Objective:

This lab's objective is to analyze a direct current (DC) circuit using fundamental circuit laws
and network theorems. Students will construct a circuit with a voltage source, a current
source, and six resistors, measuring branch currents and voltages to verify Kirchhoff's
Voltage Law (KVL) and Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL). Also, the lab will involve applying
network theorems like the Superposition Theorem, Thevenin’s Theorem, and the Maximum
Power Transfer Theorem. These theorems will be used to analyze circuit behavior under
different conditions, including measuring open-circuit voltages, short-circuit currents, and
calculating Thevenin equivalent circuits. By demonstrating these theorems, students will
deepen their understanding of electrical network analysis, and the conditions required for
maximum power transfer in circuits.

Introduction:

Circuit analysis is a necessary procedure in electrical engineering, where the behavior of

an electrical system must be ascertained. The lab here involves analysis of DC circuits,
starting with some fundamental laws, such as Kirchhoff's Voltage Law and Kirchhoff's
Current Law, up to important network theorems like the Superposition Theorem,
Thevenin's Theorem, and the Maximum Power Transfer Theorem. Such principles are
fundamental for both the prediction and verification of circuit behavior for different
configurations. The students will be able to measure and validate branch currents, branch
voltages, and node voltages by building a circuit that contains several resistors, a voltage
source, and a current source. Further, network theorems will be used to see the impact of
various power sources on the performance of a circuit and the conditions under which
maximum power transfer occurs. The experiment described above shall provide
experience in constructing circuits and applying theoretical knowledge to electrical
networks.

Procedure:

➢ Circuit Construction:
Breadboard Setup:
• Assemble the circuit as shown in Figure 3.2 using the provided
breadboard.
• Use banana plug patch cords to connect the voltage source and current
source to the appropriate banana jacks on the breadboard.
• Construct the circuit by inserting resistors and wires into the breadboard
based on the specified nodes (e.g., node B, C, D) in Figure 3.2.
 • Ensure the circuit is correctly assembled by double-checking the
connections and verifying resistor values using a digital multimeter.

➢ Source Setup:
• Set the voltage source to 10 V using the power supply, ensuring the voltage is
output in constant voltage (CV) mode.
• Configure the current source to supply 25 mA with a voltage limit of 15 V,
ensuring the current source operates in constant current (CC) mode.

➢ Branch Voltage Measurement:

• Using the DMM as a voltmeter, measure the branch voltages across each resistor in
the circuit.
• Record the measured voltages and note any negative values.

➢ Branch Current Measurement:

• Using the DMM as an ammeter, measure the branch currents through each resistor
by connecting the ammeter in series with the resistors.
• Record the measured current values, including any negative values.

➢ Node Voltage Measurement:

• Measure the node voltages at points VB, VC, and VD in the circuit using the DMM as
a voltmeter. Ensure the black lead of the DMM is connected to the ground node.
• Record the node voltages, noting that some may be negative in reference to ground.

➢ Resistance Measurement:
• Disconnect the power sources from the circuit.
 • Use the DMM as an ohmmeter to measure the equivalent resistance seen from the
voltage source terminals Rsource and the resistance seen from the current source
terminals Rcurrent.
• Record the measured resistances.

➢ Superposition Theorem:
• Measure the open-circuit voltage across the circuit terminals with both the voltage
source and current source active.
• Next, disconnect the current source and measure the voltage with only the voltage
source active.
• Then, disconnect the voltage source and measure the voltage with only the current
source active.
• Record all measured values and verify that the sum of the individual voltages equals
the voltage measured with both sources active.

➢ Thevenin’s Theorem:
• Measure the open-circuit voltage and short-circuit current across terminal BB of
the circuit.
• Disconnect the power sources and measure the Thevenin equivalent resistance
using the DMM in ohmmeter mode.
• Record the Thevenin voltage, short-circuit current, and equivalent resistance.

