Click Here for Design of Electrical Machines full study material.

EE2355 DESIGN OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES

EE2355 DESIGN OF ELECTRICAL
MACHINES

OBJECTIVES:
To provide sound knowledge about constructional details and design of various electrical
machines.
i. To study mmf calculation and thermal rating of various types of electrical machines.
ii. To design armature and field systems for D.C. machines.
iii. To design core, yoke, windings and cooling systems of transformers.
iv. To design stator and rotor of induction machines.
v. To design stator and rotor of synchronous machines and study their thermal behavior.
UNIT I INTRODUCTION 9
Major considerations in Electrical Machine Design - Electrical Engineering Materials – Space
factor – Choice of Specific Electrical and Magnetic loadings - Thermal considerations - Heat flow –
Temperature rise - Rating of machines – Standard specifications.

UNIT II DC MACHINES 9
Output Equations – Main Dimensions - Magnetic circuit calculations – Carter’s Coefficient
– Net length of Iron –Real & Apparent flux densities – Selection of number of poles – Design of Armature
– Design of commutator and brushes – performance prediction using design values.
–
UNIT III TRANSFORMERS 9
Output Equations – Main Dimensions - KVA output for single and three phase transformers –
Window space factor – Overall dimensions – Operating characteristics – Regulation
– No load current – Temperature rise in Transformers – Design of Tank - Methods of cooling of
Transformers.

UNIT IV INDUCTION MOTORS 9

Output equation of Induction motor – Main dimensions – Length of air gap- Rules for
selecting rotor slots of squirrel cage machines – Design of rotor bars & slots – Design of end rings
– Design of wound rotor -Magnetic leakage calculations – Leakage reactance of polyphase
machines- Magnetizing current - Short circuit current – Circle diagram - Operating characteristics.

UNIT V SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES 9

Output equations – choice of loadings – Design of salient pole machines – Short circuit ratio
– shape of pole face – Armature design – Armature parameters – Estimation of air gap length
– Design of rotor –Design of damper winding – Determination of full load field mmf – Design of
field winding – Design of turbo alternators – Rotor design.
TOTAL : 45 PERIODS

TEXT BOOKS
1. Sawhney, A.K., 'A Course in Electrical Machine Design', DhanpatRai& Sons, New Delhi, 1984.
2. Sen, S.K., 'Principles of Electrical Machine Designs with Computer Programmes', Oxford and
IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1987.
REFERENCES
1. A.Shanmugasundaram, G.Gangadharan, R.Palani 'Electrical Machine Design Data Book', New
Age Intenational Pvt. Ltd., Reprint 2007.
Click Here for Design of Electrical Machines full study material.

EE2355 DESIGN OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES

UNIT 1
INTRODUCTION
Major considerations in Electrical Machine Design - Electrical Engineering Materials – Space factor
– Choice of Specific Electrical and Magnetic loadings - Thermal considerations - Heat flow – Temperature
rise - Rating of machines – Standard specifications.
Major considerations in Electrical Machine Design
The basic components of all electromagnetic apparatus are the field and armature windings
supported by dielectric or insulation, cooling system and mechanical parts. Therefore, the factors for
consideration in the design are,
Magnetic circuit or the flux path:
Should establish required amount of flux using minimum MMF. The core losses should be less.
Electric circuit or windings:
Should ensure required EMF is induced with no complexity in winding arrangement. The copper
losses should be less.
Insulation:
Should ensure trouble free separation of machine parts operating at different potential and confine
the current in the prescribed paths.
Cooling system or ventilation:
Should ensure that the machine operates at the specified temperature.
Machine parts:
Should be robust.
The art of successful design lies not only in resolving the conflict for space between iron, copper,
insulation and coolant but also in optimization of cost of manufacturing, and operating and maintenance
charges.
The factors, apart from the above, that requires consideration are
a. Limitation in design (saturation, current density, insulation, temperature rise etc.,)
b. Customer’s needs
c. National and international standards
d. Convenience in production line and transportation e. Maintenance and repairs
f. Environmental conditions etc.
 Click Here for Design of Electrical Machines full study material.

EE2355 DESIGN OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES

Limitations in design: The materials used for the machine and others such as cooling etc., imposes a
limitation in design. The limitations stem from saturation of iron, current density in conductors, temperature,
insulation, mechanical properties, efficiency, power factor etc.
a. Saturation: Higher flux density reduces the volume of iron but drives the iron to operate
beyond knee of the magnetization curve or in the region of saturation. Saturation of iron poses a
limitation on account of increased core loss and excessive excitation required to establish a desired value
of flux. It also introduces harmonics.
b. Current density: Higher current density reduces the volume of copper but increases the
losses and temperature.
c. Temperature: poses a limitation on account of possible damage to insulation and other
materials.
d. Insulation (which is both mechanically and electrically weak): poses a limitation on account
of breakdown by excessive voltage gradient, mechanical forces or heat.
e. Mechanical strength of the materials poses a limitation particularly in case of large and high
speed machines.
f. High efficiency and high power factor poses a limitation on account of higher capital cost.
(A low value of efficiency and power factor on the other hand results in a high maintenance cost).
g. Mechanical Commutation in dc motors or generators leads to poor commutation.
Apart from the above factors Consumer, manufacturer or standard specifications may pose a
limitation.
Materials for Electrical Machines
The main material characteristics of relevance to electrical machines are those associated with
conductors for electric circuit, the insulation system necessary to isolate the circuits, and with the
specialized steels and permanent magnets used for the magnetic circuit.
Conducting materials
Commonly used conducting materials are copper and aluminum. Some of the desirable properties
a good conductor should possess are listed below.
1. Low value of resistivity or high conductivity
2. Low value of temperature coefficient of resistance
3. High tensile strength
4. High melting point
5. High resistance to corrosion

www.BrainKart.com
 Click Here for Design of Electrical Machines full study material.

EE2355 DESIGN OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES

6. Allow brazing, soldering or welding so that the joints are reliable
7. Highly malleable and ductile
8. Durable and cheap by cost
Some of the properties of copper and aluminum are shown in the table
Sl.
Particulars Copper Aluminum
No
0 2 2
1 Resistivity at 20 C 0.0172 ohm / m/ mm 0.0269 ohm / m/ mm
0 58.14 x 10 /m 37.2 x 10 /m
2 Conductivity at 20 C S S
0 3 3
3 Density at 20 C 8933kg/m 2689.9m
0 0
4 0.393 % per C 0.4 % per C
o
Temperature coefficient Explanation: If the temperature increases by 1 C, the
o
(0-100 C) resistance increases by 0.4% in case of aluminum
-6 o -6 o
5 Coefficient of linear 16.8x10 per C 23.5 x10 per C
o
expansion (0-100 C)
2 2
6 Tensile strength 25 to 40 kg / mm 10 to 18 kg / mm

7 Mechanical property highly malleable and not highly malleable and

ductile ductile
0 0
8 Melting point 1083 C 660 C
0 0
9 Thermal conductivity 599 W/m C 238 W/m C
o
(0-100 C)
10 Jointing can be easily soldered cannot be soldered easily
For the same resistance and length, cross-sectional area of aluminum is 61% larger than that of the
copper conductor and almost 50% lighter than copper. Though the aluminum reduces the cost of small
capacity transformers, it increases the size and cost of large capacity transformers. Aluminum is being much
used now a day’s only because copper is expensive and not easily available. Aluminum is almost 50%
cheaper than Copper and not much superior to copper.

www.BrainKart.com
 Click Here for Design of Electrical Machines full study material.
Magnetic materials: The magnetic properties of a magnetic material depend on the orientation of
the crystals of the material and decide the size of the machine or equipment for a given rating, excitation
required, efficiency of operation etc.
The some of the properties that a good magnetic material should possess are listed below.
1. Low reluctance or should be highly permeable or should have a high value of relative
permeability µr.
2. High saturation induction (to minimize weight and volume of iron parts)
3. High electrical resistivity so that the eddy EMF and the hence eddy current loss is less
4. Narrow hysteresis loop or low Coercivity so that hysteresis loss is less and efficiency of
operation is high
5. A high curie point. (Above Curie point or temperature the material loses the magnetic
property or becomes paramagnetic, that is effectively non-magnetic)
6. Should have a high value of energy product (expressed in joules / m3).
Magnetic materials can broadly be classified as Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic, Ferromagnetic,
Antiferromagnetic and Ferrimagnetic materials. Only ferromagnetic materials have properties that
are well suitable for electrical machines. Ferromagnetic properties are confined almost entirely to
iron, nickel and cobalt and their alloys. The only exceptions are some alloys of manganese and some
of the rare earth elements.
The relative permeability µ r of ferromagnetic material is far greater than 1.0. When
ferromagnetic materials are subjected to the magnetic field, the dipoles align themselves in the
direction of the applied field and get strongly magnetized.
Further the Ferromagnetic materials can be classified as Hard or Permanent Magnetic
materials and Soft Magnetic materials.
a) Hard or permanent magnetic materials have large size hysteresis loop (obviously
hysteresis loss is more) and gradually rising magnetization curve.
Ex: carbon steel, tungsten steal, cobalt steel, alnico, hard ferrite etc.
b) Soft magnetic materials have small size hysteresis loop and a steep magnetization curve.
Ex: i) cast iron, cast steel, rolled steel, forged steel etc., (in the solid form).
Generally used for yokes poles of dc machines, rotors of turbo alternator etc., where steady
or dc flux is involved.
ii) Silicon steel (Iron + 0.3 to 4.5% silicon) in the laminated form. Addition of silicon in
proper percentage eliminates ageing & reduce core loss. Low silicon content steel or dynamo grade

www.BrainKart.com
 Click Here for Design of Electrical Machines full study material.

steel is used in rotating electrical machines and are operated at high flux density. High content
silicon steel (4 to 5% silicon) or transformer grade steel (or high resistance steel) is used in
transformers. Further sheet steel may be hot or cold rolled. Cold rolled grain oriented steel (CRGOS)
is costlier and superior to hot rolled. CRGO steel is generally used in transformers.
c) Special purpose Alloys:
Nickel iron alloys have high permeability and addition of molybdenum or chromium leads
to improved magnetic material. Nickel with iron in different proportion leads to
(i) High nickel permalloy (iron +molybdenum +copper or chromium), used in current
transformers, magnetic amplifiers etc.,
(ii) Low nickel Permalloy (iron +silicon +chromium or manganese), used in transformers,
induction coils, chokes etc.
(iii) Perminvor (iron +nickel +cobalt)
(iv) Pemendur (iron +cobalt +vanadium), used for microphones, oscilloscopes, etc. (v)
Mumetal (Copper + iron)
d) Amorphous alloys (often called metallic glasses):
Amorphous alloys are produced by rapid solidification of the alloy at cooling rates of about a
million degrees centigrade per second. The alloys solidify with a glass-like atomic structure which is
non-crystalline frozen liquid. The rapid cooling is achieved by causing the molten alloy to flow
through an orifice onto a rapidly rotating water cooled drum. This can produce sheets as thin as
10µm and a meter or more wide.
These alloys can be classified as iron rich based group and cobalt based group.
Maximum Saturation Coercivity Curie Resistivity
Material permeability magnetization A/m temperatur Ωm x 108
µ x 10-3 in tesla e
3% Si grain oriented 90 2.0 6-7 745 48

2.5% Si grain non -

oriented 8 2.0 40 745 44

<0.5% Si grain non

oriented 8 2.1 50-100 770 12

www.BrainKart.com
 Click Here for Design of Electrical Machines full study material.

