Surveying I (SEng-2061 )

Lecturer :- Haile Akelok

(MSC in Geomatics , BSc in Surveying Engineering)
[email protected]
 Course Description/Contents;
1. Concept of surveying: Introduction, meaning and concept of surveying, objective of
surveying, classification of surveying, use of survey, error in surveying
2. Distance Measurement and Taping: Types of distance measurement, direct method,
indirect method, optical distance measurement, taping and pacing, instruments for
Taping, ranging a line, taping on sloppy ground, Errors and mistakes in taping, Tape
correction.
3. Leveling: steps in leveling, principles of leveling, booking method of leveling, types
of leveling, errors in leveling, engineering application of leveling
4. Theodolite surveying: Definition and primary classification, measurement of
horizontal and vertical angles, Azimuths and bearing, straverses,
 CH-1:-Basic Concept of surveying
Introduction

Surveying Applications
Importance of Surveying
Primary divisions of
Surveying
Classification
surveying of survey Basic
based on Measurements
instruments in Surveying
used
 Introduction Surveying
Brain storm question

• What is surveying

• What are primarily classification of surveying

• What Important of surveying

• Objective and purpose of Surveying

• Why Surveying is art science and technology

 Definition of Surveying

• Surveying is an interchangeably called geomatics has traditionally been defined as

the science, art, and technology of determining the relative positions of points
above, on, or beneath the Earth's surface, or of establishing such points

• Surveying Is the art and science of determining the relative position of

various points or station above, on, or beneath the surface of the earth and
locating the points in the field and taking the details of these point by
preparing a map or plan to any scale.

• Measurement taken in horizontal and vertical plane

The relative positions are determined by measuring;

• Horizontal distance,

• Vertical distances (elevations),

• Horizontal angles and

• Vertical angles accurately using various surveying instruments..

• Measurement are taken horizontal and vertical plane.

• The stage of survey work is from office work to field work and vise versa
 Why Surveying is art and Science?
• Surveying may be defined as the science of determining the position, in three
dimensions, of natural and man-made features on or beneath the surface of the Earth.

Because the use of mathematical techniques to analyze field data.

• Accuracy and reliability depends on understanding scientific principles underlying

and affecting survey measurement.

• Surveying are also define as the art of determine relative position

Because only a surveyor who has full understanding of surveying techniques will be able
to determine the most efficient methods required to obtain optimal results over a wide
variety of surveying problems.
 Object of Surveying
►The primary object of surveying is to prepare a plan or map to show
the relative position of the objects on the surface of the earth. These
plans and maps are used

• for planning of engineering works, making of boundaries,

computations of area and volumes, and various other
purposes/related quantity's.

• To established the boundaries of the land

• To select suitable site for engineering project

 Working from Whole to part principle

• In surveying large areas a system of control point are identified and

they are located with high precision. Then secondary control points
are located using lesser precise methods

• The details of the localized areas are measured and plotted with
respected to the Secondary Control Points.

• This principle in surveying helps in localizing the error

• If the surveying is carried out by adding localized area errors

accumulated and may become unacceptable when large area is covers
Locate appoint by at least Two Measurements
principle
 The work of the surveyor consists of 5 phases:
1. Decision Making – selecting method, equipment and final point locations.

2. Fieldwork & Data Collection – making measurements and recording data in the field.

3. Computing & Data Processing – preparing calculations based upon the recorded data
to determine locations in a useable form.

4. Mapping or Data Representation – plotting data to produce a map, plot, or chart in

the proper form.

5. Stakeout – locating and establishing monuments or stakes in the proper locations in

the field.
 Purpose of surveying
The surveying may be used for following purposes
• To prepare a topographical map which shows hills, valleys, rivers, forests, villages, towns
etc.
• To prepare a cadastral map which shows the boundaries of fields, plots, houses and other
properties.
• To prepare an engineering map which shows the position of engineering works such as
buildings, roads, railways, dams, canals.
• To prepare a contour map to know the topography of the area to find out the best
possible site for roads, railways, bridges, reservoirs, canals, etc.
• Surveying is also used to prepare military map, geological map, archaeological map etc.
• For setting out work and transferring details from the map on the ground
• “A surveyor is a professional person with the academic qualifications and technical
expertise to conduct one, or more, of the following activities;