➢ Maximum Power Transfer Theorem:

• Using a variable potentiometer connected across terminal BB, adjust the
potentiometer to different resistance values between 100 Ω and 500 Ω.
• Measure the voltage across the potentiometer at each resistance value.
• Record the measured voltages and calculate the power dissipated in the
potentiometer for each resistance value.
• Determine the resistance value at which maximum power is delivered to
the load and compare it to the Thevenin equivalent resistance.

Measurements and Results:

• Part A:
Resistor Value given Measured Value
 R1 470 Ω 468.5 Ω
R2 300 Ω 300.66 Ω
R3 510 Ω 506.1 Ω
R4 330 Ω 322.5 Ω
R5 470 Ω 465.5 Ω
R6 470 Ω 465.5 Ω

Source Measured Value

Voltage source 9.999 V
Current source 28.6 mA

Branch Voltages:

Measured value of V1 V1= 4.41V

Measured value of V2 V2= 5.59V
Measured value of V3 V3= 7.83V
Measured value of V4 V4= 2.24V
Measured value of V5 V5= 1.11V
Measured value of V6 V6= 1.11V

Branch currents:

Measured value of I1 I1= 3.5 mA

Measured value of I2 I2= 24.17mA
Measured value of I3 I3 = 24.64 mA
Measured value of I4 I4= -24.6 mA
Measured value of I5 I5 = -4.01mA
Measured value of I6 I6 = 4.01mA

Node Voltages:
 Measured value of Va Va= 9.99 V
Measured value of Vb Vb= 8.24V
Measured value of Vc Vc= -3.94 V
Measured value of Vd Vd= -1.95V
Resistance Measurement:

Measured value of Ra Ra = 766.3 Ω

Measured value of Rb Rb = 274 Ω

Part B:

Superposition theorem:

Measured value of Voc Voc= -1.98 V

Both sources active
Measured value of Voc Voc= 0.246 V
Voltage acting alone
Measured value of Voc Voc= -2.00 V
Current source acting alone

Thevenin’s Theorem:

Measured value of Voc Voc= -1.98V

Measured value of Isc Isc = -7.28 mA
Measured value of Rt Rt= 270 Ω
Measured value of VL Vl = -1.08 V
Measured value of Rl Rl = 305.4 Ω

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem:

Resistance Measured voltage Calculated Power

For Rl = 100 Ω VL= 0.534 V PL= 0.00285 W

For Rl = 200 Ω VL = 0.842V PL= 0.00354 W

For Rl = 300 Ω VL= 1.04V PL= 0.00361 W

For Rl = 400 Ω VL = 1.20V PL= 0.00360 W

For Rl = 500 Ω VL = 1.30V PL= 0.00338 W

Rl=Rt VL= 1.04V PL = 0.00361 W

LT SPICE SIMULATION:

Discussion of results and analysis:

Experimental Branch Voltages:

Measured value of V1 V1= 4.41V

Measured value of V2 V2= 5.59V
Measured value of V3 V3= 7.83V
Measured value of V4 V4= 2.24V
Measured value of V5 V5= 1.11V
Measured value of V6 V6= 1.11V

Theoretical Branch Voltages:

Using the LTspice simulation above:

V1= 10 - 5.49 = 4.51 V

V2= 5.49 - 0 = 5.49 V

V3= 5.49 - (-3.51) = 9 V

V4 = -3. 51 – 0 = -3.51 V

V5= -3.51-(-1.40) = -2.10 v

V6 = -1.40 V

The percentage errors for R1 and R2 are small (around 2%), showing close agreement.
However, errors for R3, R4, R5, and R6 are much larger, especially for R4, R5, and R6,
where they exceed 150%. These high errors could be due to measurement inaccuracies,
resistor tolerances, or temperature effects. Real-world components aren't ideal, so
deviations from theoretical calculations are expected. Improving measurement precision
and accounting for component tolerances could reduce these discrepancies.

