Practical 1 :- Introduction of computer hardware:

The hardware are the parts of the computer itself including the Central Processing Unit (CPU) and related microchips and micro-circuitry, keyboards, monitors, case and drives (hard, CD, DVD, floppy, optical, tape, etc...). Other extra parts called peripheral components or devices include mouse, printers, modems, scanners, digital cameras and cards (sound, colour, video) etc... Together they are often referred to as a personal computer.

1.Monitor 9.Keyboard 2.Motherboard 10.Mouse 3.CPU 4.RAM

5.Expansion Cards 6.SMPS(Power supply) 7.Optical disk drive 8.Hard disk drive

Keyboard :
The keyboard is used to type information into the computer or input information. There are many different keyboard layouts and sizes with the most common for Latin based languages being the QWERTY layout (named for the first 6 keys). The standard keyboard has 101 keys. Notebooks have embedded keys accessible by special keys or by pressing key combinations (CTRL or Command and P for example).Some of the keys have a special use. They are referred to as command keys. The 3 most common are the Control (CTRL), Alternate (Alt) and the Shift keys.

Mouse:
Most modern computers today are run using a mouse controlled pointer. Generally if the mouse has two buttons the left one is used to select objects and text and the right one is used to access menus. If the mouse has one button, it controls all the activity and a mouse with a third button can be used by specific software programs.One type of mouse has a round ball under the bottom of the mouse that rolls and turns two wheels which control the direction of the pointer on the screen. Another type of mouse uses an optical system to track the movement of the mouse. Laptop computers use touch pads, buttons and other devices to control the pointer.

Monitors
The monitor shows information on the screen when you type. This is called outputting information. When the computer needs more information it will display a message on the screen, usually through a dialog box. Monitors come in many types and sizes. The resolution of the monitor determines the sharpness of the screen. The resolution can be adjusted to control the screen's display..Most desktop computers use a monitor with a cathode tube or liquid crystal display. Most notebooks use a liquid crystal display monitor.

CPU (Central Processing Unit):

CPU is the brain of computer system. All major calculations and comparisons performed by a computer are carried out inside its CPU. CPU is also responsible for activating and controlling the operation of other unit of a computer system. Hence, no other single components of a computer determines ifs overall performance as much as its CPU. The central processing unit (CPU) is the portion of a computer system that carries out the instructions of a computer program, to perform the basic arithmetical, logical, and input/output operations of the system.

A simplified diagram of the CPU

CU (Control Unit):
The control unit of the CPU selects and interprets program instruction and then coordinates their execution. The control unit coordinates the input and output devices of a computer system. It fetches the code of all of the instructions in the micro programs. It directs the operation of the other units by providing timing and control signals. The control unit directs and controls the activities of the internal and external devices. A control unit in general is a central part of the machinery that controls its operation, provided which the term is specifically used is the area of computer design.It does not perform any actual processing on data, the control unit acts as a central nervous system for other components of a computer system.

Types of control unit:

Fetching Executed Decode Write back

ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

In computing, an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a digital circuit that performs arithmetic and logical operations. The ALU is a fundamental building block of the central processing unit of a computer, and even the simplest microprocessors contain one for purposes such as maintaining timers. ALU of a CPU is the place where actual execution of instruction takes place during data processing operation. Data and instruction stored in primary storage before processing are transferred as and when needed to the ALU where processing takes place. Intermediate results generated in the ALU are temporarily transferred back to primary storage unit needed later. Hence, data may move from primary storage to ALU and back again to storage many times before processing is over.

Register:
As instruction are interpreted and execution by a computers CPU, there is movement of information between various units of the computer. These register are used to hold information on a temporary basis and are parts of the CPU. Registers are a group of cells used for memory addressing, data manipulation and processing. Some of the registers are general purpose and some are reserved for certain functions.

Function of these register are described below:

1. Memory Address Register (MAR) 2. Memory Buffer Register (MBR) 3. Program Control Register (PC) 4. Accumulator Register (A) 5. Instruction Register (I) 6. Input/output Register (I/O)

Memory
In computing, memory refers to the physical devices used to store programs data on a temporary or permanent basis for use in a computer or other digital electronic device. The term primary memory is used for the information in physical systems which are fast as a distinction from secondary memory, which are physical devices for program and data storage which are slow to access but offer higher memory capacity. Primary memory stored on secondary memory is called "virtual memory". The term "memory" is often asociated with addressable semiconductor memory, i.e. integrated circuits consisting of silicon-based transistors, used for example as primary memory but also other purposes in computers and other digital electronic devices.