Low carbon iron 3-10 2.1 50-120 770 12

78% Ni and iron 250-400 0.8 1.0 350 40

50% Ni and iron 100 1.5-1.6 10 530 60

Iron based Amorphous 35-600 1.3-1.8 1.0-1.6 310-415 120-140

Insulating materials.
To avoid any electrical activity between parts at different potentials, insulation is used. An
ideal insulating material should possess the following properties.
1) Should have high dielectric strength.
2) Should with stand high temperature.
3) Should have good thermal conductivity
4) Should not undergo thermal oxidation
5) Should not deteriorate due to higher temperature and repeated heat cycle
6) Should have high value of resistivity ( like 1018 Ωcm)
7) Should not consume any power or should have a low dielectric loss angle δ
8) Should withstand stresses due to centrifugal forces ( as in rotating machines), electro
dynamic or mechanical forces ( as in transformers)
9) Should withstand vibration, abrasion, bending
10) Should not absorb moisture
11) Should be flexible and cheap
12) Liquid insulators should not evaporate or volatilize
Insulating materials can be classified as Solid, Liquid and Gas, and vacuum. The term
insulting material is sometimes used in a broader sense to designate also insulating liquids, gas and
vacuum.
Solid: Used with field, armature, and transformer windings etc. The examples are:
1) Fibrous or inorganic animal or plant origin, natural or synthetic paper, wood, card board,
cotton, jute, silk etc.,
2) Plastic or resins. Natural resins-lac, amber, shellac etc.,

www.BrainKart.com
 Click Here for Design of Electrical Machines full study material.

Synthetic resins-phenol formaldehyde, melamine, polyesters, epoxy, silicon resins,

bakelite, Teflon, PVC etc
3) Rubber : natural rubber, synthetic rubber-butadiene, silicone rubber, hypalon, etc.,
4) Mineral : mica, marble, slate, talc chloride etc.,
5) Ceramic : porcelain, steatite, alumina etc.,
6) Glass : soda lime glass, silica glass, lead glass, borosilicate glass
7) Non-resinous : mineral waxes, asphalt, bitumen, chlorinated naphthalene, enamel etc.,
Liquid: Used in transformers, circuit breakers, reactors, rheostats, cables, capacitors etc., &
for impregnation. The examples are:
1) Mineral oil (petroleum by product)
2) Synthetic oil askarels, pyranols etc.,
3) Varnish, French polish, lacquer epoxy resin etc.,
Gaseous: The examples are:
1) Air used in switches, air condensers, transmission and distribution lines etc.,
2) Nitrogen use in capacitors, HV gas pressure cables etc.,
3) Hydrogen though not used as a dielectric, generally used as a coolant
4) Inert gases neon, argon, mercury and sodium vapors generally used for neon sign lamps.
5) Halogens like fluorine, used under high pressure in cables
No insulating material in practice satisfies all the desirable properties. Therefore a material
which satisfies most of the desirable properties must be selected.
Space factor: Window space factor Window space factor is defined as the ratio of
copper area in the window to the area of the window.

For a given window area, as the voltage rating of the transformer increases, quantity of
insulation in the window increases, area of copper reduces. Thus the window space factor reduces as
the voltage increases.
Choice of Specific Electrical and Magnetic loadings
Specific magnetic loading:
Following are the factors which influences the performance of the machine.

www.BrainKart.com
 Click Here for Design of Electrical Machines full study material.

(i) Iron loss: A high value of flux density in the air gap leads to higher value of flux in
the iron parts of the machine which results in increased iron losses and reduced
efficiency.
(ii) Voltage: When the machine is designed for higher voltage space occupied by the
insulation becomes more thus making the teeth smaller and hence higher flux density
in teeth and core.
(iii) Transient short circuit current: A high value of gap density results in decrease in
leakage reactance and hence increased value of armature current under short circuit
conditions.
(iv) Stability: The maximum power output of a machine under steady state condition is
indirectly proportional to synchronous reactance. If higher value of flux density is
used it leads to smaller number of turns per phase in armature winding. This results in
reduced value of leakage reactance and hence increased value of power and hence
increased steady state stability.
(v) Parallel operation: The satisfactory parallel operation of synchronous generators
depends on the synchronizing power. Higher the synchronizing power higher will be
the ability of the machine to operate in synchronism. The synchronizing power is
inversely proportional to the synchronous reactance and hence the machines designed
with higher value air gap flux density will have better ability to operate in parallel
with other machines.
Specific Electric Loading:
Following are the some of the factors which influence the choice of specific electric
loadings.
(i) Copper loss: Higher the value of q larger will be the number of armature of
conductors which results in higher copper loss. This will result in higher
temperature rise and reduction in efficiency.
(ii) Voltage: A higher value of q can be used for low voltage machines since the space
required for the insulation will be smaller.
(iii) Synchronous reactance: High value of q leads to higher value of leakage reactance
and armature reaction and hence higher value of synchronous reactance. Such
machines will have poor voltage regulation, lower value of current under short

www.BrainKart.com
 Click Here for Design of Electrical Machines full study material.

circuit condition and low value of steady state stability limit and small value of
synchronizing power.
(iv) Stray load losses: With increase of q stray load losses will increase. Values of specific
magnetic and specific electric loading can be selected from Design Data Hand Book
for salient and non salient pole machines.
Separation of D and L: Inner diameter and gross length of the stator can be calculated from D2 L
product obtained from the output equation. To separate suitable relations are assumed between D and L
depending upon the type of the generator. Salient pole machines: In case of salient pole machines either
round or rectangular pole construction is employed. In these types of machines the diameter of the
machine will be quite larger than the axial length.
Thermal considerations
Classification of insulating materials based on thermal consideration

The insulation system (also called insulation class) for wires used in generators, motors transformers and
other wire-wound electrical components is divided into different classes according the temperature that they
can safely withstand.
As per Indian Standard (Thermal evaluation and classification of Electrical
Insulation,IS.No.1271,1985,first revision) and other international standard insulation is classified by letter
grades A,E,B,F,H (previous Y,A,E,B,F,H,C).

www.BrainKart.com
 Click Here for Design of Electrical Machines full study material.

The maximum operating temperature is the temperature the insulation can reach during operation and is
the sum of standardized ambient temperature i.e. 40 degree centigrade, permissible temperature rise and
allowance tolerance for hot spot in winding. For example, the maximum temperature of class B insulation is
(ambient temperature 40 + allowable temperature rise 80 + hot spot tolerance 10) = 130 oC.
Insulation is the weakest element against heat and is a critical factor in deciding the life of electrical
equipment. The maximum operating temperatures prescribed for different class of insulation are for a
healthy lifetime of 20,000 hours. The height temperature permitted for the machine parts is usually about
2000C at the maximum. Exceeding the maximum operating temperature will affect the life of the insulation.
As a rule of thumb, the lifetime of the winding insulation will be reduced by half for every 10
ºC rise in temperature. The present day trend is to design the machine using class F insulation for class B
temperature rise.
Heat flow
The heat is removed by convection, conduction and radiation. Usually, the convection through air,
liquid or steam is the most significant method of heat transfer. Forced convection is, inevitably, the most
efficient cooling method if we do not take direct water cooling into account. The cooling design for forced
convective cooling is also straightforward: the designer has to ensure that a large enough amount of coolant
flows through the machine. This means that the cooling channels have to be large enough. If a machine with
open-circuit cooling is of IP class higher than IP 20, using heat exchangers to cool the coolant may close the
coolant flow.
If the motor is flange mounted, a notable amount of heat can be transferred through the flange of the
machine to the device operated by the motor. The proportion of heat transfer by radiation is usually
moderate, yet not completely insignificant. A black surface of the machine in particular promotes heat
transfer by radiation.
Conduction
There are two mechanisms of heat transfer by conduction: first, heat can be transferred by molecular
interaction, in which molecules at a higher energy level (at a higher temperature) release energy for adjacent
molecules at a lower energy level via lattice vibration. Heat transfer of this kind is possible between solids,
liquids and gases. The second means of conduction is heat transfer between free electrons. This is typical of
liquids and pure metals in particular. The number of free electrons in alloys varies considerably, whereas in
materials other than metals, the number of free electrons is small. The thermal conductivity of solids
depends directly on the number of free electrons. Pure metals are the best heat conductors. Fourier’s law
gives the heat flow transferred by conduction.

www.BrainKart.com
 Click Here for Design of Electrical Machines full study material.

Where Φth is the heat flow rate, l the thermal conductivity, S the heat transfer area and ∇T the
temperature gradient.
Temperature rise
The temperature rise of a machine depends on the power loss per cooling area S
In electrical machines, the design of heat transfer is of equal importance as the electromagnetic
design of the machine, because the temperature rise of the machine eventually determines the maximum
output power with which the machine is allowed to be constantly loaded. As a matter of fact, accurate
management of heat and fluid transfer in an electrical machine is a more difficult and complicated issue than
the conventional electromagnetic design of an electrical machine. However, as shown previously in this
material, problems related to heat transfer can to some degree be avoided by utilizing empirical knowledge
of the machine constants available. When creating completely new constructions, empirical knowledge is
not enough, and thorough modeling of the heat transfer is required. Finally, prototyping and measurements
verify the successfulness of the design. The problem of temperature rise is twofold: first, in most motors,
adequate heat removal is ensured by convection in air, conduction through the fastening surfaces of the
machine and radiation to ambient. In machines with a high power density, direct cooling methods can also
be applied. Sometimes even the winding of the machine is made of copper pipe, through which the coolant
flows during operation of the machine. The heat transfer of electrical machines can be analyzed adequately
with a fairly simple equation for heat and fluid transfer.
The most important factor in thermal design is, however, the temperature of ambient fluid, as it
determines the maximum temperature rise with the heat tolerance of the insulation. Second, in addition to
the question of heat removal, the distribution of heat in different parts of the machine also has to be
considered. This is a problem of heat diffusion, which is a complicated three-dimensional problem involving
numerous elements such as the question of heat transfer from the conductors over the insulation to the stator
frame. It should be borne in mind that the various empirical equations are to be employed with caution. The
distribution of heat in the machine can be calculated when the distribution of losses in different parts of the
machine and the heat removal power are exactly known. In transients, the heat is distributed completely
differently than in the stationary state. For instance, it is possible to overload the motor considerably for a
short period of time by storing the excess heat in the heat capacity of the machine
Rating of machines
Rating of a motor is the power output or the designated operating power limit based upon certain
definite conditions assigned to it by the manufacturer.

www.BrainKart.com
 Click Here for Design of Electrical Machines full study material.

The rating of machine refer to the whole of the numerical values of electrical and mechanical
quantities with their duration and sequence assigned to the machines by the manufacturer and stated on the
rating plate, the machine complying with the specified conditions.
Rating of a single phase & three phase transformer in KVA is given as Q
= 2.22 f Bm δ Kw Aw Ai * 10-3
Q = 3.33 f Bm δ Kw Aw Ai * 10-3
Where f = frequency, Hz
Bm = maximum flux density, Wb/m2
δ = current density, A/mm2
Kw = Window space factor
Aw = Window area, m2
Ai = Net core area, m2
Standard specifications.
1. Output : kW (for generators), kW or Hp (for motors)
2. Voltage : V volt
3. Speed : N rpm
4. Rating : Continuous or Short time
y. Temperature riseµ 00C for an ambient temperature of 400C
6. Cooling : Natural or forced cooling
7. Type: Generator or motor, separately excited or self-excited-shunt, series, or compound, if
compound type of connection – long or short shunt, type of compounding – cumulative or
differential, degree of compounding – over, under or level. With or without inter poles, with or
without compensating windings,with or without equalizer rings in case of lap winding.
8. Voltage regulation ( in case of generators) : Range and method
9. Speed control ( in case of motors ) : range and method of control
10. Efficiency: must be as for as possible high (As the efficiency increases, cost of the machine
also increases).
11. Type of enclosure: based on the field of application – totally enclosed, screen protected, drip
proof, flame proof, etc.,
12. Size of the machine etc.,

www.BrainKart.com
 Click Here for Design of Electrical Machines full study material.

