Introduction Which particle properties are important to

● Particle technology is a term used to refer to measure? (3)

the science and technology related to the ● In addition to chemical composition, the
handling and processing of particles. behavior of particulate materials is often
● Particle technology is also often described as dominated by the physical properties of the
⑧
powder technology, particle science and
- - - constituent particles.
powder science.
- ● These can influence a wide range of material
● Particles are commonly referred to as bulk properties including, for example, reaction and
solids, particulate solids or granular solids. dissolution rates, how easily ingredients flow
● Today particle technology includes the study of (2) and mix, or compressibility and abrasivity,
liquid drops, emulsions and bubbles as well as ● From a manufacturing and development
solid particles. perspective, some of the most important
● This course is however limited only to solid
postm
- physical properties to measure are:
particles.
- ○ Particle size
● The discipline of particle technology now ○ Particle shape
includes topics as diverse as the formation of ○ Surface Properties
aerosols to the design of bucket elevators, ○ Mechanical Properties
crystallization to pneumatics transport, slurry ○ Charge properties
filtration to silo design. ○ microstructure

Importance
1.1 Particle Shape
● 0
Solids used in chemical industries are most ● The shape of an individual particle is
commonly in the form of particles.
-
expressed in terms of the sphericity which is
● Solids in general are more difficult to handle
-
independent of particle size.
-

than liquid and gasses. ● Sphericity is the ratio of surface area of a

-

● In process industries solid appear in a variety

-
sphere of the same volume as particle to the
of forms, they may be hard and abrasive. surface area of particle.
-

tough and rubbery, soft and fragile, dusty and

(5)
● So for spherical particle sphericity is equal to
cohesive, free flowing or sticky. ntsdf
-

one.
-

● Particulate materials, powders or bulk powders For non-spherical particle it is defined by:
or bulk solids are used widely in all areas of
-
the process industries, for example in the food
processing, pharmaceutical, biotechnology, oil,
chemical mineral processing, metallurgical,
detergent, power generation, paint, plastics
and cosmetics industries,· (11)
● So the knowledge of their properties, handling,
storage, transportation, separation and ● The equivalent diameter is sometimes defined
processing is important from a chemical as the diameter of a sphere of equal volume.
engineering point of view. (b)
●
-
For fine particles, 𝐷𝑝 is usually taken to be the
--

1. Characterization of Solid Particle nominal size based on screen analysis or

-

microscopic analysis.
Individual solid particles are characterized by
0
their size, shape and density.
● -
The surface area is found from adsorption
-

measurements or from the pressure drop in a

- -

bed of particles.
Size and shape are easily specified for regular
not

particles, such as spheres and cubes, but for

● >
For many crushed materials, Sphericity is
1 between 0.6 and 0.8. For particles rounded
irregular particles?
⑨ -

Why measure particle properties? (3) main to pic

sub-ideas
● Better control of quality of product (cement,
urea, cosmetics etc.) enumeration

● Better understanding of products, ingredients. multiple choice

● Designing of equipment for different operations
such as crushing, grinding, conveying,
separation, storage etc. (5)
 ● In general “diameter” may be specified for any
-
equidimensional particles (e.g. emulsions or
bubbles).
● Most of the solid particles used in industries
-

are One
not equidimensional, therefore cannot be
specified by a single dimension i.e. “diameter””
- -

● In order to simplify the measurement process,

it is often convenient to define the particle size
using the concept of- equivalent spheres.
Note entries for cubes and cylinders. For
● In this case the particle size is defined by the
convenience, some just calculate a nominal (average)
diameter of an equivalent sphere having the
diameter
same property as the actual particle such as
volume or mass for example.
Particle Size (6) ENCFVU
● Equidimensional particles
- diameter
● Not equidimensional -
second
-
longest major
dimension eg. Needle-like
particle, 𝐷𝑝 = thickness not
the length
● Coarse particle: inches or
millimeters
● Fine particle: screen size ● The equivalent sphere concept works very well
● Very fine particles: for regular shaped particles.
micrometers or nanometers ● However, it may not always be appropriate for
● Ultra fine particle: surface irregular shaped particles, such as needles or

C
2
area per unit mass,
𝑚 plates, where the size in at least one
𝑔
dimension can differ significantly from that of
other dimensions.
● Such particles are often characterized by the
second longest major dimension. For example
0
needle like particles, 𝐷𝑝 would refer to the
-

thickness of the particle, not their length.

1.2 Particle Size -

● By far the most important physical property of

● - -
Units used for particle size depend on the size
-

-
of particles.
particulate samples is particle size. men

- Coarse particle: inches or millimeters

● Particle size measurement is routinely carried
- Fine particle: screen size
out across a wide range of industries and is
- Very fine particles: micrometers or
often a critical parameter in the manufacturing
nanometers
of many products.
- Ultra fine particle: surface area per
● Particle size has a0- direct influence on material 2
𝑚
properties such as: (8) RSETAF VP unit mass, 𝑔
- Reactivity or dissolution rate e.g. Remember: If we use a sieve to measure the particle
-

catalysts, tablets size we come up with an equivalent sphere diameter,

- Stability in suspension e.g. sediments, which is the -
diameter of a sphere passing through the
paints same sieve aperture. If we use a sedimentation
mem

- Efficacy of delivery e.g. asthma inhalers

-

technique to measure particle size then it is expressed

- Texture and feel e.g. food ingredients
- Appearance e.g. powder coatings and
-
as the diameter of a sphere having the same
sedimentation velocity under the same conditions.
nee
inks
- Flowability and handling e.g. granules ● In practice, it is important to use the method of
- Viscosity e.g. nasal sprays size measurement which directly gives the
-

- Packing density and porosity e.g. particle size which is relevant to the situation
ene

ceramics. or process of interest.

