Numbering Report Sections

•Expect feedback on your report - this could

come in writing or verbally
•Make it easy for the ‘reader’ to feedback by
numbering important sections of your report

•Not only can you number each section but also

every paragraph in a section
•
1. - Introduction
1.1 - 1st Paragraph of the Introduction
1.2 - 2nd Paragraph of the Introduction
2. - Method
2.1 - 1st Paragraph of the Method 2.2 - 2nd Paragraph
 Figures
• A picture tells a thousand words''? There is great
substance in this statement, and nowhere more
obvious than in technical reports.

• Use figures liberally to communicate specific results

(graphs) and show an overview of the system being
described through block diagrams, etc.

• Where possible, put multiple plots on the same axes,

so that comparative conclusions can be drawn. Ensure
that each figure has a number and a title, so that it can
be referenced from the text.
 Tables
• Tables are an excellent means of giving
an overview of numerical results or
providing information in a form which
lends itself to comparison.

• Again, ensure that each table has a

number and a title, so that it can be
referenced from the text.
 Equations
• Some authors shun the formality of equations,
preferring to describe the required relationships in
textual form.

• However, it is generally possible to encapsulate a

whole paragraph of such text in a single equation .

• Use equations in a technical report where possible!

Number all equations consecutively to allow reference
from the text.

• Be careful that all the notation you use is defined .

Use equation editor
Not all rules of format are constant

Reports Textbooks Journals

Sandia Laboratories Prentice-Hall ASME

Figure 1 Fig. 1 fig. 1

Table 1 Table 1 table 1

equation 1 equation (1) Eq. 1

Each typestyle has its own personality and power

Serif Sans Serif

Times New Roman Arial
abcdefghijklmnopqr abcdefghijklmnopqr
stuvwxyz1234567890 stuwxyz1234567890

Garamond Arial Narrow

abcdefghijklmnopqr abcdefghijklmnopqr
stuvwxyz1234567890 stuwxyz1234567890

Courier Comic Sans

abcdefghijklmnopqr abcdefghijklmnopqr
stuvwxyz1234567890 stuwxyz1234567890
Choose a type size that is easy to read

48 point posters

36 point
presentation slides

24 point
titles
18 point
14 point text
12 point
footnotes
10 point
 Appendix
• Appendices allow you to add supporting information to
your report. You can attach spreadsheets, forms,
questionnaires, tables, charts, articles – in fact
anything that will support the content of your report
•
• By attaching an Appendix it will allow your report to
flow, without interruption

• Appendices are usually numbered using Roman

Numerals – to get the right effect select the font style
‘Times new Roman’ and use capital letters e.g.
Appendix I, Appendix II, Appendix III etc.
 Tools
•Make use of the Report Writing tools that
Microsoft Word™ has to offer:
– Spell check
– Grammar check
– Thesaurus
– Report Templates

•Justify the text to ensure a consistent look

throughout
•Check font size, style, colour and headings are
consistent
 Quality control
• Having completed the major chore of writing the document, you
may consider that your work is complete.

• If there is a higher authority to whom the project/document is done

under the guidance of, you may consider that it is their duty to do
the quality control on it.

• Wrong! While your supervisor may suggest modifications to

structure or provide suggestions on some technical points, it is not
their job to correct spelling, grammar, etc.

• The primary responsibility for the quality of your document lies

with yourself. It is worth taking that extra small amount of time to
ensure that your document is professional and is free from
grammatical and spelling mistakes.
 The schizophrenic author
• In proof-reading the document yourself, you should
attempt to look at the document in a fresh light as a
reader completely new to the material.

• The capacity to adopt this `schizophrenic' stance will

greatly aid your ability to improve the document.

• Don't be tempted to gloss over sections or speed-read

the text, happy in the knowledge that you know what's
in there!
Phases of Reports revisions
– First revision:
•Check for accuracy and validity of statements,
charts, and equations. Cross misleading or
confusing information.

