino | 0 vt] 3 1 Bivtt lt |g a |r | 2 7} 2 | 3 Ayala 1} cos} 1 | 2 - 2 2 2 c 2 2 5 F no} of 2 ] 1 | 3 | undefined | - 3} -t te | Sn | de an se | ta | ite ltl e fads z x | 4 |e [™ sina | 0 | M8} |] vt] td | 2 2 2 |~2 | 72 v3) v2] 1 1 a) cosa | -1 | -¥2) -v2] -1 1) viv ayn" 2 2 a 2 7 ||! 5 | A sano] 0 | 2] 1 | Vo | unto aE 8) o Preliminaries 11 Figure 1-12 1(e) = cot x Figure 1-10 Hx) = sec x If theangle @appearsin a right triangle, as in Figure 1-13, then the sine and cosine of 0 are related to the lengths of the sides of the triangle: side opposite 0 mo AE ( sno Tiypotenuse | 0s a ; “eee (7) - : ‘The Pythagorean theorem implies that 4 sin20 + cos? = 1 (1-8) ' for any angle 0. This identity gives rise to several other useful identities : ‘ sec? = 1 + tan’9 (1-9) ose’ = 1 + cot?0 (i-19) You will also have oecasion to use the identities ' c0s?6 = H(1 + 005 20) (et) 2 sin?0 = 4(1 — cos 26) (12) i 05 20 = cos?) — sin?@ (413) : sin 20 = 2sin 0 cos 6 (144) | —_B. Tiverse trigonometric functions - If xis any number between ~ 1 and 1, then arc sin x (also written sin™ “xp is | the angle between —n/2 and x/2 whose sine is x, If x isany number between ~ Land 1, then arc cos x (cos x) is the angle between O and m whose cosine is x. If xis any number, then arc tan x (tan” x) is the angle between ~r/2 and 1/2 whose tangent is x. If x is a number in (~o0, —1] or [1, oo), then a are sec x (sec 'x) is the angle between 0 and m whose secant is x and : arc esc x (csc~'x) is the angle between —x/2 and x/2 whose cosecant is x. If z xis any number, then arc cot x (cot™ x) is the angle between 0 and x whose 7 3 : cotangent is x, EXAMPLE 1-19: Find cos(are sin §) and sin(arc tan 3). Solution: To find cos(arcsin 2} draw a right triangle with an angle whose sine is? (ee Figure 1-14). You have @ = arcsin3. The Pythagorean theorem allows you svat 2 Calculus Figure 1-15 to find that the length of the base of this triangle is 4. Thus . 3) oso et cos{ aro sin; } = cos 0 = = To find sin(arc tan 4), draw a right triangle with an angle whose tangent is 3 Gee Figure 1-15). You have 0 = are tan}. By the Pythagorean theorem, the hypotenuse has length /2? + 3? = \/13. Thus, 2 Dene 13 sin { are tan <) = sin@ = = = 3 vo. 8 C. Hyperbolic functions ‘The hyperbolic sine function is sinh x (1-15) The hyperbolic cosine function is cosh x = 5 (1416) The other hyperbolic functions are defined in terms of hyperbolic sine and cosine: (1-17) 1-5. Summation Notation ‘The symbol 5, is the capital Greek letter sigma. This letter indicates a sum, The symbol Y°/__;f(k) represents the sum of the numbers f(k) for all integers k running from j through j 4 SOOM D Ee U-DED — C8) For example, yi L(Y) + £2) + (8) + £4) + 1) ms Xa 2 6 ka=14+243444546=21 ‘in 3 J) = 10) + 16) + 19 i) = a—2) + a(—1) + g(0) + g(t) + 92) 5 Y eae ees st = 50 Yratti+ io G(R) = FL) + 2F(2) + 37) @aabt ata tad F EXAMPLE 1-20: Express the sum of the numbers 4 through 28 in summation notation. Solution: Atthoush there are several ways to express this sum in summation rotation, the most natural way is ‘You should know the following summation formulas Sie att 0 19) Sa _ nn + Qn + 1) B= 1-20) Py 3 ean te =the a (1-21) EXAMPLE 1-21: Find the sum of the integer 1 through 28 Solution: Write this in summation notation, 72%, &, and apply Equation 1-19 with n = 28: 2 _ 2828 + 1) B= AY ss You'll find the following useful: Ja= eX 10 (2) 2, + oto = $70 + ¥ 0 (1-23) Yewej-i+h) (1-24) EXAMPLE 1-22: Calculate J. (3k? — 2k + 4) Solution: Use the appropriate equation 208% +4 = YORI +L 4 =D w+ Teme SS 1. The variable y isa function of x if every value of x gives a unique value of y 2. The domain of a function fis the set of values of x for which f(x) is defined. The range is the set of possible values of f(x). 