There are two main types of semiconductor memory:

1. Volatile 2. Non-volatile Examples of non-volatile memory are flash memory and ROM/PROM/EPROM/EEPROM memory. Examples of volatile memory are primary memory (typically dynamic RAM, DRAM), and fast CPU cache memory (typically static RAM, SRAM, which is fast but energy-consuming and offer lower memory capacity per area unit than DRAM) .The semiconductor memory is organized into memory cells or biteable flip-flops, each storing one binary bit (0 or 1). The memory cells are grouped into words of fix word length, for example 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64 or 128 bit. Each word can be accessed by a binary address of N bit, making it possible to store 2 raised by N words in the memory.This implies that processor registers normally are not considered as memory, since they only store one word and do not include an addressing mechanism.

Types of memory:
1. Primary Memory 2. Secondary Memory

Motherboard:
The main circuit board of a microcomputer. The motherboard contains the connectors for attaching additional boards. Typically, the motherboard contains the CPU, BIOS, memory, mass storage interfaces, serial and parallel ports, expansion slots, and all the controllers required to control standard peripheral devices, such as the display screen, keyboard, and disk drive. Collectively, all these chips

that reside on the motherboard are known as the motherboard's chipset. On most PCs, it is possible to add memory chips directly to the motherboard. You may also be able to upgrade to a faster PC by replacing the CPU chip. To add additional core features, you may need to replace the motherboard entirely. Motherboard is sometimes abbreviated as mob
.

A block diagram of a modern motherboard, which supports many on-board peripheral functions as well as several expansion slots.

Storage device: Data and

instructions entered into a computer system through input units have to be stored inside the computer before actual processing start. Similarly, result produced by a computer after processing have to be kept somewhere inside the computer system before being passed on to an output unit. Storage unit of a computer system caters to all these needs. It provides space for storing data and instruction, intermediate results and results for output.

In short, a storage unit holds:

1. Data and instruction required for processing (received from input device) 2. Intermediate results of processing. 3. Results of output, before they are released to an output device.

Storage unit of all computers is comprised of following two types of storage:

Primary storage: Primary storage of a computer, also known as its main memory, is used to
hold piece of program instruction and data, intermediate results of processing on which the computer is currently working. These pieces of information are representation electronically in the main memory chips circuitry and central processing unit can access it directly at a very fast speed. However, primary storage can hold information only while computer system is on. As soon as the computer system switches off or resets, the information held in primary storage is erased.

Secondary storage: Secondary storage of a computer, also as its auxiliary storage, is used
to take care of the primary storage. That is, it supplements the limited storage capacity and the volatile characteristic of primary storage. This is because secondary storage is much cheaper than primary storage and it can retain information even when a computer system switches off or resets. Secondary storage holds the program instructions, data, and information of those jobs on which the computer system is currently not working but needs to hold them for processing later. Magnetic disk is the most commonly used secondary storage medium.

I/O device: (input and output device)

Input device: Data and instruction must enter a computer system before the computer can perform
any computation on the supplied data. The input unit that links a computer with its external environment performs this task. Data and instruction enter a computer through an input unit in a form that depends upon the input device used. For example, data can be entered using a keyboard in a manner similar to typing and this differ from the way in which data is entered through a scanner another type of input device. However, a computers memory is designed to accept input in binary code and hence, all inputs device must transform input signals to binary codes. Units called input interface accomplish this transformation. Input interfaces match the unique physical or electrical characteristics of input device to the requirements of a computer system.

In short, an input unit perform following functions:

It accepts instructions and data from outside world. It converts these instruction and data in computer acceptable form. It supplies the converted instruction and data to computer system for further processing.

Output device: An output unit performs the reverse operation of that of an input unit. It supplies
information obtained from data processing to outside world. Hence, it links a computer with its external environment. As computers work with binary code, results produced are also in binary form. Therefore, before supplying the result to outside world, the system must convert them to human acceptable form. Units called output interface accomplish this task. Output interfaces match the unique physical or electrical characteristics of output devices (terminals, printers, etc.) to the requirements of an external environment.

In short an output unit perform following functions:

It accepts the results produced by a computer, which are in coded form and hence, we cannot easily understand them. It converts these coded results to human acceptable form. It supplies the converted results to outside world.

Modem:
A modem is a device that modulates an analogy carrier signal to encode digital information, and also demodulates such a carrier signal to decode the transmitted information. Modems can be used over any means of transmitting analogy signals, from light emitting diodes to radio. Modems are generally classified by the amount of data they can send in a given unit of time, usually expressed in bits per second (bit/s, or bps). Modems can alternatively be classified by their symbol rate, measured in baud. For example, the ITU V.21 standard used audio frequency-shift keying the original ITU V.22 standard, which was able to transmit and receive four distinct symbols (two bits per symbol). Modem is an essential piece of hardware for any application in which two digital devices want to communicate over an analogue transmission channel. When we want to use a modem with your computer to allow it to communicate with any other computer via telephone line, following factors should be considered: Transmission speed. Internal versus external. Facsimile facility.