 1.5 Average particle size
● The average particle size for a mixture of
particles is defined in several different ways.
● Volume surface mean diameter 𝐷𝑠:
6 1
𝐷𝑝𝑖 = ϕ𝑠 𝐴𝑤 ρ𝑝
= 𝑁 𝑥𝑖
● To apply the above two equations to mixtures ∑
𝐷𝑝𝑖
𝑖=1
of particles having various size and densities,
the mixture is sorted into fractions, each of If number of particle Ni in each fraction is known,
instead of mass fraction xi, then:
-

constant density and approximately constant

𝑁 3
size. ∑ 𝑁𝑖𝐷𝑝𝑖
● Each fraction can then be weighed, or the 𝐷𝑠 = 𝑖=1

individual particles in it -
-
𝑁
can be counted or ∑ 𝑁𝑖𝐷𝑝𝑖
2

measured by any of the number of the

-
𝑖=1

methods. ● Arithmetic mean diameter:

● Information from such a particle size analysis 𝑁 𝑁
∑ 𝑁𝑖𝐷𝑝𝑖 ∑ 𝑁𝑖𝐷𝑝𝑖
is tabulated in this way is called differential 𝑖=1 𝑖=1
analysis. 𝐷𝑠 = 𝑁 = 𝑁𝑇
● A second way to prevent the information is ∑ 𝑁𝑖
𝑖=1
through a cumulative analysis obtained by
adding, consecutively, the individual
𝑁𝑇= number of particles in the entire sample
mine

increments,
m
starting with that containing the ● Mass mean diameter:
smallest particles, and tabulating or plotting the 𝑁
cumulative sums against the maximum particle 𝐷𝑤 = ∑ 𝑥𝑖𝐷𝑝𝑖
diameter in the increment. 𝑖=1
● Volume mean diameter:
1.3 Mixed Particles sizes and size analysis 1
3
● In a sample of uniform particles of diameter 𝐷𝑝, ⎡ ⎤
⎢ 1 ⎥
the total volume of the particles is
𝑚
ρ𝑝
, where m 𝐷𝑣 = ⎢ 𝑁 𝑥 ⎥
⎢ ∑ 𝑖
3 ⎥
= mass of the sample, ρ𝑝 = density. Since the ⎣ 𝑖=1 𝐷 𝑝𝑖 ⎦
volume of the particle is 𝑣𝑝 the total number of ● For samples consisting of uniform particles
these average diameters are, of course, all the
particle in the sample is:
same. For mixtures containing particles of
𝑚
𝑁 = ρ𝑝 𝑣𝑝
various sizes, however, the several average
diameters may differ widely from one another.
● The total surface area of the particles is:
6𝑚 1.6 Number of particle in mixture
𝐴𝑤 = 𝑁𝑆𝑝 = ϕ𝑠 ρ𝑝 𝐷𝑝 The volume of any particle is proportional to its
“diameter” cubed.
1.4 Specific surface of mixture 3
𝑣𝑝 = 𝑎𝐷𝑝
● If the particle density ρ𝑝 and spericity Φ𝑠 are
a = volume shape factor
known, the surface area of particles in each
Assuming that a is independent of size, then:
fraction can be calculated and added to give
𝑁
the O
specific surface, 𝐴𝑤 (The total surface area 1 𝑥𝑖 1
𝑁𝑤 = ∑ =
O 𝑎ρ𝑝 3 3
of the unit mass of particle): 𝑖=1 𝐷𝑝𝑖 𝑎ρ𝑝𝐷𝑝𝑖
6𝑥1 6𝑥2 6𝑥𝑁 𝑁 𝑥𝑖
6
𝐴𝑤 = + +... + = ϕ𝑠 ρ𝑝
∑
ϕ𝑠 ρ𝑝𝐷𝑝1 ϕ𝑠 ρ𝑝𝐷𝑝2 ϕ𝑠 ρ𝑝𝐷𝑝𝑁 𝐷𝑝𝑖
𝑖=1

● Where 𝑥𝑖 = mass fraction in a given

increment,
𝐷𝑝𝑖 = average diameter (taken as
arithmetic average of the smallest and largest
particle diameters in increment).
 -
Screening
- First major separation process for solids
- Most commonly uses operation for solids
Screening is the process of dividing particles into
two or more fractions based on size. In the procedure
of screening, a mixture of particles is taken and
divided into several categories according to particle Figure 1: Stratification and Separation Probability
- me

size.
n

Screening Operation
A wide range of industries, including mining and 1. Scalping
mineral processing, food, agricultural, chemical, Scalping is typically the first step in the screening
recycling, plastics, and pharmaceuticals, use the
aforementioned approach.
process, it is the process of removing bulkier0
components from the mixture. Scalping screeners
output various sizes of material using vibrating
Screening serves several purposes, including meshes. The material is dumped on top of the stacked
enhancing the coarse particles for further size tiers of meshes, or “”screens.”
reduction, eliminating the fine particles from the
crusher feed to prevent over-grinding, classifying the
crushed particle products into commercial sizes, and
carrying out a step in the concentration process.

Mechanism of Screening
The primary objective of screening is to allow
undersized particles to pass through the apertures
while rejecting oversized for a useful purpose. As a
result, the particles must be delivered to the screen
openings and presented there at a speed and angle
such that the passage of undersize particles is not
impeded by the openings’ edges or walls. Particles
Scalping Screens
approach the opening from a particular direction, with
a particular orientation, and at a particular speed that C
A scalping screens’ function is to pre-process material
for various purposes. As an illustration, gravel for
they are unable to pass, and as a result, many
landscaping purposes can call for stones that are no
undersize particles avoid the access of screen
longer than 2 inches and no smaller than 0.5 inches.
openings for a significant amount of time.
Any material that is either coarser or finer than these
sizes could be removed using scalping screen.
Stratification
0
The characteristics of particle orientation in the bed.
Important for the transport of large particles and the
Advantages
- Works well with bulky material mixed with fines
avoidance of blinding screen openings, excessive
- Limits with fast precision screening and small
movement reduces the effectiveness of the screen.
finished specs
- Application versatility
Separation Probability Quality checker Bigx;smalle
=

- Easy access to screen box

The method by which the particles approach the
- Easy to change of screen media
screen opening and are either rejected if they are
- No hydraulic jacks needed to operate the plant
larger than the apertures or pass through them if they
are smaller than the opening is known as separation
probability.
Disadvantages -
Screens require a little to no
- Limits with fast precision screening and small mechanical maintenance, but do
finished specs require routine cleaning by an operator
rounded
- Heavy-duty & robust design - Opening size: 30 to 50 mm (1 to 2 in.)
- 3 products only vs up to 4 products with incline - Bars set at 30 to 45 degrees from
screens vertical to facilitate cleaning.
- Sometime less convenient to feed with a wheel - Primarily used in older or smaller
loader treatment facilities, or in bypass
channels.
Applications for Scalping (3) AQM 2. Mechanically Cleaned Screens
a. Agricultural System - Produce a higher screening capture
b. Quarrying Sector
c. Mining Industry
(6) - rate
Automatically remove solids
- Designed to remove large solids, rags,
2. Coarse Separation and debris
In waste water plant, coarse separation is used to - Opening size: 6 to 38 mm (0.25 to 1.5
protect downstream structures from the arrival of in )
ummun -
large objects that could cause blockage in connecting - Bars set at 0 to 30 degrees from
pipelines, and even in the various units constituting vertical
the plant and to separate and easily remove bulky
-
(4) CRCA - Widely used in the industry
matter carried by raw water and that could jeopardize
water and sludge treatment effectiveness or atleast
complicate treatment implementation and operation.