UNIT III TRANSFORMERS

Output Equations – Main Dimensions - KVA output for single and three phase transformers –
Window space factor – Overall dimensions – Operating characteristics – Regulation
– No load current – Temperature rise in Transformers – Design of Tank - Methods of cooling of
Transformers.
Design features of power and distribution type transformers:
Power transformer
1. Load on the transformer will be at or near the full load through out the period of operation. When the
load is less, the transformer, which is in parallel with other transformers, may be put out of service.
2. Generally designed to achieve maximum efficiency at or near the full load. Therefore iron loss is
made equal to full load copper loss by using a higher value of flux density. In other words, power
transformers are generally designed for a higher value of flux density.
3. Necessity of voltage regulation does not arise .The voltage variation is obtained by the help of tap
changers provided generally on the high voltage side. Generally Power transformers are deliberately
designed for a higher value of leakage reactance, so that the short-circuit current, effect of
mechanical force and hence the damage is less.
Distribution transformer
1. Load on the transformer does not remain constant but varies instant to instant over 24 hours a day
2. Generally designed for maximum efficiency at about half full load. In order that the all day
efficiency is high, iron loss is made less by selecting a lesser value of flux density. In other words
distribution transformers are generally designed for a lesser value of flux density. Since the
distributed transformers are located in the vicinity of the load, voltage regulation is an important
factor.
3. Generally the distribution transformers are not equipped with tap changers to maintain a constant
voltage as it increases the cost, maintenance charges etc., Thus the distribution transformers are
designed to have a low value of inherent regulation by keeping down the value of leakage reactance.
Output Equations
Single phase core type transformer
Rating of the transformer in kVA = V1I1 x 10-3 = E1I1 x 10-3 = 4.44 φm f T1 x I1 x 10-3 ---- (1)

www.BrainKart.com
 Click Here for Design of Electrical Machines full study material.

Note:Each leg carries half of the LV and HV turns Area

of copper in the window

Therefore ---------------------(2)
After substituting (2) in (1),

Single phase shell type transformer

Rating of the transformer in kVA = V1I1 x 10-3 = E1I1 x 10-3
= 4.44 φm f T1 x I1 x 10-3 …(1)

www.BrainKart.com
 Click Here for Design of Electrical Machines full study material.

Note : Since there are two windows, it is sufficient to design one of the two windows as both
the windows are symmetrical. Since the LV and HV windings are placed on the central leg, each
window accommodates T1 and T2 turns of both primary and secondary windings.
Area of copper in the window

Therefore ----------------------- (2)

After substituting (2) in (1),

Three phase core type transformer

Rating of the transformer in kVA = V1I1 x 10-3 = E1I1 x 10-3 = 3 x 4.44 φm f T1 x I1 x 10-3…(1)

Note: Since there are two windows, it is sufficient to design one of the two windows, as both the
windows are symmetrical. Since each leg carries the LV &HV windings of one phase, each window carry
the LV & HV windings of two phases
Since each window carries the windings of two phases, area of copper in the window, say due to R &
Y phases

Therefore -------------------------- (2)

After substituting (2) in (1)

www.BrainKart.com
 Click Here for Design of Electrical Machines full study material.

Main Dimensions
KVA output for single and three phase transformers
Single phase core type transformer
Rating of the transformer in kVA = V1I1 x 10-3 = E1I1 x 10-3 = 4.44 φm f T1 x I1 x 10-3 ---- (1)

Note:Each leg carries half of the LV and HV turns

Area of copper in the window

Therefore ---------------------(2)

After substituting (2) in (1),

Single phase shell type transformer

Rating of the transformer in kVA = V1I1 x 10-3 = E1I1 x 10-3
= 4.44 φm f T1 x I1 x 10-3 …(1)

www.BrainKart.com
 Click Here for Design of Electrical Machines full study material.

Note : Since there are two windows, it is sufficient to design one of the two windows as both
the windows are symmetrical. Since the LV and HV windings are placed on the central leg, each
window accommodates T1 and T2 turns of both primary and secondary windings.
Area of copper in the window

Therefore ----------------------- (2)

After substituting (2) in (1),

Three phase core type transformer

Rating of the transformer in kVA = V1I1 x 10-3 = E1I1 x 10-3 = 3 x 4.44 φm f T1 x I1 x 10-3…(1)

Note: Since there are two windows, it is sufficient to design one of the two windows, as both the
windows are symmetrical. Since each leg carries the LV &HV windings of one phase, each window carry
the LV & HV windings of two phases
Since each window carries the windings of two phases, area of copper in the window, say due to R &
Y phases

Therefore -------------------------- (2)

After substituting (2) in (1)

www.BrainKart.com
 Click Here for Design of Electrical Machines full study material.

Window space factor Kw

Window space factor is defined as the ratio of copper area in the window to the area of the
window. That is

For a given window area, as the voltage rating of the transformer increases, quantity of
insulation in the window increases, area of copper reduces. Thus the window space factor reduces as
the voltage increases. A value for Kw can be calculated by the following empirical formula.
Overall dimensions
The main dimensions of the transformer are
(i) Height of window(Hw)
(ii) Width of the window(Ww)
The other important dimensions of the transformer are
(i) width of largest stamping(a)
(ii) diameter of circumscribing circle
As the iron area of the leg Ai and the window area Aw = (height of the window Hw x Width of the
window Ww) increases the size of the transformer also increases. The size of the transformer increases as
the output of the transformer increases.

1. Output-kVA
2. Voltage-V1/V2 with or without tap changers and tapings
3. Frequency-f Hz
4. Number of phases – One or three
5. Rating – Continuous or short time
6. Cooling – Natural or forced
7. Type – Core or shell, power or distribution

www.BrainKart.com
 Click Here for Design of Electrical Machines full study material.

8. Type of winding connection in case of 3 phase transformers – star-star, star-delta, delta-delta,

delta-star with or without grounded neutral
9. Efficiency, per unit impedance, location (i.e., indoor, pole or platform mounting etc.),
temperature rise etc.,
Operating characteristics
Regulation

No load current
The phasor sum of the magnetizing current (Im) and the loss component of current (Il) ; Im is
calculated using the MMF/m required for the core and yoke and their respective length of flux path. Il is
determined using the iron loss curve of the material used for the core and yoke and the flux density
employed and their weight.
The no-load current I0 is the vectorial sum of the magnetizing current Im and core loss or working
component current Ic. [Function of Im is to produce flux φm in the magnetic circuit and the function of
Ic is to satisfy the no load losses of the transformer]. Thus,

Transformer under no-load condition Vector diagram of Transformer under no-

load condition
No load input to the transformer = V1I0Cosφ0 = V1Ic = No load losses as the output is zero and
input = output + losses.
Temperature rise in Transformers
Losses dissipated in transformers in the core and windings get converted into thermal energy and
cause heating of the corresponding transformer parts. The heat dissipation occurs as follows: i) from the
internal heated parts to the outer surface in contact with oil by conduction ii) from oil to the

www.BrainKart.com
 Click Here for Design of Electrical Machines full study material.

tank walls by convection and iii) from the walls of the tank to the atmosphere by radiation and
convection.
Q = Power loss(heat produced ), J/s or W
G = weight of the active material of the Machine, kg h
= specific heat, J/kg-◦C
S = cooling surface area, m2
Z = specific heat dissipation, W/ m2 -◦C
c = 1/ Z = cooling coefficient, m2 -◦C / W
0m = final steady temperature rise,◦C
The temperature of the machine rises when it is supplying load. As the temperature rises, the
heat is dissipated partly by conduction, partly by radiation and in most cases largely by air cooling.
The temperature rise curve is exponential in nature. Assuming the theory of heating of homogeneous
bodies ,
Heat developed = heat stored + heat dissipated
Design of Tank
Because of the losses in the transformer core and coil, the temperature of the core and coil
increases. In small capacity transformers the surrounding air will be in a position to cool the
transformer effectively and keeps the temperature rise well with in the permissible limits. As the
capacity of the transformer increases, the losses and the temperature rise increases. In order to keep
the temperature rise with in limits, air may have to be blown over the transformer. This is not
advisable as the atmospheric air containing moisture, oil particles etc., may affect the insulation. To
overcome the problem of atmospheric hazards, the transformer is placed in a steel tank filled with
oil. The oil conducts the heat from core and coil to the tank walls. From the tank walls the heat goes
dissipated to surrounding atmosphere due to radiation and convection. Further as the capacity of the
transformer increases, the increased loss demands a higher dissipating area of the tank or a bigger
sized tank. These calls for more space, more volume of oil and increases the cost and transportation
problems. To overcome these difficulties, the dissipating area is to be increased by artificial means
without increasing the size of the tank. The dissipating area can be increased by
1. fitting fins to the tank walls
2. fitting tubes to the tank and
3. using corrugated tank
4. using auxiliary radiator tanks

www.BrainKart.com
 Click Here for Design of Electrical Machines full study material.

Since the fins are not effective in dissipating heat and corrugated tank involves constructional
difficulties, they are not much used now a days. The tanks with tubes are much used in practice.
Tubes in more number of rows are to be avoided as the screening of the tank and tube surfaces
decreases the dissipation. Hence, when more number of tubes are to be provided, a radiator attached
with the tank is considered. For much larger sizes forced cooling is adopted.
Dimensions of the Tank
The dimensions of tank depends on the type and capacity of transformer, voltage rating and
electrical clearance to be provided between the transformer and tank, clearance to accommodate the
connections and taps, clearance for base and oil above the transformer etc.,. These clearances can
assumed to be between
(30 and 60) cm in respect of tank height
(10 and 20) cm in respect of tank length and
(10 and 20) cm in respect of tank width or breadth.

Tank height Ht = [ Hw + 2Hy or 2a + clearance (30 to 60) cm ] for single and three phase
core, and single phase shell type transformers.
= [3(Hw + 2Hy or 2a) + clearance (30 to 60) cm ] for a three phase shell type transformer.
Tank length Lt = [ D + Dext + clearance (10 to 20) cm ] for single phase core type
transformer = [ 2D + Dext + clearance (10 to 20) cm ] for three phase core type transformer = [ 4a
+ 2Ww + clearance (10 to 20) cm ] for single and three phase shell type transformer.

www.BrainKart.com
 Click Here for Design of Electrical Machines full study material.