– Second revision:
•Strive for clarity.
•Use simple non-confusing statements.
•As a rule of thumb, each statement should not be
more than two lines. But avoid too many short
sentences
 Phases of Reports revisions
• Third revision
– Avoid jargon not known to readers.
– Avoid complicated drawings.
– Match the report to the interest, need, and technical
level of audience.
– Under-estimate the knowledge of the audience.

• Fourth revision
– Improve the report organization
– Are there enough headings and sub-headings
 Phases of Reports revisions
• Fifth revision
– Does the material follow a logical development

• Sixth revision
– Seek conciseness
– Ask yourself how much can be deleted without
disturbing the reader’s comprehension of the report.
 Phases of Reports revisions
• Seventh revision
– Correct errors in grammar, spelling, and sentence
structure.

• Eighth revision
– Are you satisfied?
– Allow someone to read your report
 Again: Typical report sections
• Depending on the nature of your document, it may
(optionally) have the following sections:

• Title page
– with name, affiliation, date, etc.
• Dedication
– to a friend, family member, or loved one
• Declaration
– that the material in the report is the author's own work
• Acknowledgement
– to those who have helped or influenced your work
 Typical report sections
• Contents list
– which lists items from here on with appropriate page
references,
• Abstract
– which summarizes the report contents
• Introduction
– which introduces the work, provides the motivation and
context and outlines other related work
• Main technical chapters
– which document the core technical work
• Conclusions
– which may also identify appropriate future work,
– References
 Examples
Title Page
•The Title; e.g. 'A Report on ....'
.....................'An Investigation into...'
.....................'An Analysis of ...'
.....................'A Comparison of ... and ...'
•Your Name
•Submitted in partial fulfillment of the
requirement of the
............................course.
•If you are a HKPU student, your student
number.
•The date.
 Acknowledgments
• "I would like to thank my supervisor, Mr. _______, for the
valuable advice and support he has given me in the
writing of this report.

• I would also like to thank my teachers, Mrs. _______

and Mr. _______ for their encouragement and guidance.

• Thanks also to my typist, Ms. _______, for her

immaculate job and her suggestions. My deepest
thanks go to my wife/husband, for her/his love,
understanding and support."
 Summary / Abstract
• This study was to ______________________________
• It was requested by ____________________________
• It was requested on (date).
• The investigation was done by ____________________
• The main findings were that ______________________
• It was concluded that __________________________
• The recommendations are that _______should be ______
 Contents Page
• Section......................................................Page Number
• Introduction.......................................................................1
• Literature Review..............................................................3
• Methodology.....................................................................5
• Findings.............................................................................7
• Conclusions.....................................................................14
• Recommendations............................................................16
• Appendices......................................................................18
• Bibliography.....................................................................25
 Lists
• List of Figures
• Bar Chart of Answers to Question
1...................................8
• Pie Chart of Socio-economic Status of the
Respondents.....9
•
List of Tables
• Survey Findings by Gender and Age
Group........................10
 1. Introduction

• The Introduction contains 2 types of

information:
•1. information about the report
(background, literature review)

• 2. an introduction to the content of the

report (objectives, methodology)
 2. Literature Review

• The area of investigation has been

commented on by Channel (1994), Hoey
(1993), Halliday (1993) and Lesser (1979),
who are in agreement that...
• However, they have different opinions o
n ....
• Due to the differences highlighted above,
it was decided to investigate
3. Methodology (also called the 'Method' or
'Procedure')

• ___ respondents, chosen by the method

of _____ were surveyed from (start date)
to (end date). Of these, ______ were
invited for interview on (date).
• The statistics were analyzed using a
_______ test because .........
• The significance of the results was
__________
 5. Conclusions

• The main conclusion that can be drawn

is therefore that...
• In the light of this, it is recommended
that... (+ a general recommendation; e.g.
that something needs to be changed.
The detailed recommendations should
go in the Recommendations section
below.)
Discussions
 Abbreviations
• Common Latin terms: etc. (et cetera — and
so forth), i.e. (id est — that is), e.g. (exempli gratia
— for example), et al. (et alii — and others).