Coarse Screens
Coarse screens are usually called bar screens or
me
racks and are used where the wastewater contains
large quantities ofCcoarse solids that might disrupt
- -

plant operations. These bar screens consist of parallel

bars spaced anywhere from 1.27 cm (½ in.) to 10.16
3. Dewatering
cm (4 in.) apartIwith no cross members other than
Dewatering is the process of removing solid material
those required support.
or soil using C methods such as wet classification,
(3) centrifugation, filtration, or similar solid-liquid
separation techniques. One example is the removal of
leftover liquid from a filter cake using a filter press as
part of various industrial processes.

Dewatering Screens
Dewatering Screens can be used to dewater -4 mesh
(5 mm) particles of sand, coal, iron ore, salt, etc., as
well as for limited efficiency fine sizing, washing and
rinsing, desliming and organics screening at or above
10 mesh (2 mm) to create differential products, for
stone washing and rinsing <2” (-50 mm) aggregates,
achieves dry products with moisture content 8-20%

Dewatering Screens can

be used form limited
efficiency fine sizing at
or above 10 mesh (2
Types of Coarse Screens (2) H&M mm) to create
1. Hand Cleaned Coarse Screens differential products, for
- Used in the screening process a in stone washing and
(5) wastewater treatment at small facilities rinsing <2”” (-50 mm)
⑲
mee
- Ideal to use as a standby during aggregates prior to loadout, desliming, and for trash /
m
periods of>
high flow organics dewatering / screening.
 C
In order to achieve efficient dewatering effect, the
dewatering screens are usually designed to have a
- Material, which passes through the screen
apertures, is collected in a single underpan
certain angle of inclination with the horizontal direction
we r e
mounted below the screen
(<5°) and either 1200 or 1800 RPM’s - Directed to the next stage of the process flow.
- Screenex polyurethane screening panels are
designed for maximum open area, providing
the best efficiency for any deslime or wet
sizing duty.

Advantages
- Low noise, easy maintenance
- Stable structure with strong exciting force
- High screening efficiency and low noise
pollution
- Light weight, easy to disassemble and replace
- Stable structure and strong exciting force

Disadvantages
Advantages - High-wear process
- Extremely dry discharge - screens used to filter and separate are
- Low percent moisture continuously subjected to extremely harsh
- Shio material the same day or next day conditions.
- Low horsepower requirements
- Low maintenance and wear cost Applications:
- Very high capacity unit 1. Coal Industry
2. Ore Industry
Disadvantages 3. Mining Industry
- Limited in their ability to accommodate large 4. Metallurgy Industry
volumes of water
- Dewatered sand moisture content is typically (7) Various Types of Screening Equipments
half that of most other equipment options, Stationary Screens
typically 12 to 15 percent by weight, which Stationary Screens are made of punched metal plate
produces a drip-free sand product. or woven wire mesh, usually set at an angle with the
- All dewatering screens lose fines along with horizontal up to about 60 degrees. They are suitable
the water through the screen mesh. for intermittent small-scale operations, such as
ummmmm
screening sand, gravel, or coal by throwing the
Application for Dewatering material against the screen.
1. Mining Industry
2. Pulp paper Manufacturing

4. Desliming
Desliming means to
remove slime from
desliming of fine coal.
Generally, the aim of the
desliming step is to
minimize the feed fines
to avoid their negative
effects in the
downstream process.

- This provides the initial size separation for the Stationary Screens are typically used in series with a
large and fine coal circuits. primary screen facing the flow. A roving screen is
- Water is applied to the material as it passes placed downstream to capture debris when the
over the screen decking to assist the primary screen is fouled and requires cleaning.
un
separation process.
 The disadvantages are inefficiency, blinding, difficult
to change the opening between the bars, separations
not effective, and in the case of coal screening,
breakage of oversize particles

Vibrating Screens
Vibrating Screens are used where large tonnages are
to be treated. The vibrating motion is imparted to the
screen surface by means of cams, eccentric shafts,
unbalanced flywheels, or electromagnetic means.

This screen is driven by a shaft. THe wire screens are

held in place under tension by the clamps and
we
a rre
e

supported on the vibrating frame.

Application of Stationary Screens
- Power plant cooling water (fossil and nuclear)
Operated with an amplitude (diameter of the circle of
- Industrial water (petrochemical plants, pulp
motion) up to about ¼ in., depending on the size of
and paper, steel mills, etc.)
the material, and with a frequency of vibration or
- Pumping stations
rotation of about 1200 to 100 per minute
- Irrigation for water distribution
- Potable water intakes
- Water parks
- Numerous pump applications

Grizzly
Grizzlies are widely used for screening large sizes,
particularly of 1 in and over. They consists simply of a
Mee

set of parallel bars separated by spacers at the ends.

-
--

The usual cross section of the bars is trapezoidal with

-

the wide base upward to prevent clogging or wedging

of the particles between the bars.

Grizzlies are usually constructed about 3 to 4 ft wide

with the bars from 8 to 10 ft in length

Grizzlies are characterized by a very high capacity of

up to 108 kg/h (1000 tonne/h) and a low efficiency.
Vibrating Screens made for heavy duty with openings
above 1 in . and are widely used for dry screening of
particles from 1 in. down to about 35 mesh (0.0164
in.) at an angle of about 20 degrees.

The pattern of vibration for the horizontal screen deck

nee

is back and forth while the inclined vibrating screen is

me

circular.

Advantage & Disadvantage of GRIZZLY

Vibrating Screen used in Industry
The advantages of stationary are simplicity,
Vibrating screen machine works by producing a linear
ruggedness, least expensive to install and maintain
and synchronous vibratory movement generated by a
and no power requirement.
C
vibrator. In effect, it uniformly screens or separates
solid materials from crushed materials. A vibrating The advantage of the oscillating screen is that long,
screen is equipped with a pre-set vibration amplitude, and fibrous particles slide diagonally to tangentially
which then controls and optimizes the screening over the screening surface. In contrast to riddles,
result. this does not create any trapped and clogged material.

This type of industrial screening equipment is best

used in filtering granular bulk materials like quartz
m

sand.
n

Oscillating Screen used in Industry

It is specifically designed to sort and separate bulk,
solid materials. The oscillating screen machine can
often bring in the best screening results, all thanks to
the wide, vibration-free, and orbital oscillation.
It is typically used in the timber manufacturing
industry. But it’s also utilized in other industries like
sawmill, brickwork, palleting, plastics and fiberboard
industry.