• To determine, measure and represent the land, three-dimensional objects, point-

fields, and trajectories

• to assemble and interpret land and geographically related information;

• To use that information for the planning and efficient administration of the land,
the sea and any structures thereon; and

• To conduct research into the above practices and to develop them

 Brief History of Surveying:
1. Surveying had it’s beginning in Egypt about 1400 BC
• Land along the Nile River was divided for taxation. Divisions were washed away
by annual floods.
• “ROPE-STRETCHERS” Egyptian surveyors were created to relocate the land
divisions (measurements were made with ropes having knots at unit distances).
• Extensive use of surveying in building of Egyptian monuments

2. Greeks: expanded Egyptian work and developed Geometry.

• Developed one of the earliest surveying instruments – Diopter (a form of
level).
 Brief History of Surveying:
3. Romans: developed surveying into a science to create the Roman roads, aqueducts, and
land division systems.
• Surveyors held great power, had schools and a professional organization
• Developed several instruments:
• Groma – cross instrument used to determine lines and right angles
• Libella – “A” frame with a plumb bob used for leveling
• Chorobates – 20’ straight edge with oil in notch for leveling

4. Middle Ages: Land division of Romans continued in Europe.

• Quadrans – square brass frame capable of turning angles up to 90° and has a graduated scale developed
by an Italian named Von Piso.
 Brief History of Surveying:
5. 18th & 19th Century in the New World: the need for mapping and marking
land claims caused extensive surveying, especially by the English.
• 1785: United Stated began extensive surveys of public lands into one mile square sections
• 30 states surveyed under the U.S. Public Land System (also called the Rectangular System)

• 1807: United States Geological Survey founded to establish an accurate control network
and mapping

• Famous American Surveyors: George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, George Rogers Clark,
Abe Lincoln and many more.
 Brief History of Surveying:
6. 20th Century and Beyond: As technology advanced, population increased,
and land value caused development of licensure for surveyors in all states.
• Educational requirements for licensure began in the early 1990’s

• Capable of electronic distance measurement, positioning using global positioning

systems, construction machine control, and lidar (scanning) mapping

• Involvement in rebuilding of the infrastructure and geographic information systems

(GIS)

• Shortage of licensed professionals is projected well into the 21st century

Classification of Surveying
 Primary divisions of surveying
• Primary division of surveying is made on the basis of whether the curvature
of the earth is considered or assumed to be flat plane.

Primary division of surveying

Plane surveying Geodetic surveying

1. Plane surveying

• It is the type of surveying in which the curvature of the earth is neglected and it is assumed
to be flat surface.
• This is because plane surveying is carried out over a small area, so the surface of the
earth is considered as a plane.
• All distance and horizontal angles are assumed to be projected on to a horizontal plane.

• Plane surveying can safely be used when one is concerned with

small portion of the earth's surface and areas involved are less
than 250sq.km or so.
• The degree of accuracy required in this type of surveying is
completely low.
2. Geodetic Surveying

• It is the type of surveying in which the curvature of the earth is taken into
consideration, and a very standard of accuracy is maintained.

• The main objective of geodetic surveying is to determine the precise

location of a system of widely spaced points on the surface of the earth.
 Surveying Applications
• Control surveying: It consists of establishing the horizontal and vertical positions of
widely spaced control points using the principles of geodetic surveying.

• Land surveying: Land surveys are conducted to determine the boundaries and areas of
tracts of land. These are the oldest types, as land surveys have been used since the early
civilization. These are also known as property surveys, boundary surveys or cadastral
surveys. These surveys are also used to provide data for making a plan of the area.

• City surveys: These surveys are conducted within the limits of a city for urban
planning. These are required for the purpose of layout of streets, buildings, sewers,
pips, etc.
• Topographical surveys: Topography is defined as the shape or configuration of the
earth‟s surface. These surveys are required to establish horizontal locations of the
various points as well as their vertical locations. Information pertaining to relief and
undulation on the earth‟s surface is generally shown in the form of contours of
equal elevations.