• Titles before names: Mrs., Mr., Ms., Prof.,

Dr.,

• Terms of mathematical units: 15 in., 15 ft,

15 kg, 15 m, 15 lb
 ‫اﻟﻤﺨﺘﺼﺮات‬Acronyms
• There is a difference between acronym and abbreviations. An
acronym is usually formed by taking the first initials of a phrase or
compounded-word and using those initials to form a word that
stands for something.

• Thus NATO, which we pronounce NATOH, is an acronym for

North Atlantic Treaty Organization,

• and LASER (which we pronounce "lazer"), is an acronym for Light

Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.

• countries — U.S.A., U.K.

• corporations — IBM, CBS, NPR, CNN, ITT
• famous people — LBJ, FDR, JFK, MLK
• very familiar objects — TV, VCR, CD-ROM.

•Tip: Before using any abbreviations in the text

 Punctuation
How to use Colons
Punctuations are marks to organize writing
such as:

1. The colon [:] is used to introduce a

strong pause within a sentence.

2. The colon may be used to introduce a

list:

The car has a number of optional extras:

sun roof, tinted windows, rear seat
belts, and electrically operated wing
mirrors.
 How to use Colons
3. It separates clauses which could be separate sentences,
but which are linked by some relationship in meaning:
My brother likes oranges: my sister hates them.

4. The colon is also used before a long quotation or a

speech: Speaking at Caesar's funeral, Anthony
addresses the crowd: "Friends, Romans, countrymen ..."

5. It can also be used before a clause which explains the

previous statement:
 How to use Commas
1. The comma [,] is used to show a slight pause in a
sentence.

2. It is the lightest mark of punctuation.

3. It is also used to separate and clarify clauses.

He will never do it, whatever he says.
She bought some butter, a pint of milk, and some jam.
Cars should turn left here, whilst vans should turn right.

4. The comma is used to separate words, clauses, or

phrases.
 How to use Commas

5. It separates two clauses when the first is

not closely associated with the second:

- She is a famous singer, whilst her

husband remains unknown.

6. I t i s use d to cl ari fy the se nse of

statements and to prevent ambiguity.
 How to use Semicolons
1. The semicolon [ ; ] marks a long pause in a
sentence.

2. It is half way between a comma and a colon.

3. Semicolons are used between clauses which

could stand alone, but which are closely related.

•He ran with his shirt over his head; he had

forgotten his umbrella once again.

•She couldn't dance in her favorite ballroom; it

 How to use Semicolons
4. For instance, in the following example there could be a
full stop after 'England', but the semicolon is a more
subtle pause: Rutland was formerly the smallest county
in England; no other area in the land was famous for so
little.

5. Semicolons are also used to punctuate mixed lists in

continuous prose writing: Four objects lay on the desk: a
large book; a spiral-bound notepad; a glass vase
containing flowers; and a silver propelling pencil.

6. A semicolon is used when a second clause expands or

explains the first: Neither of us spoke; we merely waited
 How to use Full Stops
1. The full stop [.] (sometimes called the period) is a
punctuation mark indicating a strong pause.

2. It is used most commonly at the end of a complete

sentence - like this one.
• This is a short sentence. This is another.
• It happened suddenly in 1996.
• There are two reasons for this (in my opinion).

3. The only common exception to this rule occurs when

the sentence is a question or an exclamation.
• Is this question really necessary?
• What a mess!
 How to use Full Stops

4. The stop is also used following abbreviations:

•ibid. No. 1 ff. e.g.
5. The stop is not necessary following common
titles which are shortened forms of a word
(technically, contractions):
•Dr Mr. St Mme

6. Full stops are not necessary after the initial

capital letters commonly used as abbreviations
for the titles of organizations and countries:
•NATO BBC UNESCO USA
 Tip

– When typing, don’t leave space after any

punctuation, but leave 1 space after it.

this, and
 WHAT IS A PARAGRAPH?
• A paragraph usually contains a general idea in one
sentence, and 4 - 5 supporting sentences which
expand this idea by giving explanation, details and/or
examples to support the main idea.