3. To find the inverse function to f{x), set y equal to f(x) and solve for x. 4. IF you know the slope of a line and a point on the line, you can find the equation of the line Preliminaries 13 14 Caleulus 8. You canexpress an improper rational function as the sum of a polynomial and « proper rational function, 6. You can express a proper rational function as a sum of proper functions, each with a denominator that is @ power of an irreducible polynomial 7. If you know the value of the trigonometric functions at 7/6 and 1/4 radians, then you can evaluate the trigonometric functions at any integer multiple of a/6 ot m4. 8. The right-triangle definition of the trigonometric functions will help you to find the values of each of the functions when one is known, 9. Y-sum notation is a useful “short-hand” for the representation of sums of a Jarge number (or of a general number, n) of terms, each of which is of the same type. SOLVED PROBLEMS PROBLEM 1-1 Is yafunctionof x: (a) y¥= x2; (@) Solution: (a) Solve for y in terms of x: \ ya +2) Any value of x gives a unique value of y, so y is a function of x (6) If you solve for yin terms of x, yo4gee2 then you see that any value of x greater than —2 gives two values of y, so y isn'ta function of x (See Section I PROBLEM 1-2 Find the domain and range of fix) = Yay ‘Solution: This function is defined for any x > 0,50 the domain is(0, 0). Because the denominator can be any positive number, the function can take on any value between zero and infinity, The range is (0, 0) [Se Seton 1-L} PROBLEM 1-3 Find the domain and range of f(x) = 1 Solution: The function is defined for 2 — x > 0, i, for x < 2. The domain is (—o0, 2]. Because /2 — x can be any nonnegative number, 1 — \/2 — x can be any number less than or equal to one, The range is (—90, 1] [See Section I-L] PROBLEM 1-4 Let f(x) = 3/(4 — x) and find the inverse function for fi it exists Solution: Let y = f{x) and solve for x in terms of y: a) ax eee y 3 x=4- y So x = g(y), where g(y} = 4 — 3/y. Thus g(x) = 4 — 3fvis the inverse function for J [See Seton 1-1] aes ccs Preliminaries 15 PROBLEM 1-5 Let f(x) = 3/x? and find the inverse function for f if it exists Solution: Let y = f(x) and solve for xin terms of y: So x isn’t a function of y. There is no inverse function for f. [See Section I] - PROBLEM 1-6 Find the slope of the line joining (1, 3) and (—2, 5). Solution: The slope of the line is {See Setion 1-2] x Xo PROBLEM 1-7 Which of the following lines are parallel and which are perpendicular: Ly passes through (3, ~4) and (1, 3); L» passes throdigh (4, ~3) and (4,2): Ly passes through (~3, 5) and (2, 5); by passes through (—1, 2} and (6, 4)? Solution: Ly has slope m, = (3 ~ (=4)]U — 3) = —1/2. Ly is a vertical line—its stope is undefined. Ls has slope ms = (S — Sy/[2 — (—3)] = 0 (horizontal tine). Ly has slope my = (4 — 2yf6 ~ (—1)] = 2/7. Thus Ly is perpendicular to L,, and Lis perpendicular to Ly. None of the lines is parallel to another. {See Section 1-2] PROBLEM 1-8 Find the equation of the line through (—3, 2) with slop -4. Solution: Use the point-slope fora of the equation: yy, = moe = x) Sf -(-3)] +3) {See Section 12 PROBLEM 1-9 Find the equation of the ine that passes through the points (3, 1) and (+1, -2, Solution: The line has slope m = (—2— Hil through (3, 1)is, = 3) =}. The line with slope 2 that passes 3 a yo lg -3) [See Seetion 1-2) PROBLEM 1-10 Find the y intercept of the line through the points (—2, 3)and (1, 4) Solution: The line has slope m = (3 ~ 4)/(—2 — 1) = Sand passes through (1, 4}: 1 ze 0 1 “3 ae 3 This is the slope-intercept form of the equation. The y intercepts 11/3. [See Seation 1-2) 16 Calculus PROBLEM I-L1/ Graph the function f(x) = ~3x ~ 1 ‘Solution: The graph of y = f(x)isa line with slope —3.and yintercept ~1. The graph is shown in Figure 1-16. [See Section 1-23 Figure 1-16 Hee) = 3x1 PROBLEM 1-12 Express f(x) = (x — x? — 3x? — 3x ~ 1x + x + 1) as the sum of @ polynomial and a proper rational function, Solution: Divide x? + x + Lintox* = x? — 3x? — 3x —1 sade 2 4xd ie oe 3x tt tot i It =a 3x1 = 2x) = 2x? = 2 at x= 2x? - 2x -2 xl You have xt x3 3x? 3x ba (xt txt DQ? 2e- Hee Divide both sides of this equation by x? + x + 1 ste a3 -x-t xt! ~2x- 24454 wep edl axtt Thus f(x) is the sum of the polynomial x? — 2x —2 and the proper rational function (e+ GP + x40. {See Section 13] PROBLEM 1-13 Find the partial fraction decomposition of f(x) = (x ~ 13)/(x? ~ x ~ 6) ‘Solution: First factor the denominator: =e + He — 3) and then set up the form for the decomposition: x= 4 iB @+2@-9 x42" Multiply both sides by (x + 2)(x — 3) to clear the denominator: x13 = Als — 3) + Be + 2) Preliminaries 17 and combine terms; x— 13 =(A + B)x + (34 + 2B) Equate coefficients 1=A+B —13= -34 + 2B and solve to find A = 3,B = 2. Thus f(x) = [3/(x + 2] — (2% — 3). [See Section 1.3 PROBLEM 1-14 Find the partial fraction decomposition of i $0) = Ax? + 6x? + x + Get + x), Solution: The denominator is x°(x? + 1), the product of a linear term (ie, x) squared and an irreducible quadratic term, x? + 1, The decomposition will be of the form: ( 4x + Oxt+ x42 A Bo Cx+D rx x ST Clear denominators and combine terms: 4x8 4 6x? + x 2 = Axle? + 1) + BO? + 1) + (Cx + Div? = (A+ Ox? + (B+ Dx? + ax t B Equate coefficients [See Section 1.3 ; PROBLEM 1-15 Find tan(are cos4). ‘Solution: Draw a right triangle with an angle whose cosine is 4, as in Figure 1-17. You have = arc-cos §s, By the Pythagorean theorem, the remaining side has length ./24. Thus, tan(arecos) = tand {See Section 1-4] T 7 Figure 1-17 Figure 1-18 PROBLEM 1-16 Find sec(are cot3) Solution: Draw a right triangle with an angle whose cotangent is 3, as in Figure 1-18. You have 4 = arc cot 3, By the Pythagorean theorem, the hypotenuse has length ,/74. Thus, 74 sexfareoot4) = seo = (See Scion I-4] 18 Caleutus PROBLEM 1-17 Find Yk ~ &) Solution: Separate into two sums and use the appropriate formula: e+ x ky =2y e-Tk mat 6+ IF] 66+) _ ; [ | alana 861 [See Section 1-5.) s PROBLEM 1-18 Find )° (ke + 3k ~ 6), mt Solution: 8 A 2 ye +3P-H= YR 43Y _ 88+ 1F | P88 + NL} + 1) =p | = 1860 {See Section 1-5], 4 Supplementary Exercises 1-19 Which of the following are functions of x: (a) \/y + 1 (oy = 21d y? = JEM y + IP = 2? In Problems 1-20 through 1-24 find the domain and range of f 1:20, f(x) =2- 1.23 f(x) = x? La fx)=it Yx—3 1-24 f(x) = 12 f(x) = 1+ sine In Problems 1-25 through 1-28 find the inverse function for f, if it exists 1.25 f(x) = 3x +6 1.27 f(y) =(- IP +1 126 f(x) = 3° 2 1-28 fx) = S/2x — 9° 1-29 Which of the following lines are parallel and which are perpendicular: L, passes through (1, 5) and (22, 51}; Ly passes through (1, —1) and (—3, 7} Ly passes through (6, —1) and (4, 0} and L, passes through (4, 1) and (—2, 3}; Ls passes through (3, ~2) and 2, —4)? In Problems 1-30 through 1-34 find the slope-intercept form of the equation of the line passing through the two points 1-30 (2, 1)and (5, 4) 1.33 (1,4)and(1, —2) 131 (=1,3) and (2, -2) 134 (2, ~6)and (—3,2) 1-32 (1, 1)andG, 1)

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