• Route surveying: These surveys are special types of surveys conducted along a
proposed route for highway, railway, sewer line etc. Route survey is done along a wide
strip. In general, route surveying also includes the staking out and calculation of the
earth work.
Topographical surveys:

Route surveying:
Satellite surveys:
Land surveying: Control surveying:
Engineering surveys:

Construction surveys:
• Mine surveys: These surveys are conducted to determine the relative positions and elevations of

mines, shafts, bore holes etc for underground works. Mine surveys are useful to plan the

working of mines and to compute volumes of materials in mines

• Hydrographic surveys: These surveys are conducted on or near the body of water, such as lakes,

rivers, bays, harbors

• Construction surveys: All the above-mentioned surveys are conducted to obtain information

required for preparation of maps, plans, and sections etc. After the plans have been prepared

and the structures designed, the construction survey is conducted. The points and lines are

established on the ground, and the layout plan of the structure is marked on the ground.
• Engineering surveys: Engineering surveys are conducted to collect data for the designing and
planning of engineering works such as building, roads, bridges, dams, reservoirs, sewers and
water supply lines. These surveys generally include surveys discussed above.

• Astronomic surveys: These surveys are conducted for the determination of latitudes,
Azimuths, local time etc. for various places on the earth by observing heavenly bodies (the sun
and stars )

• Satellite surveys: These surveys are conducted to obtain intercontinental, inter datum and
interisland geodetic ties the entire world over by artificial earth‟s satellites

• Geological surveys: Geological surveys are conducted to obtain information about different
strata (layer) of the earth‟s surface for geological studies
Chain Survey :- simplest type of surveying in which only linear measurements
are made with a chain or tape. Angle measurement are not taken
In compass surveying, the horizontal angles are measured with the
help of a magnetic compass, in addition to the linear measurements
with a chain or a tape.
This is a type of survey in which a leveling instrument is used for
determination of relative elevations (levels) of various points in
the vertical plane with the help of level instrument
 • : A tachometer is a special type of theodolite that is fitted with a
stadia diaphragm having two horizontal cross hairs in addition to the
central horizontal hair. In tachometric surveying horizontal angles,
horizontal distances and elevations are measured with a tachometer

A tachometer is a special type of theodolite that is fitted with a stadia diaphragm having
two horizontal cross hairs in addition to the central horizontal hair.
In tachometric surveying horizontal angles, horizontal distances and elevations are
measured with a tachometer
Photogrammetry is a science of taking measurements with the help of
photographs. Photogrammetric surveys are generally used for topographic mapping
of vast areas.
Trilateration is a type of triangulation in which all the three sides of each
triangle are measured accurately with EDM instruments. The angles are
computed indirectly from the known sides of the triangles. Thus all the sides
and angles are determined.
 Error in surveying
• A discrepancy is defined as the difference between two or more measured values of the
same quantity.
• However, measurements are never exact and there will always be a degree of
variance regardless of the survey instrument or method used.
• These variances are known as errors and will need to be reduced or eliminated to
maintain specific survey standards.
• Errors, by definition, are the difference between a measured value and its true value.
• The true value of a measurement is determined by taking the mean value of a
series of repeated measurements.
• Surveyors must possess skill in instrument operation and knowledge of surveying
methods to minimize the amount of error in each measurement
 Error and mistake
Difference between a measurement and the true value
𝑬 = 𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 − 𝑻𝒓𝒖𝒆
𝑻𝒓𝒖𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 = 𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 − 𝑬𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓
• Errors can be positive or negative depending on whether the true value is larger or smaller
than the measured value
Mistakes
• Also known as blunders
• Usually caused by lack of care or attention in the measurement process by humans
• There are cases of technology defects that appear as blunders in measurements
Mistakes are sometimes called gross errors, but should not be classified as errors at all.
They are blunders, often resulting from fatigue or the inexperience of the surveyor.