• Length can vary. On the page, the paragraph is a solid

block of writing (like this!)

• To start a new paragraph, you should leave a whole

line and start at the beginning of the line after. You can
indent - if handwriting (start about 2 cm from the left),
but this is not necessary if you have left a line.
 WHY USE PARAGRAPHS?
• Paragraphs are used to separate main
ideas.

• A new paragraph signals to the reader

that a new idea is about to be discussed.

• The break between paragraphs gives the

reader time to take in each idea.
 HOW IS A PARAGRAPH
STRUCTURED?
• There is no one correct structure. However, a useful
structure is:

• 1. Topic Sentence This is the first sentence and it

expresses the main idea.

• 2. Supporting Sentences details that expand your main

idea.

• 3. Concluding Sentence a rounding off, possibly by

summarizing what has been said or drawing a logical
conclusion from it. (Note that in a piece of writing
 Writing Good Paragraphs
•Organize the paragraph around a unifying idea

•Use words, grammar, and punctuation to

create coherence.

•Paragraph should follow a progression ‫ ﺗﻘﺪم‬of

thoughts.

•Conclude the paragraph with a summary

sentence
 How to write Paragraphs
• 1. The purpose (and definition) of a paragraph is that it deals with
just one topic or major point of argument in an extended piece of
writing.

• 2. That topic or subject should normally be announced in the

opening sentence, which is for that reason sometimes called a
'topic sentence'.

• 3. The sentences which immediately follow the topic sentence

should expand and develop the statement, explaining and
relating its relevance to the subject under discussion.

• 4. This opening statement and amplification should then be

followed by evidence to support the argument being made.
 Writing Style
•All reports should be written in the third
person i.e., as an objective observer! Avoid
using terms such as ``I did this experiment an
d ..".

•Instead substitute terms, such as

• ``The experiment was performed ...''.

• Note that the best written description is not

necessarily the same as the best verbal
description.
 READER’S RED FLAGS
• TOO MANY PAGES
• TOO MANY WORDS ON A PAGE
• IMPROPER FORMAT
• FAT PARAGRAPHS
• LONG SPEECHES
• TOO MANY CHARACTERS EARLY ON
• MISSPELLED WORDS
• POOR GRAMMAR & PUNCTUATION
Writing in Plain Lan
guage
What is plain language?
Plain language is a language that
is easy to understand.

It is not only clear, direct, and well

written. It also matches the
reading level of the audience.
 Plain-Language Samples
Before:
A thorough inspection of your forest home or summer
cottage and the surrounding property for obvious fire
hazards is the first step in fire protection.
After:
You can protect your forest home or summer cottage
by first inspecting your land and building for fire
hazards.

Before:
Prior to completing the application, the applicants
should determine if the proposed corporate name is
available.
After:
Before you complete the application, find out if another
 Words
Shorter is Better
•Use shorter, fewer words
•Use short sentences
– Only one subject in each sentence
– Aim for no more than 20-25 words

•Use short paragraphs

– Only one subject or step
– Aim for no more than 7 lines (40-70 words)
 Use Short, Everyday Words
Use: Instead of:
• Now • At this point in time
• Show • Demonstrate
• Before • Previously
• If • In the event that
• End • Terminate
• Help • Facilitate
• Near • In close proximity
• Size • Magnitude
• If, only if • Provided that
 Avoid Over-Used Phrases
and Expressions
Use: Instead of:
• to • in order to
• if • in the event that
• because • due to the fact that
• usually • most of the time
• although • despite the fact that
• when • at the time
• now • at the present time
• until • until such time as
• after • subsequent to
 Don’t Use “Shall”