Width or breadth of tank Wt = [ Dext + clearance (10 to 20) cm ] for all types of transformers
with a circular coil.
= [ b + Ww + clearance (10 to 20) cm ] for single and three phase core type transformers
having rectangular coils.
= [ b + 2Ww + clearance (10 to 20) cm ] for single and three phase shell type transformers.
When the tank is placed on the ground, there will not be any heat dissipation from the bottom
surface of the tank. Since the oil is not filled up to the brim of the tank, heat transfer from the oil to
the top of the tank is less and heat dissipation from the top surface of the tank is almost negligible.
Hence the effective surface area of the tank St from which heat is getting dissipated can assumed to
be 2Ht (Lt + Wt) m2.
Heat goes dissipated to the atmosphere from tank by radiation and convection. It has been
found by experiment that 6.0W goes radiated per m2 of plain surface per degree centigrade difference
between tank and ambient air temperature and 6.5W goes dissipated by convection / m2 of plain
surface / degree centigrade difference in temperature between tank wall and ambient air.
Thus a total of 12.5W/m2/0C goes dissipated to the surrounding. If is the temperature rise, then at
final steady temperature condition, losses responsible for temperature rise is losses dissipated or
transformer losses = 12.5 St .
Number and dimensions of tubes
If the temperature rise of the tank wall is beyond a permissible value of about 500C, then
cooling tubes are to be added to reduce the temperature rise. Tubes can be arranged on all the sides in
one or more number of rows. As number of rows increases, the dissipation will not proportionally
increase. Hence the number of rows of tubes are to be limited. Generally the number of rows in
practice will be less than four.
With the tubes connected to the tank, dissipation due to radiation from a part of the tank
surface screened by the tubes is zero. However if the radiating surface of the tube, dissipating the
heat is assumed to be equal to the screened surface of the tank, then tubes can assumed to be
radiating no heat. Thus the full tank surface can assumed to be dissipating the heat due to both
radiation and convection & can be taken as 12.5 St watts.
Because the oil when get heated up moves up and cold oil down, circulation of oil in the
tubes will be more. Obviously, this circulation of oil increases the heat dissipation. Because of this
siphoning action, it has been found that the convection from the tubes increase by about 35 to 40%.

www.BrainKart.com
 Click Here for Design of Electrical Machines full study material.

Thus if the improvement is by 35%, then the dissipation in watts from all the tubes of area A t =
1.35 x 6.5At = 8.78 At .
Thus in case of a tank with tubes, at final steady temperature rise condition,
Losses = 12.5 St + 8.78 At
Round, rectangular or elliptical shaped tubes can be used. The mean length or height of the
tubes is generally taken as about 90% of tank height.
In case of round tubes, 5 cm diameter tubes spaced at about 7.5cm (from centre to centre) are
used. If dt is the diameter of the tube, then dissipating area of each tube at = pdt x 0.9H t. if nt is the
number of tubes, then At = atnt.
Now a days rectangular tubes of different size spaced at convenient distances are being much
used, as it provides a greater cooling surface for a smaller volume of oil. This is true in case of
elliptical tubes also. The tubes can be arranged in any convenient way ensuring mechanical strength
and aesthetic view.

Different ways of tube arrangement (rectangular)

Methods of cooling of Transformers.
1. Air natural
2. Air blast
3. Oil natural
4. Oil natural – air forced
5. Oil natural water forced
6. Forced circulation of oil
7. Oil forced – air natural
8. Oil forced – air forced
9. Oil forced – water forced

www.BrainKart.com
 Click Here for Design of Electrical Machines full study material.

• A set of insulated electrical windings, which are placed inside the slots of the laminated
stator. The cross-sectional area of these windings must be large enough for the power rating of the
motor. For a 3-phase motor, 3 sets of windings are required, one for each
phase connected in either star or delta. Fig 1 shows the cross sectional view of an induction
motor. Details of construction of stator are shown in Figs

Fig 1: Stator and rotor laminations

The rotor
Rotor is the rotating part of the induction motor. The rotor also consists of a set of slotted
silicon steel laminations pressed together to form of a cylindrical magnetic circuit and the electrical
circuit. The electrical circuit of the rotor is of the following nature
Squirrel cage rotor consists of a set of copper or aluminum bars installed into the slots, which
are connected to an end-ring at each end of the rotor. The construction of this type of rotor along with
windings resembles a ‘squirrel cage’. Aluminum rotor bars are usually die-cast into the rotor slots,
which results in a very rugged construction. Even though the aluminum rotor bars are in direct
contact with the steel laminations, practically all the rotor current flows through the aluminum bars
and not in the lamination
Wound rotor consists of three sets of insulated windings with connections brought out to
three slip rings mounted on one end of the shaft. The external connections to the rotor are made
through brushes onto the slip rings as shown in fig 7. Due to the presence of slip rings such type of
motors are called slip ring motors. Sectional view of the full induction motor is shown in Fig. 8
Some more parts, which are required to complete the constructional details of an induction
motor, are:

www.BrainKart.com
 Click Here for Design of Electrical Machines full study material.

• Two end-flanges to support the two bearings, one at the driving-end and the other at the
non driving-end, where the driving end will have the shaft extension.
• Two sets of bearings to support the rotating shaft,
• Steel shaft for transmitting the mechanical power to the load
• Cooling fan located at the non driving end to provide forced cooling for the stator and
rotor
• Terminal box on top of the yoke or on side to receive the external electrical connections
Figure 2 to show the constructional details of the different parts of induction motor.

Fig. 2 Stator laminations Fig. 3 stator core with smooth yoke

Fig.4 Stator with ribbed yoke Fig 5. Squirrel cage rotor

www.BrainKart.com
 Click Here for Design of Electrical Machines full study material.

Fig. 6. Slip ring rotor Fig 7. Connection to slip rings

Fig. 8 Cut sectional view of the induction motor.

Introduction to Design
The main purpose of designing an induction motor is to obtain the complete physical
dimensions of all the parts of the machine as mentioned below to satisfy the customer specifications.
The following design details are required.
1. The main dimensions of the stator. 2
Details of stator windings.
3. Design details of rotor and its windings
4. Performance characteristics.
In order to get the above design details the designer needs the customer specifications
Rated output power, rated voltage, number of phases, speed, frequency, connection of
stator winding, type of rotor winding, working conditions, shaft extension details etc.
In addition to the above the designer must have the details regarding design equations based
on which the design procedure is initiated, information regarding the various choice of

www.BrainKart.com
 Click Here for Design of Electrical Machines full study material.

various parameters, information regarding the availability of different materials and the limiting
values of various performance parameters such as iron and copper losses, no load current, power
factor, temperature rise and efficiency
Output equation of Induction motor
output equation is the mathematical expression which gives the relation between the
various physical and electrical parameters of the electrical machine.
In an induction motor the out put equation can be obtained as follows
Consider an ‘m’ phase machine, with usual notations
Out put Q in kW = Input x efficiency
Input to motor = mVph Iph cos Φ x 10-3 kW For a 3 Φ machine m = 3
Input to motor = 3Vph Iph cos Φ x 10-3 kW Assuming
Vph = Eph, Vph = Eph = 4.44 f Φ TphKw
= 2.22 f ΦZphKw
f = PNS/120 = Pns/2,
Output = 3 x 2.22 x Pns/2 x ΦZphKw Iph y cos Φ x 10-3 kW
Output = 1.11 x PΦ x 3Iph Zph x ns Kw y cos Φ x 10-3kW PΦ
= BavπDL, and 3Iph Zph/ πD = q
Output to motor = 1.11 x BavπDL x πDq x ns Kw y cos Φ x 10-3 kW
Q = (1.11 π2 Bav q Kw y cos Φ x 10-3) D2L ns kW Q
= (11 Bav q Kw y cos Φ x 10-3) D2L ns kW
Therefore Output Q = Co D2L ns kW
where Co = (11 Bav q Kw y cos Φ x 10-3)
Vph = phase voltage ; Iph = phase current Zph
= no of conductors/phase
Tph = no of turns/phase
Ns = Synchronous speed in rpm
ns = synchronous speed in rps
p = no of poles,
q = Specific electric loading
Φ = air gap flux/pole;
Bav = Average flux density kw
= winding factor

www.BrainKart.com
 Click Here for Design of Electrical Machines full study material.

y = efficiency
cosΦ= power factor
D = Diameter of the stator, L
= Gross core length
Co = Output coefficient
Main dimensions

Fig.9 shows the details of main dimensions of the of an induction motor.

Length of air gap
Magnetizing current and power factor being very important parameters in deciding the performance
of induction motors, the induction motors are designed for optimum value of air gap or minimum air gap
possible. Hence in designing the length of the air gap following empirical formula is employed.
Air gap length lg = 0.2 + 2 mm

Rules for selecting rotor slots of squirrel cage machines

Number of stator slots should not be equal to rotor slots satisfactory results are obtained when
Sr is 15 to 30% larger or smaller than Ss.
The difference (Ss - Sr) should not be equal to + or - p, + or – 2p or + or – 5 p to avoid
synchronous cusps.
The difference (Ss - Sr) should not be equal to + or - 1, + or – 2 , + or – (p+1) or + or – (p+2) to
avoid noise and vibrations.

Ex. 1. Obtain the following design information for the stator of a 30 kW, 440 V, 3 , 6 pole, 50 Hz
delta connected, squirrel cage induction motor, (i) Main dimension of the stator, (ii) No. of turns/phase
(iii) No. of stator slots, (iv) No. of conductors per slot. Assume suitable values for the missing design data.

www.BrainKart.com
 Click Here for Design of Electrical Machines full study material.

Ex. 2 A 15 kW 440m volts 4 pole, 50 Hz, 3 phase induction motor is built with a stator bore of
0.25m and a core length of 0.16 m. The specific electric loading is 23000 ac/m. Using data of this machine
determine the core dimensions, number of slots and number of stator conductors for a 11kW, 460 volts,6
pole, 50 Hz motor. Assume full load efficiency of 84 % and power factor of 0.82. The winding factor is
0.955.
Ex. 3 Determine main dimensions, turns/phase, number of slots, conductor size and area of slot of
250 HP, 3 phase, 50 Hz, 400 volts, 1410 rpm, slip ring induction motor. Assume Bav = 0.5wb/m2, q =
30000 ac/m, efficiency = 90 % and power factor = 0.9, winding factor = 0.955, current density =3.5 a/mm2,
slot space factor = 0.4 and the ratio of core length to pole pitch is 1.2. the machine is delta connected. (July
2007)
Ex. 4. During the preliminary design of a 270 kW, 3600 volts, 3 phase, 8 pole 50 Hz slip ring
induction motor the following design data have been obtained. Gross length of the stator core = 0.38 m,
Internal diameter of the stator = 0.67 m, outer diameter of the stator = 0.86 m, No. of stator slots = 96, No. of
conductors /slot = 12, Based on the above information determine the following design data for the motor. (i)
Flux per pole (ii) Gap density (iii) Conductor size (iv) size of the slot (v) copper losses (vi) flux density in
stator teeth (vii) flux density in stator core.
Design of rotor bars & slots
There are two types of rotor construction. One is the squirrel cage rotor and the other is the slip ring
rotor. Most of the induction motor are squirrel cage type. These are having the advantage of rugged and
simple in construction and comparatively cheaper. However they have the disadvantage of lower starting
torque. In this type, the rotor consists of bars of copper or aluminum accommodated in rotor slots. In case
slip ring induction motors the rotor complex in construction and costlier with the advantage that they have
the better starting torque. This type of rotor consists of star connected distributed three phase windings.
Between stator and rotor is the air gap which is a very critical part. The performance parameters of the motor
like magnetizing current, power factor, over load capacity, cooling and noise are affected by length of the air
gap. Hence length of the air gap is selected considering the advantages and disadvantages of larger air gap
length.
Advantages:
(i) Increased overload capacity
(ii) Increased cooling
(iii) Reduced unbalanced magnetic pull
(iv) Reduced in tooth pulsation

www.BrainKart.com
 Click Here for Design of Electrical Machines full study material.