Advantages Revolving Screens

Because of their unique design features, vibrating Trommels,
mem
or revolving screens, consist of a screen
screens offer specific benefits over other material cylindrical in form rotated about its axis. Simple
processing equipment, including: trommels may be arranged in series with the
- Improved processing and material quality undersize of the first passing to the second trommel
- Lower operational costs and the undersize of the second passing to the third,
- Less maintenance and downtime etc.
- Higher screening efficiency

Oscillating Screens
Oscillating screens or gyratory screens are used in the
mee

wood processing industry (sawmills, pelletizing plants

as well as in numerous other industries (recycling and
waste disposal, environmental technology).

They are suitable for separating lighter wet and dry Trommels are quite efficient for coarse sizes. The
recyclables and raw materials (wood chips, wood inclination of the trommel varies from about ¾ in. (wet
shavings, wood pellets, waste wood). screening) to 3 in./ ft of length, depending on the
nature of the material to be processed.
The Ocapacity of the trommel increases with increased services to follow up the screening process such as
speed of rotation up to a point where blinding occurs packaging or warehousing.
due to crowding of material through the screen. If the
speed of rotation is increased still further to the critical Advantage and Disadvantage of Wet Screening:
speed, the material no longer cascades over the Advantage
screen surface but is carried around by centrifugal - Consistent Travel Speed
force. - More clearance/access.

The critical speed of rotation of a trommel may be Disadvantage

computed by equating the force of gravity to cause the - Less access room (repairs)
particle to fall to the centrifugal force tending to carry - Potential to spill over sides
the particle around. - Material accelerates down to the deck (less
efficiency)
Oscillating Screen used in industry - Fine material may be lost as mud/paste on the
- The application of screen materials includes screen surface or the fines may be suspended
various properties, such as coal, gangue, in water and carried over the oversize launder.
coke; hydrated lime and other easily plug wet Dry Screening
materials. - Dry Screening refers to the treatment of a
- Be used in power plants, coking plants, material containing a natural amount of
building materials, metallurgy, chemical,
mining and other industries.
-
moisture or a material that has been dried
-

before screening. Wet screening is also

- -

employed for the classification of fines and

moist materials whose screening is very
C
difficult without washing.
-

- Products like cement, talcum powder, or

aluminum powder are screened dry.
- Dry screening uses vibration only.

Advantage and Disadvantage of Dry Screening

Advantage
- More economical by design, standard
screening solutions rely on vibrational energy
and gravity.
Advantage and Disadvantage - Energetic impacts separate the material so
The advantage of this design is a relatively lower cost. that it can be seized and sorted
In fact, small, basic trommels can be made at home - They can provide an even and controllable
with relative ease. flow of material to crushers, screens, mills,
scrubbers and conveyors.
However, for heavy duty industrial applications, that
same simplicity results in an overall inefficient design. Disadvantage
- For high moisture, there are adhesive
Also, the disadvantages of revolving screen are materials, the model is not appropriate, the
- Low Efficiency work of vibration to make the material more
- Screen Plugging tightly adhere to the screen surface, resulting
- Screen Binding in material Congested or forced to shut down.
- Drum Damage - Relatively high energy consumption, especially
in the large working conditions,
Wet Screening (Google) - Work noise and dust heavier. The need for
Wet screening is typically used for processes that regular inspection of coarse mesh, fine mesh
involve finer feed material, or in cases where the and spring with or without fatigue and damage,
material has a high moisture content that makes it the body parts are damaged due to vibration,
more difficult to dry screen. Sometimes, desiccation the need to add lubricating oil parts must be
is required at the end of the process in order to lubricated.
remove liquid used in the wet screening process.
Afterwards, the material can be further processed or Reasons why screening operation is not perfect
handled. Howard Industries offers a multitude of
 - The probability of particles passing through the
-
- To break agglomerates or “”de-lump”
screen opening becomes extremely low.
-

- The screen would have to be infinitely long for

-

absolutely perfect separation (Metso, 2007)

- C
Presence of - near m
-
mesh particles;
e
These
particles have size very close to the aperture
-

size of the screen.

-

- Cohesion of particles to each other

- If particles are moist, they tend to stick to the
- -
-
-
-

surface of the screen and also to each other

causing difficulties in screening operation.

Evaluating the performance of the screens

(Theoretical discussion - Efficiency of recovery - Screen, Sieves or Meshes
Efficiency of rejection - Capacity of screens) - Size range between about 76 mm and 38 µm
The effectiveness of screen (screen efficiency) is a
-
- Identified by meshes per inch, e.g. 30 mesh
measure of success of the screen in closely (590 µm), 𝐷𝑝 = 1/30 = 0.33 in.
separating undersize and oversize materials. In case
-
- Relates to the number of openings in the
of a perfectly functioned screen, all the oversize screen per inch
materials would be in overflow and all the undersize
-
- - Arranged serialy in a stack, with the smallest
material would be in underflow.
- mesh at the bottom and the largest at the
top (bottom screen is a solid pan)
Efficiency of Recovery: - Materials are loaded at the top and then
Theoretically the Efficiency of Recovery is the rate of shacked & shaked using a shaker for a period
recovery of particles processed in screens. In terms of of time
calculations the efficiency of recovery is equal to the - 14/20 : through 14 mesh and on 20 mesh or
given particle recovered divided all over the total
-
-14+20
particles fed in screen. Relying screen analysis - Tyler standard or U.S. standard screen scale
recovery is the undersize of the screen.
-
- Separation can be either dry or wet
- Wet screening is more efficient, but drying of
Efficiency of Rejection: the product add cost
Theoretically the Efficiency of Rejection is the rate of
rejected particles processed in screens. In terms of - Testing sieves are
calculation the efficiency of rejection can be solve by made of woven wire
subtracting 1 to the efficiency of rejection or if not screens.
given, given particles rejected divided by total particles
-
- Openings are
fed on screen. Relying screen analysis recovery is the square
oversize of the screen. - Screens are
-

identified by Mesh No.

Capacity of Screens: - Mesh No. is the
The capacity of a screen is measured by the mass of numbers of opening per
material which can be fed per unit time to a unit area linear inch
of screen and can be simply controlled by varying the
feed rate to the equipment. The effectiveness
obtained for a given capacity is dependent upon the
specific nature of the screening operation. The chance - Area of opening in any
of passing through the screen of an undersized screen = 2x Area of opening in next
particle is a function of the number of times the smaller screen.
particle strikes the screen surface, as well as its - Mesh dimension of any
probability of passage in a single contact. If the screen screen - 1.41 x Mesh dimension of
is overloaded, the number of contacts is small and the next smaller screen.
chance of passing on contact is reduced by particle
interference.