•Use “must” to convey requirements

– “Shall” is ambiguous and not used in everyday
speech

•Use “may” for a discretionary action

– “Consider…”
– “We recommend that you…”

•Use “should” for a recommendation

 Make Your Text Timeless
Don’t say
• “Today EPA issued a report”
• “EPA will publish the final rule next month”

Use hard dates:

• “Spring 2007”
• EPA issued the rule in February 2006”
 Place Words Carefully
•Watch for possible double meanings
Example: No Smoking Section Available

•Put conditionals such as “only” or “always”

next to the words they modify.
Example:
Only I love you.
I only love you.
I love only you.
 Avoid Confusing Words
• Words that are both nouns and verbs, or adjectives and
verbs– for example:
– The program is based on the multi-barrier concept, that is, the
research results in selecting the best available water source and
protecting it from contamination, using water treatment to
control contaminants, and preventing water quality deterioration
in distribution systems.

– Do not blow brake or clutch dust!

• Different terms that refer to the same thing – for example:

car, automobile, vehicle
 Terms And Phrases To Avoid
• ``perfect''
• Nothing is.

• ``an ideal solution''

• You're judging again.

• ``today'', ``modern times''

• Today is tomorrow's yesterday.

• ``soon''
• How soon? Later tonight? Next decade?

• ``we were surprised to learn...''

• Even if you were, so what?

• ``seems'', ``seemingly'',
 Terms And Phrases To Avoid
• ``would seem to show''
• all that matters are the facts.
•
• ``in terms of''
• usually vague

• ``based on'', ``X-based'', ``as the basis of''

• careful; can be vague

• ``different''
• Does not mean ``various''; different than what?

• ``in light of''

• colloquial

• ``lots of''
• vague & colloquial

• ``kind of''
• vague & colloquial
 Terms And Phrases To Avoid
• ``type of''
• vague & colloquial

• ``something like''
• vague & colloquial

• ``just about''
• vague & colloquial

• ``number of''
• vague; do you mean ``some'', ``many'', or ``most''? A quantities statement is
preferable.

• ``due to''
• colloquial

• ``probably''
• only if you know the statistical probability (if you do, state it quantatively

• ``obviously, clearly''
 Terms And Phrases To Avoid
• ``simple''
• Can have a negative connotation, as in ``simpleton''

• ``along with''
• Just use ``with''
• ``actually, really''
• define terms precisely to eliminate the need to clarify

• ``the fact that''

• makes it a meta-sentence; rephrase
• ``this'', ``that''
 Terms And Phrases To Avoid
• ``You will read about...''
• The second person has no place in a formal dissertation.

• ``I will describe...''

• The first person has no place in a formal dissertation. If self-
reference is essential, phrase it as ``Section 10 describes...'‘
•
• ``we'' as in ``we see that''
• A trap to avoid. Reason: almost any sentence can be written
to begin with ``we'' because ``we'' can refer to: the reader and
author, the author and advisor, the author and research team,
experimental computer scientists, the entire computer
science community, the science community, or some other
unspecified group.
 Terms And Phrases To Avoid
• ``Hopefully, the program...''
• Computer programs don't hope, not unless they implement AI
systems. By the way, if you are writing an AI thesis, talk to
someone else: AI people have their own system of rules.

• ``...a famous researcher...''

• It doesn't matter who said it or who did it. In fact, such
statements prejudice the reader.

• Be Careful When Using ``few, most, all, any, every''.

• A dissertation is precise. If a sentence says ``Most computer
systems contain X'', you must be able to defend it. Are you sure
you really know the facts? How many computers were built and
sold yesterday?
•
 Terms And Phrases To Avoid
• ``must'', ``always''
• Absolutely?

• ``should''
• Who says so?

• ``proof'', ``prove''
• Would a mathematician agree that it's a proof?

• ``show''
• Used in the sense of ``prove''. To ``show'' something, you need to provide a
formal proof.

• ``can/may''
• Your mother probably told you the difference.