(v) Reduced noise

Disadvantages
(i) Increased Magnetising current
(ii) Reduced power factor

Slip ring rotor Squrrel cage rotor

Number of slots: Proper numbers of rotor slots are to be selected in relation to number of stator slots
otherwise undesirable effects will be found at the starting of the motor. Cogging and Crawling are the two
phenomena which are observed due to wrong combination of number of rotor and stator slots. In addition,
induction motor may develop unpredictable hooks and cusps in torque speed characteristics or the motor
may run with lot of noise. Let us discuss Cogging and Crawling phenomena in induction motors.
Crawling: The rotating magnetic field produced in the air gap of the will be usually nonsinusoidal and
generally contains odd harmonics of the order 3rd, 5th and 7th. The third harmonic flux will produce the
three times the magnetic poles compared to that of the fundamental. Similarly the 5th and 7th harmonics will
produce the poles five and seven times the fundamental respectively. The presence of harmonics in the flux
wave affects the torque speed characteristics. The Fig. below shows the effect of 7th harmonics on the
torque speed characteristics of three phase induction motor. The motor with presence of 7th harmonics is to
have a tendency to run the motor at one seventh of its normal speed. The 7th harmonics will produce

www.BrainKart.com
 Click Here for Design of Electrical Machines full study material.

a dip in torque speed characteristics at one seventh of its normal speed as shown in torque speed
characteristics.
Cogging: In some cases where in the number of rotor slots are not proper in relation to number of stator
slots the machine refuses to run and remains stationary. Under such conditions there will be a locking
tendency between the rotor and stator. Such a phenomenon is called cogging. Hence in order to avoid such
bad effects a proper number of rotor slots are to be selected in relation to number of stator slots. In addition
rotor slots will be skewed by one slot pitch to minimize the tendency of cogging, torque defects like
synchronous hooks and cusps and noisy operation while running. Effect of skewing will slightly increase the
rotor resistance and increases the starting torque. However this will increase the leakage reactance and hence
reduces the starting current and power factor.

Selection of number of rotor slots: The number of rotor slots may be selected using the following
guide lines.
(i) To avoid cogging and crawling: (a)Ss Sr (b) Ss - Sr ±3P
(ii) To avoid synchronous hooks and cusps in torque speed characteristics ±P, ±2P, ±5P.
(iii) To noisy operation Ss - Sr ±1, ±2, (±P ±1), (±P ±2)
Rotor Bar Current: Bar current in the rotor of a squirrel cage induction motor may be determined by
comparing the mmf developed in rotor and stator. Hence the current per rotor bar is given by Ib = ( Kws x Ss
x Z's ) x I'r / ( Kwr x Sr x Z'r ) ;
where Kws – winding factor for the stator,
Ss – number of stator slots,
Z's – number of conductors / stator slots,
Kwr – winding factor for the rotor,
Sr – number of rotor slots,

www.BrainKart.com
 Click Here for Design of Electrical Machines full study material.

Z'r – number of conductors / rotor slots and

I'r – equivalent rotor current in terms of stator current and is given by
I'r = 0.85 Is where is stator current per phase.
Cross sectional area of Rotor bar:
Sectional area of the rotor conductor can be calculated by rotor bar current and assumed value of
current density for rotor bars. As cooling conditions are better for the rotor than the stator higher current
density can be assumed. Higher current density will lead to reduced sectional area and hence increased
resistance, rotor cu losses and reduced efficiency. With increased rotor resistance starting torque will
increase. As a guide line the rotor bar current density can be assumed between 4 to 7 Amp/mm2 or may be
selected from design data Hand Book.
Hence sectional area of the rotor bars can be calculated as Ab = Ib / b mm2. Once the cross sectional
area is known the size of the conductor may be selected form standard table given in data hand book.
Shape and Size of the Rotor slots: Generally semiclosed slots or closed slots with very small or narrow
openings are employed for the rotor slots. In case of fully closed slots the rotor bars are force fit into the
slots from the sides of the rotor. The rotors with closed slots are giving better performance to the motor in
the following way.
(i) As the rotor is closed the rotor surface is smooth at the air gap and hence the motor draws
lower magnetizing current.
(i) reduced noise as the air gap characteristics are better
(ii) increased leakage reactance and
(iv) reduced starting current.
(v) Over load capacity is reduced
(vi) Undesirable and complex air gap characteristics. From the above it can be concluded that
semiclosed slots are more suitable and hence are employed in rotors
Copper loss in rotor bars:
Knowing the length of the rotor bars and resistance of the rotor bars cu losses in the rotor bars can be
calculated. Length of rotor bar lb = L + allowance for skewing
Rotor bar resistance = 0.021 x lb / Ab
Copper loss in rotor bars = Ib x rb x number of rotor bars.
End Ring Current:

www.BrainKart.com
 Click Here for Design of Electrical Machines full study material.

All the rotor bars are short circuited by connecting them to the end rings at both the end rings. The
rotating magnetic field produced will induce an emf in the rotor bars which will be sinusoidal over one pole
pitch. As the rotor is a short circuited body, there will be current flow because of this EMF induced. The
distribution of current and end rings are as shown in Fig. below. Referring to the figure considering the bars
under one pole pitch, half of the number of bars and the end ring carry the current in one direction and the
other half in the opposite direction. Thus the maximum end ring current may be taken as the sum of the
average current in half of the number of bars under one pole.

Maximum end ring current Ie(max) = ½ ( Number rotor bars / pole) Ib(av)
= ½ x Sr/P x Ib/1.11

Hence rms value of Ie = 1/2 x Sr/P x Ib/1.11

= 1/ x Sr/P x Ib/1.11
Area of end ring:
Knowing the end ring current and assuming suitable value for the current density in the end rings
cross section for the end ring can be calculated as
Area of each end ring Ae = Ie / e mm2, current density in the end ring may be assume as 4.5 to 7.5
amp/mm2.
Copper loss in End Rings:

www.BrainKart.com
 Click Here for Design of Electrical Machines full study material.

Mean diameter of the end ring (Dme) is assumed as 4 to 6 cms less than that of the rotor. Mean
length of the current path in end ring can be calculated as lme = Dme. The resistance of the end ring can be
calculated as re = 0.021 x lme / Ae
Total copper loss in end rings = 2 x Ie 2 x re
Equivalent Rotor Resistance:
Knowing the total copper losses in the rotor circuit and the
equivalent rotor current equivalent rotor resistance can be calculated as follows.
Equivalent rotor resistance r'
r = Total rotor copper loss / 3 x (Ir' )2
Design of wound Rotor:
These are the types of induction motors where in rotor also carries distributed star connected 3 phase
winding. At one end of the rotor there are three slip rings mounted on the shaft. Three ends of the winding
are connected to the slip rings. External resistances can be connected to these slip rings at starting, which
will be inserted in series with the windings which will help in increasing the torque at starting. Such type of
induction motors are employed where high starting torque is required.
Number of rotor slots:
As mentioned earlier the number of rotor slots should never be equal to number of stator slots.
Generally for wound rotor motors a suitable value is assumed for number of rotor slots per pole per phase,
and then total number of rotor slots are calculated. So selected number of slots should be such that tooth
width must satisfy the flux density limitation. Semiclosed slots are used for rotor slots.
Number of rotor Turns: Number of rotor turns are decided based on the safety consideration of the
personal working with the induction motors. The volatge between the slip rings on open circuit must be
limited to safety values. In general the voltage between the slip rings for low and medium voltage machines
must be limited to 400 volts. For motors with higher voltage ratings and large size motors this voltage must
be limited to 1000 volts. Based on the assumed voltage between the slip rings comparing the induced
voltage ratio in stator and rotor the number of turns on rotor winding can be calculated.
Voltage ratio Er/ Es = (Kwr x Tr) / (Kws x Ts )
Hence rotor turns per phase Tr = (Er/Es) (Kws/Kwr) Ts
Er = open circuit rotor voltage/phase
Es = stator voltage /phase
Kws = winding factor for stator
Kwr = winding factor for rotor

www.BrainKart.com
 Click Here for Design of Electrical Machines full study material.

Ts = Number of stator turns/phase

Rotor Current
Rotor current can be calculated by comparing the amp-cond on stator and rotor Ir
= (Kws x Ss x Z's ) x I'r / ( Kwr x Sr x Z'r ) ;
Kws – winding factor for the stator,
Ss – number of stator slots,
Z's – number of conductors / stator slots,
Kwr – winding factor for the rotor,
Sr – number of rotor slots,
Z'r – number of conductors / rotor slots and
I'r – equivalent rotor current in terms of stator current
I'r = 0.85 Is where Is is stator current per phase.
Area of Rotor Conductor: Area of rotor conductor can be calculated based on the assumed value for the
current density in rotor conductor and calculated rotor current. Current density rotor conductor can be
assumed between 4 to 6 Amp/mm2
Ar = Ir / r mm2
Ar < 5mm2 use circular conductor, else rectangular conductor, for rectangular conductor width to
thickness ratio = 2.5 to 4. Then the standard conductor size can be selected similar to that of stator
conductor.
Size of Rotor slot:
Mostly Semi closed rectangular slots employed for the rotors. Based on conductor size, number
conductors per slot and arrangement of conductors similar to that of stator, dimension of rotor slots can be
estimated. Size of the slot must be such that the ratio of depth to width of slot must be between 3 and 4.
Total copper loss:
Length of the mean Turn can be calculated from the empirical formula lmt = 2L + 2.3 p + 0.08m
Resistance of rotor winding is given by Rr = (0.021 x lmt x Tr ) / Ar
Total copper loss = 3 Ir2 Rr Watts
Flux density in rotor tooth: It is required that the dimension of the slot is alright from the flux density
consideration. Flux density has to be calculated at 1/3rd height from the root of the teeth. This flux density
has to be limited to 1.8 Tesla. If not the width of the tooth has to be increased and width of the slot has to be
reduced such that the above flux density limitation is satisfied. The flux density in rotor can be calculated by
as shown below.

www.BrainKart.com
 Click Here for Design of Electrical Machines full study material.

Diameter at 1/3rd height Dr' = D - 2/3 x htr x 2

Slot pitch at 1/3rd height = 'r = x Dr' /Sr
Tooth width at this section = b'tr = 'sr – bsr Area
of one rotor tooth = a'tr = b'tr x li
Iron length of the rotor li = (L- wd x nd)ki, ki = iron space factor
Area of all the rotor tooth / pole A'tr = b't x li x Sr /P
Mean flux density in rotor teeth B'tr = / A'tr Maximum
flux density in the rotor teeth < 1.5 times B'tr
Depth of stator core below the slots:
Below rotor slots there is certain solid portion which is called depth of the core below slots. This
depth is calculated based on the flux density and flux in the rotor core. Flux density in the rotor core can be
assumed to be between 1.2 to 1.4 Tesla. Then depth of the core can be found as follows.
Flux in the rotor core section c=½
Area of stator core Acr = /2Bcr Area
of stator core Acr = Li x dcr
Hence, depth of the core dcr = Acr / Li
Inner diameter of the rotor can be calculated as follows
Inner diameter of rotor = D - 2lg - 2htr – 2 dcr
PROBLEMS:
EX.1. During the stator design of a 3 phase, 30 kW, 400volts, 6 pole, 50Hz,squirrel cage induction motor
following data has been obtained. Gross length of the stator = 0.17 m, Internal diameter of stator =
0.33 m, Number of stator slots = 45, Number of conductors per slot = 12. Based on the above design
data design a suitable rotor.
EX.2. A 3 phase 3000 volts 260 kW, 50 Hz, 10 pole squirrel cage induction motor gave the following results
during preliminary design. Internal diameter of the stator = 75 cm, Gross length of the stator = 35 cm,
Number of stator slots = 120, Number of conductor per slot =10. Based on the above data calculate the
following for the squirrel cage rotor. (i) Total losses in rotor bars, (ii) Losses in end rings,
(iii) Equivalent resistance of the rotor.
EX.3. A 3 phase 200 kW, 3.3 kV, 50 Hz, 4 pole induction motor has the following dimensions. Internal
diameter of the stator = 56.2 cm, outside diameter of the stator = 83cm, length of the stator = 30.5 cm,
Number of stator slots = 60, width of stator slot = 1.47 cm, depth of stator slot = 4.3 cm, radial gap =
cm, number of rotor slots = 72, depth of rotor slot 3.55 cm, width of rotor slots = 0.95 cm.

www.BrainKart.com
 Click Here for Design of Electrical Machines full study material.

