Three Phase Circuits &Magnetic Circuits

Dr. P. Ramesh Babu

Assistant Professor
VFSTR, EEE
 Three-Phase Systems
Almost all electric power generation and most of the power transmission in
the world is in the form of three-phase AC circuits. A three-phase AC
system consists of three-phase generators, transmission lines, and loads.

There are two major advantages of three-phase systems over a single-

phase system:
a) More power per kilogram of metal form a three-phase machine;
b) Power delivered to a three-phase load is constant at all time,
instead of pulsing as it does in a single-phase system.

The first three-phase electrical system was patented in 1882 by John

Hopkinson - British physicist, electrical engineer, Fellow of the Royal
Society.
Generation of three-phase voltages and currents

A three-phase generator consists of three single- phase generators with

voltages of equal amplitudes and phase differences of 120.
Each of three-phase generators can be
connected to one of three identical
loads.

This way the system would consist of three

single-phase circuits differing in phase
angle by 120 .

The current flowing to each load can be

found as
V
I
Z
Therefore, the currents flowing in each phase are

V 0 0
IA   I  
Z
V  1200
IB   I 120  
Z
V   2400
IA   I  240  
Z
We can connect the negative (ground) ends of the three
single-phase generators and loads together, so they share the
common return line (neutral).
The current flowing through a neutral can be found as
IN  I A IB IC  I I 1200 I 2400
 I cos() jIsin() I cos( 1200) jI sin( 1200) I cos( 2400) jI sin( 2400)
 I cos()cos( 1200)cos( 2400)  jI sin()sin( 1200)sin( 2400)
 I cos()cos()cos(1200)sin()sin(1200)cos()cos(2400)sin()sin(2400)
 jI sin()sin()cos(1200)cos()sin(1200)sin()cos(2400)cos()sin(2400)

which is simplified to be
 1 3 1 3 
I N  I cos( )  cos( )  sin( )  cos( )  sin( ) 
 2 2 2 2 
 1 3 1 3 
 jI sin( )  sin( )  cos( )  sin( )  cos( ) 
 2 2 2 2 
0
So, as long as the three loads are equal, the return current in
the neutral is zero!

Such three-phase power systems (equal magnitude, phase

differences of 120 , identical loads) are called balanced.

In a balanced system, the neutral is unnecessary!

Phase Sequence is the order in which the voltages in the

individual phases peak.

abc acb
 Connection Types
There are two types of connections in three-phase circuits:
Y (Wye) and Δ (Delta)

Each generator and each load can be either Y- or Δ-connected. Any

number of
Y- and Δ-connected elements may be mixed in a power system.

Phase quantities – voltages and currents in a given phase.

Line quantities – voltages between the lines and currents in the lines
connected to the generators.
Y-connection

Assuming
a resistive
load…
The current in any line is the same as the current in the corresponding phase.
I L  I
Voltages are:

Vab  Va Vb  V 00 V  1200  V    1 V  j 3 V   3 V  j 3 V
2  2 2
 2 
 3 1
 3V   j   3V 300
 2 2

Vab  3V 30 Vbc  3V   90 Vca  3V   210

Magnitudes of the line-to-line voltages and the line-to-neutral
voltages are related as:

VLL  3V

In addition, the line-to-line voltages

are shifted by 30with respect to
the phase voltages.

In a connection with abc sequence,

the voltage of a line leads the phase
voltage by 30 as shown in the
figure.
 Δ-connection

Assuming a resistive
load…

V  V 00 I  I 00
ab  ab 
V  V  1200 I  I  1200
bc  bc 
V  V   2400 I  I   2400
ca  ca 
Line-to-line voltage magnitudes are the same as the phase voltages.
VLL  V
Currents are:
 
I a  I ab  I ca  I 00  I 2400  I    1 I   j 3 I
 2 2 

3 3  3 1
 I  j I   3I 
  j   3I    300
2 2  2 2

I a  3I   30 I b  3I   150 I c  3I   270

Magnitudes of the line and phase currents are related as:
I L  3I

In addition, the line currents are shifted by 30 with respect to the
phase currents.

For the connections with the abc phase sequences, the current of a
line lags the corresponding phase current by 30 as shwon in the
figure.
Wye (Y) Connected Load

Delta (Δ) Connected Load

 Practical Use

 What do you want to use in practice?

 [Most common usage]

• Δ-connected loads are most common to allow easy

addition and removal of loads in each phase

• Y-connected sources are most common to avoid

circulating currents when there is a small imbalance.
 Power relationship
For a balanced Y-connected load with the impedance Z = Z 
and phase voltages as:
van (t)  2V sin t
vbn (t)  2V sin(t 1200 )
vcn (t)  2V sin(t  2400 )

The currents can be found as:

ia (t)  2I sin(t   )
ib (t)  2I sin(t 1200   )
ic (t)  2I sin(t  2400   )
The instantaneous power is:
p(t)  v(t)i(t)

Therefore, the instantaneous power supplied to

each phase is:

pa (t)  van (t)ia (t)  2VI sin(t) sin(t   )

pb (t)  vbn (t)ib (t)  2VI sin(t 1200 ) sin(t 120 0   )
pc (t)  vcn (t)ic (t)  2VI sin(t  2400 ) sin(t  240 0   )

Simplify the above equations using sin  sin   1 cos(   )  cos(   ) 

2
pa (t)  VI cos   cos(2t   ) 
pb (t)  VI cos   cos(2t  2400   ) 
pc (t)  VI cos   cos(2t  4800   ) 
 The total power on the load is given by
ptot (t)  pa (t)  pb (t)  pc (t)  3VI cos 
The pulsing components cancel each other because of 120
phase shifts, so the total power on the load is constant.