• Typical examples are omitting a whole tape length when measuring distance, sighting
the wrong target in a round of angles, reading ‘6’ on a levelling staff as ‘9’ and vice
versa.
• Mistakes are the largest of the errors likely to arise, and therefore great care must be
taken to obviate them.
• However, because they are large they are easy to spot and so deal with.
 Type of error
Accidental, random or
Systematic or cumulative
compensating.
Systematic or cumulative
• A systematic error is an error that will always have the same magnitude and the same
algebraic sign under the same conditions.
• In most cases, systematic errors are caused by physical and natural conditions that vary
in accordance with known mathematical or physical laws.
– Repeated
– if identified and modeled, can be easily corrected (Natural errors and Instrumental
errors)
 • Equipment out of calibration
• Use of insufficiently accurate computation equations
(too few terms in a series.)
• Failure to apply necessary geometric reductions of
Systematic errors
are caused by: measurements.
• Failure to apply necessary reductions of measurements
due to weather related conditions.
• Personal biases of the observer.
• Use of incorrect units (feet instead of meters.)
• Although some systematic errors are difficult to detect, the surveyor must recognize the
conditions that cause such errors.
• The following list includes several examples of systematic errors:

• Using incorrect temperature and/or pressure observations.

• Not applying curvature and refraction constants.

• Using incorrect instrument heights and/or target heights.

• Using an incorrect prism offset.

• Using an imperfectly adjusted instrument

The effect of systematic errors can be minimized by:

• Properly leveling the survey instrument and targets.

• Balancing foresight and backsight observations.

• Entering the appropriate environmental correction factors in the data collector.

• Entering the correct instrument heights, targets heights, and prism offset in the
data collector.

• Periodically calibrating the surveying equipment.

 Random (Accidental) Errors

• A random error (or accidental error) is an error produced by irregular

causes that are beyond the control of the observer.

• They do not follow any established rule which can be used to compute the
error for a given condition or circumstance of the observation.

• The occurrence, magnitude, and algebraic sign of a random error is truly

random and cannot be predicted.
Random error

• For a single measurement, it is the error remaining in the measurement after all
possible systematic and gross errors are eliminated.

• An important characteristic of the random error is that if we repeat the same

measurement many times, the sum of all these errors tends to be zero.

• This is yet another good reason to make extra measurements beyond the required
minimum.
– Occur randomly
—remain in the measurements after mistakes and systematic errors are corrected.
– Magnitude and direction of the error are subject to chance
 Source of error

Natural/enviro
Instrumental Personal/surveyor
nmental
• Instrumental errors are caused by imperfections in the design, construction, and
adjustment of instruments and other equipment. Instruments can be calibrated to
overcome these imperfections. Examples of instrument error are:

• Imperfect linear or angular scales.

• Instrument axes are not perfectly parallel or perpendicular to each other.

• Misalignment of various part of the instrument.

• Optical distortions causing “what you see is not exactly what you are
supposed to see”
 Source of surveying Error
1. Instrumental: Surveying errors may arise due to imperfection or faulty instrument
adjustment with which measurement is being taken.
•For example, a tape may be too long, or an angle measuring instrument may
be out of adjustment. Such errors are known as instrumental errors.
2. Personal: Error may also arise due to wanting perfection of human sight in
observing and touch in manipulating instruments.
•For example, an error may occur in taking the level reading or reading and
angle on the circle of a theodolite. Such errors are known as personal errors.
3. Natural: Error in surveying may also be due to variations in natural
phenomena such as temperature, humidity, gravity, wind, refraction and
magnetic declination.
√ If they are not properly observed while taking measurements, the
results will be incorrect.
• For example, a tape may be 20 meters at 200C, but its length
will change if the field temperature is different.
 Accuracy and precession
Accuracy and precision are two different, yet equally important surveying concepts.

• Accuracy is the relationship between the value of a measurement and the "true" or
theoretically correct value of the dimension being measured.
• Accuracy is the degree of conformity of a given measurement with a standard value.

• Precision describes the refinement of the measuring process and the ability to repeat the
same measurement with consistently small variations (that is, no large discrepancies) in
the measurements.
• Precision is the extent to which a given set of measurements agree with their mean
 Thanks
Chapter summary question
1. Explain the deference between primary division of survey

2. What is surveying means

3. Write at least four functional classification of surveying

4. What are the purposes surveying?

5. Explain the difference between error and mistake

6. Differentiate source of error in surveying and type of error

7. Write and explain the processes of surveying work and principle of surveying