Assuming air gap flux density to be 0.5 Tesla, calculate the flux density in (i) Stator teeth (ii) Rotor
teeth (iii) stator core.
EX.4. Following design data have been obtained during the preliminary design of a 3 phase, 850 kW, 6.6
kV, 50 Hz, 12 pole slip ring induction motor. Gross length of stator core = 45 cm, internal diameter of
the stator core = 122 cm, number of stator slots = 144, Number of conductors per slot = 10. For the
above stator data design a wound rotor for the motor.
Magnetic leakage calculations

Leakage factor or Leakage coefficient LC.

All the flux produced by the pole will not pass through the desired path i.e., air gap. Some of the
flux produced by the pole will be leaking away from the air gap. The flux that passes through the air gap and
cut by the armature conductors is the useful flux and that flux that leaks away from the desired path is the
leakage flux

where LC is the Leakage factor or Leakage coefficient and lies between (1.15 to 1.25).
Magnitude of flux in different parts of the magnetic circuit
Leakage reactance of polyphase machines
Leakage reactance = 2πf x inductance = 2πf x Flux linkage / current
Note:
1. Useful flux: It is the flux that links with both primary and secondary windings and is responsible
in transferring the energy Electro-magnetically from primary to secondary side. The path of the
useful flux is in the magnetic core.
2. Leakage flux: It is the flux that links only with the primary or secondary winding and is responsible
in imparting inductance to the windings. The path of the leakage flux depends on the geometrical
configuration of the coils and the neighboring iron masses.
Magnetizing current
Effect of magnetizing current and its effect on the power factor can be understood from the
phasor diagram of the induction motor shown in Fig.

www.BrainKart.com
 Click Here for Design of Electrical Machines full study material.

Phasor diagram of induction motor

Magnetizing current and power factor being very important parameters in deciding the performance of
induction motors, the induction motors are designed for optimum value of air gap or minimum air gap
possible. Hence in designing the length of the air gap following empirical formula is employed.

Air gap length lg = 0.2 + 2 mm

Short circuit current

www.BrainKart.com
 Click Here for Design of Electrical Machines full study material.

Circle diagram

Both of the layers of the voltage phasor diagram have to be circled twice in order to number all the
phasors.
Operating characteristics.
Now, the equivalent circuit of an asynchronous motor per phase, the quantities of which are
calculated in the machine design, is worth recollecting. Figure 7.12 illustrates a single-phase equivalent
circuit of an ordinary induction motor per phase, a simplified equivalent circuit anda phasor diagram.

www.BrainKart.com
 Click Here for Design of Electrical Machines full study material.

UNIT V SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Output equations – choice of loadings – Design of salient pole machines – Short circuit ratio – shape
of pole face – Armature design – Armature parameters – Estimation of air gap length – Design of rotor –
Design of damper winding – Determination of full load field mmf – Design of field winding – Design of
turbo alternators – Rotor design.
Introduction
Synchronous machines are AC machines that have a field circuit supplied by an external DC
source. Synchronous machines are having two major parts namely stationary part stator and a rotating field
system called rotor. In a synchronous generator, a DC current is applied to the rotor winding producing a
rotor magnetic field. The rotor is then driven by external means producing a rotating magnetic field, which
induces a 3-phase voltage within the stator winding. Field windings are the windings producing the main
magnetic field (rotor windings for synchronous machines); armature windings are the windings where the
main voltage is induced (stator windings for synchronous machines).
Types of synchronous machines
1. Hydrogenerators : The generators which are driven by hydraulic turbines are called
hydrogenerators. These are run at lower speeds less than 1000 rpm.
2. Turbogenerators: These are the generators driven by steam turbines. These generators are run at
very high speed of 1500rpm or above.
3. Engine driven Generators: These are driven by IC engines. These are run at aspeed less than 1500
rpm. Hence the prime movers for the synchronous generators are Hydraulic turbines, Steam turbines
or IC engines
Hydraulic Turbines: Pelton wheel Turbines: Water head 400 m and above Francis
turbines: Water heads up to 380 m
Keplan Turbines: Water heads up to 50 m
Steam turbines: The synchronous generators run by steam turbines are called turbogenerators or turbo
alternators. Steam turbines are to be run at very high speed to get higher efficiency and hence these types of
generators are run at higher speeds.
Diesel Engines: IC engines are used as prime movers for very small rated generators.
Construction of synchronous machines
Salient pole Machines: These type of machines have salient pole or projecting poles with
concentrated field windings. This type of construction is for the machines which are driven by
hydraulic turbines or Diesel engines.

www.BrainKart.com
 Click Here for Design of Electrical Machines full study material.

Nonsalient pole or Cylindrical rotor or Round rotor Machines: These machines are having
cylindrical smooth rotor construction with distributed field winding in slots. This type of rotor
construction is employed for the machine driven by steam turbines.
Construction of Hydro-generators: These types of machines are constructed based on the water head
available and hence these machines are low speed machines. These machines are constructed based
on the mechanical consideration. For the given frequency the low speed demands large number of
poles and consequently large
diameter. The machine should be so connected such that it permits the machine to be transported to
the site. It is a normal to practice to design the rotor to withstand the centrifugal force and stress
produced at twice the normal operating speed.
Stator core:
The stator is the outer stationary part of the machine, which consists of the outer cylindrical frame
called yoke, which is made either of welded sheet steel, cast iron.
The magnetic path, which comprises a set of slotted steel laminations called stator core pressed into
the cylindrical space inside the outer frame. The magnetic path is laminated to reduce eddy currents,
reducing losses and heating. CRGO laminations of 0.5 mm thickness are used to reduce the iron
losses.
A set of insulated electrical windings are placed inside the slots of the laminated stator. The cross-
sectional area of these windings must be large enough for the power rating of the machine. For a 3-
phase generator, 3 sets of windings are required, one for each phase connected in star. Fig. 1 shows
one stator lamination of a synchronous generator.
In case of generators where the diameter is too large stator lamination can not be punched in on
circular piece. In such cases the laminations are punched in segments. A number of segments are
assembled together to form one circular laminations. All the laminations are insulated from each
other by a thin layer of varnish.

www.BrainKart.com
Click Here for Design of Electrical Machines full study material.

Details of construction of stator are shown in Figs 2 –

Fig. 1. Stator lamination

Fig 2. (a) Stator and (b) rotor of a salient pole alternator

Fig 3. (a) Stator of a salient pole alternator

www.BrainKart.com
 Fig 4. Rotor of a salient pole alternator

Fig 5. (a) Pole body (b) Pole with field coils of a salient pole alternator

www.BrainKart.com
 Fig 6. Slip ring and Brushes

Fig 7. Rotor of a Non salient pole alternator

Fig 8. Rotor of a Non salient pole alternator

www.BrainKart.com
 Rotor of water wheel generator consists of salient poles. Poles are built with thin silicon steel
laminations of 0.5mm to 0.8 mm thickness to reduce eddy current laminations. The laminations are
clamped by heavy end plates and secured by studs or rivets. For low speed rotors poles have the
bolted on construction for the machines with little higher peripheral speed poles have dove tailed
construction as shown in Figs. Generally rectangular or round pole constructions are used for such
type of alternators. However the round poles have the advantages over rectangular poles. Generators
driven by water wheel turbines are of either horizontal or vertical shaft type. Generators with fairly
higher speeds are built with horizontal shaft and the generators with higher power ratings and low
speeds are built with vertical shaft design. Vertical shaft generators are of two types of designs (i)
Umbrella type where in the bearing is mounted below the rotor. (ii) Suspended type where in the
bearing is mounted above the rotor.
Relative dimensions of Turbo and water wheel alternators:
Turbo alternators are normally designed with two poles with a speed of 3000 rpm for a 50 Hz
frequency. Hence peripheral speed is very high. As the diameter is proportional to the peripheral
speed, the diameter of the high speed machines has to be kept low. For a given volume of the
machine when the diameter is kept low the axial length of the machine increases. Hence a turbo
alternator will have small diameter and large axial length.
However in case of water wheel generators the speed will be low and hence number of poles
required will be large. This will indirectly increase the diameter of the machine. Hence for a given
volume of the machine the length of the machine reduces. Hence the water wheel generators will
have large diameter and small axial length in contrast to turbo alternators.
Introduction to Design
Synchronous machines are designed to obtain the following information’s.
(i) Main dimensions of the stator frame.
(ii) Complete details of the stator windings.
(iii) Design details of the rotor and rotor winding.
(iv) Performance details of the machine.
To proceed with the design and arrive at the design information the design engineer needs the
following information.
(i) Specifications of the synchronous machine.
(ii) Information regarding the choice of design parameters.
(iii) Knowledge on the availability of the materials.

www.BrainKart.com
 (iv) Limiting values of performance parameters.
(v) Details of Design equations.
Specifications of the synchronous machine:
Important specifications required to initiate the design procedure are as follows:
Rated output of the machine in kVA or MVA, Rated voltage of the machine in kV, Speed,
frequency, type of the machine generator or motor, Type of rotor salient pole or non salient pole, connection
of stator winding, limit of temperature, details of prime mover etc.
Main Dimensions:
Internal diameter and gross length of the stator forms the main dimensions of the machine. In
order to obtain the main dimensions it is required to develop the relation between the output and the main
dimensions of the machine. This relation is known as the output equation.
Output equations
Output of the 3 phase synchronous generator is given by
Output of the machine Q = 3Vph Iph x 10 -3 kVA
Assuming Induced emf Eph = Vph
Output of the machine Q = 3Eph Iph x 10 -3 kVA
Induced emf Eph = 4.44 f TphKw
= 2.22 f ZphKw
Frequency of generated emf f = PNS/120 = Pns/2,
Air gap flux per pole = Bav DL/p, and Specific electric loading q = 3Iph Zph/ D
Output of the machine Q = 3 x (2.22 x Pns/2 x Bav DL/p x Zphx Kw) Iph x 10 -3 kVA
Output Q = (1.11 x Bav DL x ns x Kw ) (3 x IphZph ) x 10 -3 kVA
Substituting the expressions for Specific electric loadings
Output Q = (1.11 x Bav DL x ns x Kw ) ( D q ) x 10-3 kVA Q
2
= (1.11 D2L Bav q Kw ns x 10 -3) kVA
Q = (11 Bav q Kw x 10-3) D2L ns kVA
Therefore Output Q = Co D2Lns kVA or
D2L = Q/ Cons m3
where Co = (11 Bav q Kw x 10-3)
Vph = phase voltage ; Iph = phase current Eph = induced EMF per phase
Zph = no of conductors/phase in stator
Tph = no of turns/phase