Screening (presentation part 2)

- To remove the oversized particles.
- These results are not so informative as the exact size of
the material sitting on each screen is unknown.
Mesh Screen Opening Mass Fraction Ave. Particle Cummulative xi*DpiXi/Dpi Xi/Ppi2 Xi/DpiS
(mm) Retained (Xi) Size (Dpi) Fraction

1.0 Xi...
-

4 4.699 0.000 1,0 0 O

-

6 3.327 0.0251 4.0130 0.9749 0.1007 0.0062 0.0016 0.0004

8 2.362 0.1250 2.845 0.84990.35560.04390.01540.0054

10 1.651 0.3207 2.007 0.5292 0.64360.1598 0.0796 0.0397

14 1,168 0.2570 1.410 0.2722 0.3624 0.1823 0.1293 0.0917

20 0.833 0.1590 1,001 0.1132 0.15910.15880.15870.1585
28 0.589 0.0538 0.711 0.0594 0.03830.0757 0.1064 0.1497
35 0.417 0.0210 0.503 0.0384 0.0100 0.0417 0.0830 0.1650

48 0.295 0.0102 0.356 0.0282 0.0036 0.0287 0.0804 0.2261

65 0.208 0.0077 0.252 0.0205 0.0019 0.0306 0.1213 0.4812 1.3213

100 0.147 0.0058 0.178 0.0147 0.0010 0.0326 0.1831 1.0284

150 0.104 0.0041 0.126 0.0106 0.0005 0.03250.2583 2.0496

200 0.074 0.0031 0.089 0.0075 0.0003 0.0348 0.3914 4.3974

pan -

0.0075 0.037 0 0.0003 0.2027 5.4785148.0663

4 decimal 3 decimal 2 1.6779[=1.0303[=7.0875:156.863
=

totals re
NSA
Work Done

Arithmetic
mean-Eppic=087 =

0.045

ecos
Mass MeanDiameter 2 xi Dpi 1.678
=
=

an
poison=6.55
e Work Done -

volume mean Diameter

Diameter
Govinder= 10%

specific power
input-work
bone-I=
Yin MFproductis
in
Mesh No. Ave. Particle surface MF Feed
Ratio
(Tyler) Diameter (Dpi) (Ni)
Xi x
-

6 8 +
2.845 6.3 0.14 0.3100
-

For annual cost:

5,1 0.21 (time of use((rate)
-

8+
10 2,007 0.5336 Input
-
-

1.410 0.230.6851 (hp-kN)

-

10 + 14 4.2
2

conv.
-

1,001 3.9 0.19 0.10 0.3896

Mays)(24hrs)
-
14+ 20 0.7403 (*3kn
-

20 28 +
0.711 3.4 0.120.5738 0.23 1,0999
-

28 35 +
0.503 3.0.0.07 0.4175 0.28 1.6700 =
289932.8859 295K =

-
35 48 +
0.356 2.8 0.04 0.3146 0.15 1. 1798 Maintenance, over, replace cost

-
48 65 +

0.252 2.6
a
-
0.10 1,0317 :0.5(* 295k)
-

65 100
+

0.178 2.4 -
- 0.07 0.9438 =
147k
-
100 + 150 0.126 2.25
-
- 0.04 0.7143 purchase cost:#240K

150 200 0.089 2. I

-

0.03 0.7079 Syrs

I 3.5749
life of grinder:
- +

epreciationcotta
kt
Total1,0 =
TOtal 1.0 =

I 7,737
=

(SA1)
I IN
surface Area Feed 35,749Cm 77.37cm
=

30k *473K
#
=

processed/yr:9 (24ay)(300)

-mig35tras.On
ore
the
64,800 ton/yr
=

New Surface Area Created =

SAp-SAF
=175.177-80.94
NSAC/S
(cm2/s)
I

qp.c
=
ringtorotationtonote
NSA2=
94.237m 235592.5cm2/sec
=
What is the theory behind Size Reduction? the coarse, medium and fine grinding of a wide
The energy requirement for particle size reduction is a range of materials.
function of input and output of particle size, hardness,
strength and other properties of solids. Varieties of Impact
1. Gravity Impact
Various theories for energy requirement are: Gravity impact, the free-falling material is
Rittinger;s Theory momentarily stopped by the stationary object.
&
The work required for size reduction is proportional to
the new surface area created
It is most often used when it is necessary to
separate two materials which have relatively
Kick’s Theory different friability. The more friable material is
0
Energy required to reduce a material in size was broken first, while the less friable material
directly proportional to the size-reduction ratio. remains unbroken.
Bond’s Theory
Works ⑦
⑲ required using a large-size feed is proportional
to the square root of the surface/volume of the
2. Dynamic Impact
Dynamic Impact, the material is unsupported
product. and the force of impact accelerates movement
of the reduced particles towards the breaker
Objectives of Size Reduction plate and/or other hammers.
- To produce smaller particles for smaller scale Dynamic impact is advantageous for size
- To optimize the feeding efficiency on certain reduction of many materials and it is specially
equipment needed when ·

- To improve the handling characteristics (i) a cubical particle is needed

- To separate unwanted particles effectively (iii) finished product must be well
- To increase the surface area, because in most graded and must meet intermediate
chemical reactions and some unit operations sizing specifications, as well as top and
(drying, adsorption, leaching etc.) involving bottom specifications,
solid particles, the reaction/transfer rate is (iii) ores must be broken along natural
directly proportional to the area of contact cleavage lines in order to free and
between the solid and the second phase. separate undesirable particles, such as
mica in feldspars, and
Comminution (iv) materials are too hard and abrasive
Comminution or pulverization is a term used in size
reduction process. It is a process of a physical 2.④
3. Compression
pretreatment method involving milling, grinding and The particle is broken by two forces and the
shipping. Such mechanical methods are aimed at size reduction is done between two surfaces,
increasing the accessible surface area, as well as with the work being done by one or both
-
decreasing the cellulose crystallinity, by decreasing surfaces.
-

the particle size. This method of size reduction are suitable for
reducing extremely hard and abrasive rock
Mechanism of Size Reduction
Size reduction is the process of conversion of bigger As a mechanical reduction method,
particles into smaller particles. Various size-reduction compression is chosen
equipment employ different actions to solid particles (i) If the material is hard and tough,
for size reduction, which is customer tailored. There (ii) If the material is abrasive
are four basic ways to reduce the size of a (iii) If the material is not sticky,
material-impact, compression, attrition and shear. (iv) Where the finished product is to be
Most of the size-reduction equipment employ a relatively coarser in size, and
combination of all these size reduction methods (v) When the material will break cubically