Router:
In packetswitched networks such as the Internet, a router is a device or, in some cases, software in a computer, that determines the next network point to which a packet should be forwarded toward its destination. The router is connected to at least two networks and decides which way to send each information packet based on its current understanding of the state of the networks it is connected to. A router is located at any gateway including each point-of-presence on the Internet.A router may create or maintain a table of the available routes and their conditions and use this information along with distance and cost algorithms to determine the best route for a given packet. A block diagram of LAN router

Cabling:
Cable is the medium through which information usually moves from one network device to another. There are several types of cable which are commonly used with LANs. In some cases, a network will utilize only one type of cable, other networks will use a variety of cable types. The type of cable chosen for a network is related to the network's topology, protocol, and size. Understanding the characteristics of different types of cable and how they relate to other aspects of a network is necessary for the development of a successful network.

The following sections discuss the types of cables used in networks and other related topics:
1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable 2. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable 3. Coaxial Cable 4. Fibre Optic Cable

5. Cable Installation Guides 6. Wireless LANs

Unshielded Twisted Pair:

Twisted pair cabling comes in two varieties: Shielded Unshielded

Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) is the most popular and is generally the best option for school networks.

Unshielded twisted pair

The quality of UTP may vary from telephone-grade wire to extremely high-speed cable. The cable has four pairs of wires inside the jacket. Each pair is twisted with a different number of twists per inch to help eliminate interference from adjacent pairs and other electrical devices. The EIA/TIA (Electronic Industry Association/Telecommunication Industry Association) has established standards of UTP and rated six categories of wire.

Categories of Unshielded Twisted Pair:

Category
1 2 3 4 5

speed
1 Mbps 4 Mbps 16 Mbps 20 Mbps 100 Mbps (2 pair)

use
Voice Only (Telephone Wire) Local Talk & Telephone (Rarely used) 10BaseT Ethernet Token Ring (Rarely used) 100BaseT Ethernet

1000 Mbps (4 pair) 5e 6 1,000 Mbps 10,000 Mbps

Gigabit Ethernet Gigabit Ethernet Gigabit Ethernet

Unshielded Twisted Pair Connector:

The standard connector for unshielded twisted pair cabling is an RJ-45 connector. This is a plastic connector that looks like a large telephone-style connector (See fig. 2). A slot allows the RJ-45 to be inserted only one way. RJ stands for Registered Jack, implying that the connector follows a standard borrowed from the telephone industry. This standard designates which wire goes with each pin inside the connector.

Fig.2. RJ-45 connector

Shielded Twisted Pair Cable: (STP)

Although UTP cable is the least expensive cable, it may be susceptible to radio and electrical frequency interference. If you must place cable in environments with lots of potential interference, or if you must place cable in extremely sensitive environments that may be susceptible to the electrical current in the UTP, shielded twisted pair may be the solution. Shielded cables can also help to extend the maximum distance of the cables.

Shielded twisted pair cable is available in three different configurations:

Each pair of wires is individually shielded with foil. There is a foil or braid shield inside the jacket covering all wires (as a group). There is a shield around each individual pair, as well as around the entire group of wires (referred to as double shield twisted pair).

Coaxial Cable:
Coaxial cabling has a single copper conductor at its centre. A plastic layer provides insulation between the centre conductor and a braided metal shield (See fig. 3). The metal shield helps to block any outside interference from fluorescent lights, motors, and other computers.

Fig.3. Coaxial cable

Fibre Optic Cable:

Fibre optic cabling consists of a centre glass core surrounded by several layers of protective materials. It transmits light rather than electronic signals eliminating the problem of electrical interference. This makes it ideal for certain environments that contain a large amount of electrical interference. It has also made it the standard for connecting networks between buildings, due to its immunity to the effects of moisture and lighting.

Fig.5. Fibre optic cable

There are two common types of fibre cables:-1. Single mode. 2. Multimode.

Installing Cable - Some Guidelines:

When running cable, it is best to follow a few simple rules:
1. Always use more cable than you need. Leave plenty of slack 2. Test every part of a network as you install it. Even if it is brand new, it may have problems that will be difficult to isolate later. 3. Stay at least 3 feet away from fluorescent light boxes and other sources of electrical interference. 4. If it is necessary to run cable across the floor, cover the cable with cable protectors. 5. Label both ends of each cable.

6. Use cable ties (not tape) to keep cables in the same location together.

Wireless LANs:
More and more networks are operating without cables, in the wireless mode. Wireless LANs use high frequency radio signals, infrared light beams, or lasers to communicate between the workstations, servers, or hubs. Each workstation and file server on a wireless network has some sort of transceiver/antenna to send and receive the data. Information is relayed between transceivers as if they were physically connected. For longer distance, wireless communications can also take place through cellular telephone technology, microwave transmission, or by satellite.Wireless networks are great for allowing laptop computers, portable devices, or remote computers to connect to the LAN. Wireless networks are also beneficial in older buildings where it may be difficult or impossible to install cables.