Experimental Branch currents:

Measured value of I1 I1= 3.5 mA

Measured value of I2 I2= 24.17mA
Measured value of I3 I3 = 24.64 mA
Measured value of I4 I4= -24.6 mA
Measured value of I5 I5 = -4.01mA
Measured value of I6 I6 = 4.01mA

Theoretical Branch currents:

Using LTspice simulation:

PERCENTAGE ERRORS:

• I1 : 131.06%
• I2 : 32.13%
 • I3: 237.06%
• I4: 801.58%
• I5: 14.37%
• I6: 214.45%

The percentage of errors seems to be very high for this section. The large errors indicate
significant differences between the theoretical and experimental values. These could
result from measurement errors, component tolerances, or assumptions made during
theoretical calculations that don’t fully account for real-world imperfections in the circuit.

Experimental Node Voltages:

Measured value of Va Va= 9.99 V

Measured value of Vb Vb= 8.24V
Measured value of Vc Vc= -3.94 V
Measured value of Vd Vd= -1.95V

Theoretical Node voltage using Ltspice:

Experimental Resistance Measurement:

Measured value of Ra Ra = 766.3 Ω

Measured value of Rb Rb = 274 Ω

Theoretical Resistance:

Rb= [(R2+R3)//R4)+R5]//R6

=[(800//1000)+600]//400

= 1044.4//400

= 290 Ω

Ra = [((R5+R6)//R4)+R3)//R2]+R1

= (500+500)//300 + 400

=630 Ω

For Ra:

Measured Value = 766.3 Ω

Theoretical Value = 630 Ω

Percentage Error = |(766.3 - 630) / 630| * 100% ≈ 21.3%

For Rb:

Measured Value = 274 Ω

Theoretical Value = 290 Ω

Percentage Error = |(274 - 290) / 290| * 100% ≈ 5.5%

Discussion of Possible Reasons for Error:

The higher error for Ra could be due to measurement inaccuracy, component tolerance,
circuit loading, temperature effects, or human error. To improve accuracy, consider these
factors.

Superposition theorem:

Measured value of Voc Voc= -1.98 V

Both sources active
Measured value of Voc Voc= 0.246 V
Voltage acting alone
Measured value of Voc Voc= -2.00 V
Current source acting alone

Voc Both sources active:

Voc= -1.40V
Voltage source acting alone:

Voc = 731.7 mV

Current source acting alone:

Voc= -2.13 V

Both sources acting:

% Error = |(-1.98 V - (-1.40 V)) / (-1.40 V)| * 100 ≈ 41.43%

Voltage acting:

% Error = |(0.246 V - 731.7 mV) / 731.7 mV| * 100 ≈ 66.36%

Current acting:

% Error = |(-2.00 V - (-2.13 V)) / (-2.13 V)| * 100 ≈ 6.15%

The response calculated the percent error between experimental and theoretical values
for Voc in each scenario. Significant errors were found for voltage acting alone and both
sources acting, suggesting potential issues with measurements or the theoretical model.
The voltage of current acting alone measurement had a relatively low error, indicating a
reasonable agreement.

Conclusion:

One of the main takeaways of this experiment was the application of Kirchoff’s Voltage and
Current Laws in DC circuits. In terms of development of laboratory skills, building and
measuring a circuit with various parts was a challenging task as it involved measuring
branch currents, branch voltages, and node voltages. Another fundamental aspect of the
experiment was the process of cross-checking the measurements and comparing them to
the theoretical values. Furthermore, this lab has deepened my understanding of numerous
network theorems, including the Superposition theorem. Most importantly, understanding
how to apply Thevenin’s Theorem. Additionally, I discovered the significance of the
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem in ensuring that power is efficiently delivered to a load.
Overall, this experiment helped me connect the dots between theoretical circuit analysis
and real-world applications, deepening my appreciation for the principles of electrical
engineering and enhancing my confidence in working with electrical circuits.