www.BrainKart.com
 Ns = Synchronous speed in rpm
ns = synchronous speed in rps
p = no of poles, q = Specific electric loading
= air gap flux/pole; Bav = Average flux density
kw = winding factor
From the output equation of the machine it can be seen that the volume of the machine is
directly proportional to the output of the machine and inversely proportional to the speed of the machine.
The machines having higher speed will have reduced size and cost. Larger values of specific loadings
smaller will be the size of the machine.
Choice of Specific loadings:
From the output equation it is seen that choice of higher value of specific magnetic and
electric loading leads to reduced cost and size of the machine.
Specific magnetic loading:
Following are the factors which influences the performance of the machine.
(vi) Iron loss: A high value of flux density in the air gap leads to higher value of flux in
the iron parts of the machine which results in increased iron losses and reduced
efficiency.
(vii) Voltage: When the machine is designed for higher voltage space occupied by the
insulation becomes more thus making the teeth smaller and hence higher flux density
in teeth and core.
(viii) Transient short circuit current: A high value of gap density results in decrease in
leakage reactance and hence increased value of armature current under short circuit
conditions.
(ix) Stability: The maximum power output of a machine under steady state condition is
indirectly proportional to synchronous reactance. If higher value of flux density is
used it leads to smaller number of turns per phase in armature winding. This results in
reduced value of leakage reactance and hence increased value of power and hence
increased steady state stability.
(x) Parallel operation: The satisfactory parallel operation of synchronous generators
depends on the synchronizing power. Higher the synchronizing power higher will be
the ability of the machine to operate in synchronism. The synchronizing power is
inversely proportional to the synchronous reactance and hence the machines

www.BrainKart.com
 designed with higher value air gap flux density will have better ability to operate in parallel
with other machines.
Specific Electric Loading:
Following are the some of the factors which influence the choice of specific electric
loadings.
(v) Copper loss: Higher the value of q larger will be the number of armature of
conductors which results in higher copper loss. This will result in higher temperature
rise and reduction in efficiency.
(vi) Voltage: A higher value of q can be used for low voltage machines since the space
required for the insulation will be smaller.
(vii) Synchronous reactance: High value of q leads to higher value of leakage reactance
and armature reaction and hence higher value of synchronous reactance. Such
machines will have poor voltage regulation, lower value of current under short circuit
condition and low value of steady state stability limit and small value of
synchronizing power.
(viii) Stray load losses: With increase of q stray load losses will increase. Values of specific
magnetic and specific electric loading can be selected from Design Data Hand Book
for salient and non salient pole machines.
Separation of D and L: Inner diameter and gross length of the stator can be calculated from
D2L product obtained from the output equation. To separate suitable relations are assumed between D and L
depending upon the type of the generator. Salient pole machines: In case of salient pole machines either
round or rectangular pole construction is employed. In these types of machines the diameter of the machine
will be quite larger than the axial length.
Round Poles: The ratio of pole arc to pole pitch may be assumed varying between 0.6 to 0.7 and pole arc
may be taken as approximately equal to axial length of the stator core. Hence Axial length of the core/ pole
pitch = L/ p = 0.6 to 0.7 Rectangular poles: The ratio of axial length to pole pitch may be assumed varying
between 0.8 to 3 and a suitable value may be assumed based on the design specifications.
Axial length of the core/ pole pitch = L/ p = 0.8 to 3 Using the above relations D and L can
be separated. However once these values are obtained diameter of the machine must satisfy the limiting
value of peripheral speed so that the rotor can withstand centrifugal forces produced. Limiting values of
peripheral speeds are as follows:
Bolted pole construction = 45 m/s

www.BrainKart.com
 Dove tail pole construction = 75 m/s Normal
design = 30 m/s
Design of salient pole machines
These type of machines have salient pole or projecting poles with concentrated field windings. This
type of construction is for the machines which are driven by hydraulic turbines or Diesel engines.
Rotor of water wheel generator consists of salient poles. Poles are built with thin silicon steel
laminations of 0.5mm to 0.8 mm thickness to reduce eddy current laminations. The laminations are
clamped by heavy end plates and secured by studs or rivets. For low speed rotors poles have the bolted
on construction for the machines with little higher peripheral speed poles have dove tailed construction
as shown in Figs. Generally rectangular or round pole constructions are used for such type of
alternators. However the round poles have the advantages over rectangular poles.
In case of salient pole machines either round or rectangular pole construction is employed. In these
types of machines the diameter of the machine will be quite larger than the axial length.
Round Poles: The ratio of pole arc to pole pitch may be assumed varying between 0.6 to 0.7 and
pole arc may be taken as approximately equal to axial length of the stator core. Hence
Axial length of the core/ pole pitch = L/τp = 0.0 to 0.7
Rectangular poles: The ratio of axial length to pole pitch may be assumed varying between 0.8 to 3
and a suitable value may be assumed based on the design specifications.
Axial length of the core/ pole pitch = L/τp = 0.8 to 3
Using the above relations D and L can be separated. However once these values are obtained
diameter of the machine must satisfy the limiting value of peripheral speed so that the rotor can
withstand centrifugal forces produced. Limiting values of peripheral speeds are as follows:
Bolted pole construction = 45 m/s Dove tail pole construction = 75 m/s Normal design = 30 m/s
Short circuit ratio

www.BrainKart.com
www.BrainKart.com
Effect of SCR on Machine performance
1. Voltage regulation
2. Stability
3. Parallel operation
4. Short circuit Current
5. Cost and size of the machine
1. Voltage Regulation

3 Parallel operation: SCR = 1/ Xs, as SCR Xs IXs V Psync

www.BrainKart.com
 5. Size and cost of the machine as SCR Xs Zs Isc and hence cost of control equipment
reduces
For salient pole machines SCR value varies from 0.9 to 1.3
For turbo alternators SCR value varies from 0.7 to 1.1
Length of the air gap:
Length of the air gap is a very important parameter as it greatly affects the performance of the
machine. Air gap in synchronous machine affects the value of SCR and hence it influences many other
parameters. Hence, choice of air gap length is very critical in case of synchronous machines.
Following are the advantages and disadvantages of larger air gap.
Advantages:
(i) Stability: Higher value of stability limit
(ii) Regulation: Smaller value of inherent regulation
(iii) Synchronizing power: Higher value of synchronizing power
(iv) Cooling: Better cooling
(v) Noise: Reduction in noise
(vi) Magnetic pull: Smaller value of unbalanced magnetic pull
Disadvantages:
(i) Field MMF: Larger value of field MMF is required
(ii) Size: Larger diameter and hence larger size
(iii) Magnetic leakage: Increased magnetic leakage
(iv) Weight of copper: Higher weight of copper in the field winding
(v) Cost: Increase overall cost.
Hence length of the air gap must be selected considering the above factors.
shape of pole face
Stator slots: in general two types of stator slots are employed in induction motors viz, open clots and
semiclosed slots. Operating performance of the induction motors depends upon the shape of the slots
and hence it is important to select suitable slot for the stator slots.

www.BrainKart.com
 (i) Open slots: In this type of slots the slot opening will be equal to that of the width of the slots as
shown in Fig. In such type of slots assembly and repair of winding are easy. However such slots will
lead to higher air gap contraction factor and hence poor power factor. Hence these types of slots are
rarely used in 3Φ synchronous motors.
(ii) Semiclosed slots: In such type of slots, slot opening is much smaller than the width of the slot as
shown in Figs. Hence in this type of slots assembly of windings is more difficult and takes more time
compared to open slots and hence it is costlier. However the air gap characteristics are better compared
to open type slots.
(iii) Tapered slots: In this type of slots also, opening will be much smaller than the slot width.
However the slot width will be varying from top of the slot to bottom of the slot with minimum width
at the bottom as shown in Fig

Armature design
Armature windings are rotating-field windings, into which the rotating-field-induced voltage required
in energy conversion is induced. According to IEC 60050-411, the armature winding is a winding in a
synchronous machine, which, in service, receives active power from or delivers active power to the
external electrical system. This definition also applies to a synchronous compensator if the term ‘active
power’ is replaced by ‘reactive power’. The air-gap flux component caused by the armature current
linkage is called the armature reaction.
An armature winding determined under these conditions can transmit power between an electrical
network and a mechanical system. Magnetizing windings create a magnetic field required in the energy
conversion. All machines do not include a separate magnetizing winding; for instance, in asynchronous
machines, the stator winding both magnetizes the machine and acts as a winding, where the operating
voltage is induced. The stator winding of an asynchronous machine is similar to the armature of a
synchronous machine; however, it is not defined as an armature in the IEC standard. In this material, the
asynchronous machine stator is therefore referred to as a rotating-field stator winding, not an armature

www.BrainKart.com
 winding. Voltages are also induced in the rotor of an asynchronous machine, and currents that are
significant in torque production are created. However, the rotor itself takes only a rotor’s dissipation power
(I2R) from the air-gap power of the machine, this power being proportional to the slip;
Armature parameters
1.Number of Slots
2.Turns per phase
3.Single turn bar windings
4.Dimensions
5.Depth
6.Mean length
Estimation of air gap length
Length of the air gap is usually estimated based on the ampere turns required for the air
gap. Armature ampere turns per pole required ATa = 1.35 Tphkw /p
Where Tph = Turns per phase, Iph = Phase current, kw = winding factor, p = pairs of poles
No load field ampere turns per pole ATfo = SCR x Armature ampere turns per pole
ATfo = SCR x ATa
Suitable value of SCR must be assumed.
Ampere turns required for the air gap will be approximately equal to 70 to 75 % of the no
load field ampere turns per pole.
ATg = (0.7 to 0.75) ATfo
Air gap ampere turns ATg = 796000 Bgkglg
Air gap coefficient or air gap contraction factor may be assumed varying from 1.12 to 1.18.
As a guide line, the approximate value of air gap length can be expressed in terms
of pole pitch
For salient pole alternators: lg = (0.012 to 0.016) x pole pitch
For turbo alternators: lg = (0.02 to 0.026) x pole pitch
Synchronous machines are generally designed with larger air gap length compared to
that of Induction motors.
Design of rotor
There are two types of rotor construction. One is the squirrel cage rotor and the other is the slip ring
rotor. Most of the induction motor are squirrel cage type. These are having the advantage of rugged and
simple in construction and comparatively cheaper. However they have the disadvantage of lower starting
torque. In this type, the rotor consists of bars of copper or aluminum accommodated in rotor slots. In case
slip ring induction motors the rotor complex in construction and costlier with the advantage that

www.BrainKart.com
they have the better starting torque. This type of rotor consists of star connected distributed three phase
windings. Between stator and rotor is the air gap which is a very critical part. The performance parameters of
the motor like magnetizing current, power factor, over load capacity, cooling and noise are affected by
length of the air gap. Hence length of the air gap is selected considering the advantages and disadvantages of
larger air gap length.
Advantages:
(i) Increased overload capacity
(ii) Increased cooling
(iii) Reduced unbalanced magnetic pull
(iv) Reduced in tooth pulsation
(v) Reduced noise
Disadvantages
(i) Increased Magnetising current
(ii) Reduced power factor
Design of damper winding
 Damper windings are provided in the pole faces of salient pole alternators. Damper windings
are nothing but the copper or aluminum bars housed in the slots of the pole faces.
 The ends of the damper bars are short circuited at the ends by short circuiting rings similar to
end rings as in the case of squirrel cage rotors.
 These damper windings are serving the function of providing mechanical balance; provide
damping effect, reduce the effect of over voltages and damp out hunting in case of alternators.
 In case of synchronous motors they act as rotor bars and help in self starting of the motor.
Determination of full load field MMF
Full load field mmf can be taken as twice the armature mmf.