1. Impact ⑲
3.
4. Attrition
Particles are subjected to a single violent force Attrition is a method of size reduction by
and in crushing terminology, it refers to the rubbing or scrubbing the materials between
sharp, instantaneous collision of one moving two hard surfaces. Attrition consumes more--

object against another. Impact forces are power, it is preferred for crushing the less
=>
general-purpose forces that can be found in abrasive materials such as pure limestone
and coal.
 Attrition crushin is most useful when employed for an intermediate duty are referred to as
(i) the material is friable or not too abrasive, -
grinders,
and A grinder is often charged with the product from a
(ii) a closed-circuit system is not desirable to crusher which it reduces to powder. The commercial
control the oversize grinders described in this section are hammer mills
and revolving mills.
N
4.
5. Shear The product from a crusher is often fed to grinder in
Shear consists of a trimming or cleaving which it is reduced to powder.
action rather than the rubbing action

with other size-reduction actions

C
associated with attrition. It is usually combined Grinders (Intermediate and FIne)
1. Hammer Mills
-

Shear method of size reduction is needed for 2. Rolling Compression Mills

(i) friable materials
-
a. Bowl Mills
(ii) Primary crushing with a reduction ratio of 6 b. Roller Mills
to 1, and 3. Attrition Mills
(iii) production of a relatively coarse 4. Tumbling Mills
a. Rod Mills
b. Ball Mill; Pebble Mill
c. Tube Mills; Compartment Mills

Cutters
In some size reduction problems, the feedstock is too
tenacious or too resilient to be broken by
compression, impact, or attrition, In other problems
Primary and Secondary Size Reduction feed must be reduced to particles of fixed dimensions.
Crushers
Crushers do the heavy work of breaking large pieces These requirements are met by the devices that cut,
-
of solids into smaller lumps. Primary crushers are chop, or tear the material into desired characteristics.
run on materials out of mine, the size of which may
reach more than one meter and breaking it into Rotary knife cutters and granulators are considered as
150-300 mm (6-10 in) lumps. cutting machines.
A secondary crusher reduces those lumps to particles
in the size range of 5-10 mm. These are used in the manufacture of rubber,
Crushers are slow-speed machines employed for the plastics, and recycling of paper and pulp.
coarse reduction of large quantities of solids. The
different types of crushers are operated by In agricultural industry, cutting machines are mainly
compression and can break large pumps of hard used to cut fruits and vegetables.
materials. They find application in rockery and mining
industries. Cutters are size-reduction machines which give
A. Crushers (Coarse and Fine) particles of definite size and shape, usually 2 to 10
1. Jaw Crusher mm in length. A cutting action is the characteristics of
2. Gyratory Crusher knife cutters, dicers and slitters.
3. Crushing Rolls
Size Reduction Equipment
Jaw Crusher
Jaw crushers consist of two crushing faces (jaws) one
of them is fixed vertically to the frame, while the other
one is movable, which is either pivoted at the top or
bottom.

Blake Jaw Crusher

Mechanism used:
Grinders It works on the principle of compression and there
Grinding means sub-dividing the solids to a finer are no rubbing or grinding actions.
product than crushing. The size reduction machines
Construction:
 ● Blake type of jaw crushers has cast-steel line ● The upper end of this cone is held in a flexible
supporting frames bearing while the lower end is connected to an
● V-opening at the top eccentric
● Crushing faces of the jaws are made of
manganese steel Working:
● Movable jaw moves in a horizontal plane ● The materials to be crushed is fed from the top
usually making an angle of 20 to 30 ● Crushed between the stationary outer shell
● Jaw plates, jaw crushers consist of eccentric, and the crushing head
pitman, toggles, flywheel, shaft, draw back rod ● Crushed several times
(tie rod) and spring. ● As the crushin action is continuous, the
fluctuations in stresses are smaller than tat in
Working: the jaw crushers.
● Large lumps caught between the upper parts
of the jaws are broken. Division:
● Drop in the narrower space below and are Coarse Crushers (Large feed size to 50-5 mm product
re-crushed the next time the jaws close. size)
● After sufficient reduction they drop out of the Application:
bottom of the machine ● Mining Industries
● The jaws open and close from 250 to 400 ● Aggregates Industries
times per minute. ● Cement Industries

Division:
Coarse Crushers (Large feed size to 50-5 cm product
size)
Application:
- Metallurgical Industries
- Mining Industries
- Construction
- Railways Crushing Rolls
Although roll crushers have been around for more
than 200 years, they have recently lost ground to jaw
and gyratory crushers in terms of popularity due to
their poor wear characteristics with hard rocs.
Depending on how many rolls are utilized, there are
two different types of roll crushers. The two primary
types of crushers are single-roll and double-roll
· crushers.
Gyratory Crushers
Gyratory crushers were created more recently in order Single Roll Crusher

O
to outperform jaw crushers in terms of capacity.
Gyratory crushers use a similar crushing mechanism
Mechanism Used:
Single-roll crushers employ three different methods of
to jaw crushers in that the bottom of the machine size reduction - impact, shear and compression

inside a stationary shell.

C
moves the most, while the top of the machine rotates
Construction:
● Consists of a roll assembly and a break plate
Mechanism used: ● Comb teeth-like projections are provided at the
● It works on the principle of compression bottom of the breaker plate
● Construction: ● Duly hard-faced by special electrodes of
● Gyratory crushers consist of two vertical wear-resistant quality.
conical shells
● Outer shell having its apex in downward Working:
● Entering the crusher through the feed hopper
-

direction while in the inner cone is positioned

with its apex upward
-
● Feed material is struck by the teeth of the
● The inner shell acts as the crushing head revolving roll
-
● Rotation of the roll carries the material into the
crushing chamber
 ● Sized materials fall directly out through the
discharge end of the crusher which is
completely open

Division:
Coarse Crushers (Large feed size to 50-5mm)
Application:
● Crushing Petroleum Coke
● ROM feed Crushing Roll
● Mining Industry Capacity:
The theoretical capacity of a crushing roll Q in kg/h is
given by:

b = breadth roll face, m

Double Roll Crushers N = number of revolutions per minute, rpm
Mechanism used: r = density of the material to be crushed, kg/m^3
The crushing is primarily accomplished by 𝐷1 = between a pair of crushing rolls diameter and
compression 𝐷2 = spherical particle diameter
Construction:
The volumetric capacity is affected by speed, nip,
● Consist of two heavy metal roll of equal
diameter and breadth of roll face. And, the actual
diameter
capacity is usually between 10 to 30% of the
● Placed horizontally which are rotated towards
theoretical one.
each other at the same or at different speeds
● One of the rolls is motor driven while the other
Hammer Mills
roll rotates due to friction
Hammer mills are among the oldest, yet still the most
● Roll dimensions vary from 600 mm (24 in) in
widely used crushers
diameter with a 300-mm (12 in) width face to
2000 mm (78 in) in diameter with a 914-mm
Mechanism used:
(36 in) width face.
Works on the principle of impact
Working:
Construction:
● The materials to be crushed are fed from the
● The mill consists of a metallic case, rotor, a
top
central shaft with hammers, screen, feed and
● Rolls rotate as they are nipped between them
outlet
and get crushed by compression, and are
● The metallic case contains a rotor at the
discharged from the bottom.
middle which has attached four to seven
● These machines give a reduction ratio of 4 to 1
swinging hammers.
with few times
● The motor is moved with the help of electricity
● Double-roll crushers accept feed sizes up to
and speed of which can be controlled with the
150 mm
help of panels.
Division
Working:
Coarse Crushers (Large feed size to 50-5 mm product
● The material to be size reduced is introduced
size)
into the mill through the feed
● The electrical supply of the mill is started after
Application:
a careful closure of feed
Mining INdustry
● The central panel with hammers starts rotating
Explosive Material in GunPowder Industry
at speed
● Size reduction takes place when material hits
by swinging hammers and collision of particles
● Size reduce material falls on the screen at the
bottom
Division: Application:
Intermediate Crushers 50-5 mm to 5-0.1 mm product Agricultural Industry
size. Pharmaceutical Industry
Application:
● Pharmaceutical and Chemical Industries,
various types of hammer mills are used for
powder making.
● Foods Processing Industry
● Automobile and Mechanical Industries

Attrition Mills
Operating Principles
Attrition mills use the hammer mill principle to a
certain extent: e.e., shattering by/impact. However,
Roller Mill C
they also impart a shearing and cutting action
Operating Principle:
Roller Mills use the process of stress and attrition in Construction and Working:
milling of solids in suspensions, pastes or ointments A statistically and dynamically balanced runner head
and some solid materials. assembly, precise machining and alignment of the
discs, and constant spring pressure combine to
Construction: maximize uniformity of the reduced material. The
Roller mill is a form of compression mill that uses a replaceable milling plates are offered in several
single, double, or triple cylindrical heavy wheel patterns to optimize size reduction for specific types of
mounted horizontally and rotated about their long axis materials.
·

either in opposing pairs or against flat plates, to crush

or grind various materials. One of the rollers is run by Working:
a motor and the others are roasted by friction as the Particles of soft solids are rubbed between the
material is drawn through the gap between the rollers. grooved flat faces of rotating circular disks. The axis of
(6) CFGCCC the disks is usually horizontal, sometimes vertical. In a
Crackers - a mill used to crack grain or other types of C
single-runner mill one disk is stationary and one
friable material
Flakers - Mills used to flake grains or other materials ⑧-
rotates; in a double-runner machine both disks are
driven high in opposite directions. Feed enters through
an opening in the hub of one of the disks; it passess
Grinders (Rollers mill grinders) - Roller mills that
are used to grind in a feed mill. outward through the narrow gap between the disks
Crimpers - Roller mills that crimp grains and discharges from the periphery into a stationary
Crimpers - Crackers a roller mill that cracks and at casing.
the same time crimp grains
Crumbler - a roller mill specially designed for Division:
breaking up pellets into smaller particles. Fine crusher/grinder (5-2) mm to 200-mesh opening

Working: In operation, the feeding device

gravity-feeds
↓ material at a constant rate to the roll gap
between the top pair of rolls. The material enters the
nip point (where the gap between the rolls is smallest)
and is crushed into smaller particles as the rolls
counter-rotate. If the mill has multiple roll pairs, the
reduced particles will fall into the next par’’s nip point,
be crushed into smaller particles, and pass to the next
roll pair, until the desired size particles are discharged
by gravity from the bottom roll pair. Revolving Mills
Operating Principle:
Division: Used as fine grinding machines, Generally
Intermediate Crushers 50-5 mm to 5-0.1 mm product categorized as ball rod, tube or pebble mills
size
Construction and Working:
A cylindrical shell rotating with its axis either horizontal finally discharged peripherally and collected in a
or at a small angle to the horizontal and charge with a peripheral receptacle.
grinding medium to about half its volume.
Division:
Division: Fine crusher/grinder (5-2)mm to 200-mesh opening
Fine crusher/grinder (5-2)mm to 200 mesh opening

Disc Mills
It is a type of crusher that can be used to grind, cut
shear, shred, fiberize, pulverize, granulate, crack , rub,
curl, fluff, twist, hull, blend, or refine, It works in a
similar manner to the ancient Buhrstone mill in that the
feedstock is fed between opposing discs or plates.
The discs may be grooved, serrated or spiked.
Pin/Rod/Ball Grinders
Operating Principle: Ball Grinders or ball mills consist of a hollow
C
Disc mill is the type of attrition in which two surfaces cylindrical or conical shell, made of steel, with
-

rotates past each other at high speed with close approximately half-full2
of steel balls, rotating about its
tolerance axis, either horizontal or at a small angle to the
horizontal. The grinding media is the balls, which may
Construction: be made of steel or stainless steel.
At this part of the disc mill, the material to be grinded
is inserted into the machine. It has a specific size and Operating Principle:
feed should be processed at least through the primary The principle of size reduction in ball mills is impact of
crushers. balls, which fall from the top of the shell on the feed
particles near the bottom of the shell.
Grinding Disc
A disc mill consists of two saucer shaped discs with Construction:
their surface having specially shaped grooves the Ball Grinders or ball mills consists of hollow cylindrical
depth of which is reduced towards the circumference. or conical shell, made of steel or rubber-lined steel,
The discs are face to face mounted vertically or with approximately half-full of steel balls, rotating
horizontally and revolve at the different speeds and in about its axis, either horizontal or at a small angle to
the opposite directions. In most designs one of the the horizontal. The grinding media is the balls, which
discs is driven while the other is not. Also, one of the may be made of steel or stainless steel. THe h material
A
discs is rather strongly fixed while the other flutters or to be ground may be fed in through an opening at one
gyrates during revolving.Like other crushing end and the product leaves through a similar opening
machines, a disc mill has not of the discs spring at the other end, which is covered with a coarse
loaded through a screw mechanism that helps in screen to prevent the escape of balls.
adjusting the set and provides safety against
-