Design of field winding

Stator winding is made up of former wound coils of high conductivity copper of diamond
shape. These windings must be properly arranged such that the induced emf in all the phases of the coils
must have the same magnitude and frequency. These emfs must have same wave shape and be displaced by
1200 to each other. Single or double layer windings may be used depending on the requirement. The three
phase windings of the synchronous machines are always connected in star with neutral earthed. Star

www.BrainKart.com
connection of windings eliminates the 3rd harmonics from the line emf. Double layer winding: Stator
windings of alternators are generally double layer lap windings either integral slot or fractional slot
windings. Full pitched or short chorded windings may be employed. Following are the advantages and
disadvantages of double layer windings.
Advantages:
(i) Better waveform: by using short pitched coil
(ii) Saving in copper: Length of the overhang is reduced by using short pitched coils
(iii) Lower cost of coils: saving in copper leads to reduction in cost
(iv) Fractional slot windings: Only in double layer winding, leads to improvement in
waveform
Disadvantages:
(i) Difficulty in repair: difficult to repair lower layer coils
(ii) Difficulty in inserting the last coil: Difficulty in inserting the last coil of the windings
(iii) Higher Insulation: More insulation is required for double layer winding
(iv) Wider slot opening: increased air gap reluctance and noise
Number of Slots:
The number of slots are to be properly selected because the number of slots affect the cost
and performance of the machine. There are no rules for selecting the number of slots. But looking into the
advantages and disadvantages of higher number of slots, suitable number of slots per pole per phase is
selected. However the following points are to be considered for the selection of number of slots.
Advantages:
(i) Reduced leakage reactance
(ii) Better cooling
(iii) Decreased tooth ripples
Disadvantages:
(i) Higher cost
(ii) Teeth becomes mechanically weak
(iii) Higher flux density in teeth
(b) Slot loading must be less than 1500 ac/slot
(c) Slot pitch must be with in the following limitations
(i) Low voltage machines 3.5 cm
(ii) Medium voltage machines up to 6kV 5.5 cm

www.BrainKart.com
 (iv) High voltage machines up to 15 kV 7.5 cm
Considering all the above points number of slots per pole phase for salient pole machines may be
taken as 3 to 4 and for turbo alternators it may be selected as much higher of the order of 7 to 9slots per pole
per phase In case of fractional slot windings number of slots per pole per phase may be selected as fraction
3.5.
Turns per phase:
Turns per phase can be calculated from emf equation of the alternator.
Induced emf Eph = 4.44 f TphKw
Hence turns per phase Tph = Eph / 4.44 f Kw
Eph = induced emf per phase
Zph = no of conductors/phase in stator
Tph = no of turns/phase
kw = winding factor may assumed as 0.955
Conductor cross section: Area of cross section of stator conductors can be estimated from the
stator current per phase and suitably assumed value of current density for the stator windings.
Sectional area of the stator conductor as = Is / s where s is the current density in stator windings Is
is stator current per phase A suitable value of current density has to be assumed considering the
advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages of higher value of current density:
(i) reduction in cross section
(ii) reduction in weight
(iii) reduction in cost
Disadvantages of higher value of current density
(i) increase in resistance
(ii) increase in cu loss
(iii) increase in temperature rise
(iv) reduction in efficiency
Hence higher value is assumed for low voltage machines and small machines. Usual value of
current density for stator windings is 3 to 5 amps/mm2.
Stator coils:
Two types of coils are employed in the stator windings of alternators. They are single turn bar
coils and multi turn coils. Comparisons of the two types of coils are as follows

www.BrainKart.com
 (i) Multi turn coil winding allows greater flexibility in the choice of number of slots than single
turn bar coils.
(ii) Multi turn coils are former wound or machine wound where as the single turn coils are hand
made.
(iii) Bending of top coils is involved in multi turn coils where as such bends are not required in
single turn coils.
(iv) Replacing of multi turn coils difficult compared to single turn coils.
(v) Machine made multi turn coils are cheaper than hand made single turn coils.
(vi) End connection of multi turn coils are easier than soldering of single turn coils.
(vii) Full transposition of the strands of the single turn coils are required to eliminate the eddy
current loss.
(viii) Each turn of the multi turn winding is to be properly insulated thus increasing the amount of
insulation and reducing the space available for the copper in the slot.
From the above discussion it can be concluded that multi turn coils are to be used to reduce
the cost of the machine. In case of large generators where the stator current exceeds 1500 amps single turn
coils are employed.
Single turn bar windings:
The cross section of the conductors is quite large because of larger current. Hence in order to
eliminate the eddy current loss in the conductors, stator conductors are to be stranded. Each slot of the stator
conductor consists of two stranded conductors as shown in Fig .he dimensions of individual strands are
selected based on electrical considerations and the manufacturing requirements. Normally the width of the
strands is assumed between 4 mm to 7 mm. The depth of the strands is limited based on the consideration of
eddy current losses and hence it should not exceed 3mm. The various strand of the bar are transposed in
such a way as to minimize the circulating current loss.

www.BrainKart.com
Multi turn coils:
Multi turn coils are former wound. These coils are made up of insulated high conductivity copper
conductors. Mica paper tape insulations are provided for the portion of coils in the slot and varnished mica
tape or cotton tape insulation is provide on the overhang portion. The thickness of insulation is decided
based on the voltage rating of the machine. Multi turn coils are usually arranged in double layer windings in
slots as shown in Fig.

Dimensions of stator slot:

www.BrainKart.com
 Width of the slot = slot pitch – tooth width
The flux density in the stator tooth should not exceed 1.8 to 2.0 Tesla. In salient pole
alternators internal diameter is quite large and hence the flux density along the depth of the tooth does not
vary appreciably. Hence width of the tooth may be estimated corresponding to the permissible flux density at
the middle section of the tooth. The flux density should not exceed 1.8 Tesla. However in case of turbo
alternators variation of flux density along the depth of the slot is appreciable and hence the width of the tooth
may be estimated corresponding to the flux density at the top section of the tooth or the width of the tooth at
the air gap. The flux density at this section should not exceed 1.8 Tesla.
For salient pole alternator:
Flux density at the middle section = Flux / pole /( width of the tooth at the middle section x iron
length x number of teeth per pole arc)
Number of teeth per pole arc = pole arc/slot pitch
For turbo alternators:
Flux density at the top section = Flux / pole /( width of the tooth at the top section x iron length x
number of teeth per pole pitch)
As the 2/3rd pole pitch is slotted the number of teeth per pole pitch = 2/3 x pole pitch/( slot pitch at
top section)
Slot width = slot pitch at the top section – tooth width at the top section.
Once the width of the slot is estimated the insulation required width wise and the space available
for conductor width wise can be estimated.
Slot insulation width wise:
(i) Conductor insulation
(ii) Mica slot liner
(iii) Binding tape over the coil
(iv) Tolerance or clearance
Space available for the conductor width wise = width of the slot – insulation width wise We have
already calculated the area of cross section of the conductor. Using above data on space available for the
conductor width wise depth of the conductor can be estimated. Now the depth of the slot may be estimated
as follows.
Depth of the slot:
(i) Space occupied by the conductor = depth of each conductor x no. of conductor per slot
(ii) Conductor insulation

www.BrainKart.com
 (iii) Mica slot liner
(iv) Mica or bituminous layers to separate the insulated conductors
(v) Coil separator between the layers
(vi) Wedge
(vii) Lip
(viii) Tolerance or clearance
Mean length of the Turn:
The length of the mean turn depends on the following factors
(i) Gross length of the stator core: Each turn consists of two times the gross length of stator core.
(ii) Pole pitch: The overhang portion of the coils depend upon the coil span which in turn depends
upon the pole pitch.
(iii) Voltage of the machine: The insulated conductor coming out of the stator slot should have
straight length beyond the stator core which depends upon the voltage rating of the machine.
(iv) Slot dimension: Length per turn depends on the average size of the slot. Hence mean length of
the turn in double layer windings of synchronous machines is estimated as follows.
lmt = 2l + 2.5 p+ 5 kV + 15 cm
Design of turbo alternators
Turbo alternators: These alternators will have larger speed of the order of 3000 rpm. Hence the diameter of
the machine will be smaller than the axial length. As such the diameter of the rotor is limited from the
consideration of permissible peripheral speed limit. Hence the internal diameter of the stator is normally
calculated based on peripheral speed. The peripheral speed in case of turbo alternators is much higher than
the salient pole machines. Peripheral speed for these alternators must be below 175 m/s.

www.BrainKart.com
 PROBLEMS
EX.1. Design the stator frame of a 500 kVA, 6.6 kV, 50 Hz, 3 phase, 12 pole, star connected
salient pole alternator, giving the following informations.
(i) Internal diameter and gross length of the frame
(ii) Number of stator conductors
(iii) Number of stator slots and conductors per slot
Specific magnetic and electric loadings may be assumed as 0.56 Tesla and 26000 Ac/m
respectively.
Peripheral speed must be less than 40 m/s and slot must be less than 1200.

www.BrainKart.com
EX.2. A 3 phase 1800 kVA, 3.3 kV, 50 Hz, 250 rpm, salient pole alternator has the following
design data.
(i) Stator bore diameter = 230 cm
(ii) Gross length of stator bore = 38 cm
(iii)Number of stator slots = 216
(iv)Number of conductors per slot = 4
(v) Sectional area of stator conductor = 86 mm2
(vi)Using the above data, calculate
(i) Flux per pole
(ii) Flux density in the air gap
(iii) Current density
(iv) Size of stator slot

EX.3. A water wheel generator with power output of 4750 kVA, 13.8 kV, 50 Hz, 1000 rpm,
working at a pf of 0.8 has a stator bore and gross core length of 112 cm and 98 cm respectively.
Determine the loading constants for this machine.
Using the design constants obtained from the above machine determine the main dimensions of the
water wheel generator with 6250 kVA, 13.8 kV, 50 Hz, 750 rpm operating at a power factor of
0.85. Also determine (i) Details of stator winding (ii) Size of the stator slot, (iii) Copper losses in
the stator winding.

EX.4. Two preliminary designs are made for a 3 phase alternator, the two designs differing only in
number and size of the slots and the dimensions of the stator conductors. The first design uses two
slots per pole per phase with 9 conductors per slot, each slot being 75 mm deep and 19 mm wide, the
mean width of the stator tooth is 25 mm. The thickness of slot insulation is 2 mm, all other insulation
may be neglected. The second design is to have 3 slots per pole per phase. Retaining the same flux
density in the teeth and current density in the stator conductors as in the first design, calculate the
dimensions of the stator slot for the second design. Total height of lip and wedge may be assumed as
5 mm.

www.BrainKart.com
EX.5. A 1000 kVA, 3300 volts, 50 Hz, 300 rpm, 3 phase alternator has 180 slots with 5 conductors
per slot. Single layer winding with full pitched coils is used. The winding is star connected with one
circuit per phase. Determine the specific electric and magnetic loading if the stator bore is 2 m and
core length is 0.4 m. Using the same specific loadings determine the design details for a 1250 kVA,
3300 volts, 50 Hz, 250 rpm, 3 phase star connected alternator having 2 circuits per phase. The
machines have 600 phase spread.

EX.6. Determine the main dimensions of a 75 MVA, 13.8 kV, 50 Hz, 62.5 rpm, 3 phase star connected
alternator. Also find the number of stator slots, conductors per slot, conductor area and work out the
winding details. The peripheral speed should be less than 40 m/s. Assume average gap density as
0.65 wb/m2, Specific electric loading as 40,000 AC/m and current density as 4 amp/ mm2.

EX.7. Calculate the stator dimensions for 5000 kVA, 3 phase, 50 Hz, 2 pole alternator. Take mean
gap density of 0.5 wb/m2, specific electric loading of 25,000 ac/m, peripheral velocity must not
exceed 100 m/s. Air gap may be taken as 2.5 cm.

www.BrainKart.com