un-crushable lumps. Fluid Energy Mills

Fluidized Energy mill, also known as micronizer or jet
Working: mill, is a type of mill consisting of a hollow toroid with
The material is fed through a hopper at the top and a diameter of 20-200 mm depending on the height of
falls into the axial conic between the discs during the loop which can be up to 2m. It operates by particle
revolving. Due to the centrifugal force, the feed is impaction and attrition.
pushed through the tapper grooves towards the
periphery and gets grind progressively. The product is Operating Principle:
It operates by particle impaction and attrition.
Construction: the bottom through a screen with 5 to 8 mm openings.
● Particles suspended in high velocity gas Sometimes the flying knives are parallel with the bed
stream (fluidization) knives; sometimes, depending on the properties of the
● Elliptical or Circular path feed, they cut an angle. Rotary cutters and granulators
● Inter - Particle Interaction + Striking + Rubbing are similar in design. A granulator yields more or less
● Coarse Particles remain in circulation irregular pieces; a cutter may yield cubes, thin
● Feed - 1 ton/hr - non sticky squares or diamonds.
● 1 - 4 kg of steam or 6 - 9 kg of air
Feeding Method of Size Reduction
Division: 1. Free Feeding
Ultrafine grinders (6 mm to (1-50) micrometer) The material is fed at a low rate so that the
Application: product can come out easily. Here, the
● Pigments retention time is short and hence, the product
● Insecticides, contains less quantity of undersize materials.
● Powdered metals
● Organic and inorganic materials 2. Choke Feeding
● Non-metallic minerals and ores The machine is kept full of materials so that
the materials remain in the machine for a long
Agitated Mills time. This process produces a significant
Agitated Media Mills are media mills that employ an amount of undersize materials since the
agitated (or stirred) grinding media action for grinding materials are crushed numerous times,
of the ultrafine particles. These mills are vectical resulting in a high degree of crushing. As a
vessels 4 to 1200L in capacity, filled with liquid in result, this approach achieves a high reduction
which the grinding medium is suspended. ratio. However, at the same time, the
machine’s capacity is diminished, and the
Operating Principle: amount of energy used due to the cushioning
The material to be ground is then crushed between effect the fine materials accumulated
the balls by impact and shear forces. generated. As a result, this technique is only
employed in a select few situations, such as
Construction: when it is desirable to finish the size-reduction
● Small batch non rotary mills. process in a single operation and when only a
● Solid grinding medium (had solids like balls or small quantity of materials needs to be
pebbles). crushed.
● Vertical Vessel - 4 to 1200 L
● Filled with liquid and suspended medium Open-Circuit Grinding and Closed-Circuit Grinding
● Feed is agitated by the impeller ● Each stage in size reduction may, and
● Product - bottom (through the screen) frequently does, have a size-separating unit
● Product - 1 micrometer or finer following it.
● If the oversize material is returned to the
Division: crusher, the operation is termed closed circuit.
Ultrafine grinders (6 mm to (1-50) micrometer) ● Close-circuit operation is economical of
Application: crushing power, which at best is high, permits
● Cellulose smaller units per given tonnage, and produces
● Calcium Carbonate a material with greater uniformity of size.
● Limestone ● In case of coarse particles, the size separation
● Marble unit is a screen or grizzly while it is some form
● Industrial Minerals of classifier in the case of fine powders.
Closed-circuit grinding, though useful for any
Knife Cutters, Dicer and Slitters crusher, it is commonly employed in machines
A rotary knife cutter contains a horizontal rotor rotating yielding a fine product.
at 200 to 900 rpm in a cylindrical chamber.
The rotor consists of 2 to 12 flying knives with edges
-
Open Grinding Circuit
of tempered steel of stellite passing with close ● Consist of one or more grinding mills arranged
clearance over 1 to 7 stationary bed knives. in series or parallel without classification
Feed particles entering the chamber from top are cut equipment. This method discharges a final
several hundred times per minute and withdrawn at
 ground as it comes from a mill and there is no ● Ultrafine grinders in Cosmetic and
return of coarse discharge back to the mill. Pharmaceutical Industries.
● Some examples are: (i) Ball mill, (ii) Rold Mill ● Cutters in Leather Tanning INdustry
and (iii) Combination of ball mill and rod mill. ● Hammer mill in Food Industry
● Some conditions that favor open circuit ● Size reduction operation is carried out in coal
grinding are (i) small reduction ratios and (ii) washeries, ore processing, cement industry,
coarse reduction particles. paint industry, chemical industry, and food
● Advantages of open circuit grinding are: (i) processing industry.
simplicity of operation, (ii) minimum equipment
requirements. Rittinger;s
N
Law (𝑊𝑅)
● While the disadvantages are lower production According to this law, the work required for size
rates and large energy consumption. reduction is -
proportional to the new surface area
created. Mathematically, this law can be written as,
·

Close Grinding Circuit

● Closed circuit grinding consists of one or more
grinding mills with classification equipment,
The mills discharge ground product to
classifier which returns the coarse product
from it to the mill for further grinding.
● Some examples are: (i) ball mill and classifier.
(ii) rod mill and classifier and, (iii) rod mill, ball
mill, and classifier.
● Some advantages of closed-circuit grinding
are: (i) higher capacity, (ii) lower power
consumption per ton of product, (iii) suitable for
reduction to fine and ultrafine sizes, (iv) avoids
coarse material in the final ground product by
returning it to the mill, (v) eliminate
overgrinding by removing fines early.
● Some conditions that favor closed circuit
grinding are: (i) larger reduction ratios and (ii)
fine reduction of particles. Kick’s Law (𝑊𝐾)
● However, the disadvantages is that the This law states that the work required for crushing a
production flow of closed-circuit is more given mass of material is constant for a given
complex, and costs more than open-grinding reduction ratio irrespective of the initial size. The
circuit. reduction ratio is the ratio of initial particle size to final
particle size. Mathematically,

Kick’s law is based on stress analysis of plastic

deformation within the elastic limit, This law is more
accurate than Rittinger's law for coarse crushing
where the surface area produced per unit mass is
The equipment which are used in the industry are:
considerably less. This law is applicable for feed size
● Jaw crusher in Cement industry
greater than 50 mm.
● Ball mill in Paint Industry
Bond’s Law (𝑊𝐵)
Neither of the two laws mentioned above (Rittinger’s
of Kick’s) give the accurate energy requirement and
both laws are applicable over a limited range of
particle size, and hence, they have limited utility.But in
the year 1952, Fred Chester Bond suggested an
intermediate law, which states that the work required
to form particles of size 𝐷𝑝𝑝 form a very large particle
size is proportional to the square root of the surface to
volume ratio 𝑠𝑝 𝑣𝑝 of the product. This law is
applicable for feed size between 0.05 and 50 mm.

Crushine and Mechanical Efficiency

Crushing Efficiency
● Crushing efficiency (nc) can be defined as
the ratio of the surface energy created to the
energy absorbed (kinetic energy) by the solid.
● In another way, this may be defined as the
ratio of the energy absorbed by the solid to
form heat and the energy input to the machine.

Mechanical Efficiency
Mechanical efficiency (nm), is defined as the ratio of
energy absorbed and the energy fed to the machine.
In another way, this may be defined as the ratio of the
energy absorbed by the solid to form heat and the
energy input to the machine.