The figure shows:

a)The instantaneous
power in each phase.

b)The total power

supplied to the load
(which is constant)
Phase quantities in each phase of a Y- or Δ-connection.

Real Power: P  3V I cos   3I 2 Z

cos 
Reactive Power: Q  3V I sin   3I 2 Z sin 

Apparent Power: S  3V I  3I 2 Z

NOTE: These equations are valid for balanced loads only.

Deriving line quantities of a Y-connection.

Power consumed by a load: P  3V I cos 

since for this load I L  I and VLL  3V

VLL
therefore P3 I L cos 
3

Finally P  3VLL I L cos 

NOTE: These equations are valid for balanced

loads only.
Deriving line quantities of a Δ-connection.

Power consumed by a load: P  3V I cos 

since for this load I L  3I and VLL  V

VLL
therefore P3 I L cos
3

Finally P  3VLL I L cos 

Same as for a Y-connected load!

NOTE: These equations are valid for balanced loads only.

 Line quantities for a Y- or Δ-connection.

Real Power: P  3VLL I L cos 

Reactive Power: Q  3VLL I L sin 

Apparent Power: S  3VLL I L

Reminder:  is the load (or impedance) angle, i.e. the

angle between the phase voltage and the phase current.
NOTE: These equations are valid for balanced loads only.
 Analysis of balanced systems
A Δ-connected circuit can be analyzed via the transform of impedances by
the Y-Δ transform. For a balanced load, it states that a Δ-connected load
consisting of three equal impedances Z is equivalent to a Y-connected load
with the impedances Z/3.

This equivalence implies that the voltages, currents, and powers supplied
to both loads would be the same.
One-line diagrams

Since, in a balanced system, three

phases are similar except of the 120
phase shift, power systems are
frequently represented by a single
line showing all three phases of the
real system.

This is a one-line diagram.

Such diagrams usually include all the

major components of a power
system: generators, transformers,
transmission lines, loads.
 If we can neglect the impedance of the transmission line, an important
simplification in the power calculation is possible…
If the generator voltage in the system is known, then we can find the current
and power factor at any point in the system as follows:

1. The line voltages at the generator and the

loads will be identical since the line is
lossless.
2. Real and reactive powers on each load.
3. The total real and reactive powers supplied
to all loads from the point examined.
4. The system power factor at that point using
the power triangle relationship.
5. Line and phase currents at that point.

We can treat the line voltage as constant and use the power triangle method to
quickly calculate the effect of adding a load on the overall system and power factor.
 INTRODUCTION TO MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
 A magnetic circuit is made up of one or more closed loop paths
containing a magnetic flux ϕ (= magnetic field/flux density B ×
cross-sectional area A).
 The flux is usually generated by permanent magnets or
electromagnets and confined to a path by magnetic cores consisting of
ferromagnetic materials like iron, although there may be air gaps or
other materials in the path.
 Magnetic circuits are employed to efficiently channel magnetic fields in
many devices such as electric motors, generators, transformers,
relays, solenoids, loudspeakers, hard disks, MRI machines.
 APPLICATIONS
Motors Generators Transformers

Circuit Relay
Breakers Switches
Solenoids
APPLICATIONS 3
0
Hard Disks

MRI Machines
 Magnetomotive force (mmf) 3
1

 In an electric circuit, the current is induced due to the existence of an

electromotive force (emf E, battery voltage). By analogy, we say that in a
magnetic circuit the magnetic flux is induced due to the existence of a
magnetomotive force (mmf F) caused by a current flowing through
one or more turns of coil.

 The value of the mmf F is proportional to

the current flowing through the coil and
to the number of turns in the coil, and is
expressed in units of “ampere-turns” or
just amperes (number of turns is
dimensionless). F = N.I
 Magnetic field strength/intensity (H) 3
2

 The magnetomotive force per unit length

of the magnetic circuit is termed the
magnetic field strength/intensity (H).
F
H=
l
where, F = NI amperes
where l is the length of the magnetic
circuit or flux loop
 Units of H are ampere-turns per metre NI
H= amperes per metre
(At/m) or just ampere per metre (A/m) l
 Permeability of free space μ0 (magnetic constant) 3
3

The permeability of free space or non-magnetic materials is

B
µ0 = for a vaccum and non-magnetic materials
H
µ 0 = 4ᴨ × 10-7H / m (The units of μ0 are H/m (Henry per meter))

where B (= ϕ/A) is the magnetic flux density (units of Tesla, T),

A is the cross-sectional area through which the flux passes,
ϕ is the magnetic flux (units of Weber (Wb)) and
H is the magnetic field strength (units A/m).
 Relative Permeability μr
 The ratio of the flux density B produced in a material to the flux density
produced in vacuum (or in a non-magnetic core) for a particular applied
magnetic field strength H.
 For air and non-magnetic materials, μr = 1
 For ferromagnetic materials, e.g. some forms of nickel–iron alloys, the
relative permeability can be as large as ~100000 i.e. ~106.
 For a material having a relative permeability μr,
B  r 0  H
where,  =0 r is the absolute permeability
 Reluctance S
It is the opposition that a magnetic circuit offers to the passage of
magnetic flux through it (ratio of mmf applied to the flux induced).
  BA (1)
mmf , F  Hl (2)
Dividing (1) by (2),
 BA 0 r HA A
   0 r
F Hl Hl l
Thus, S = F / ϕ = l / (μA), where μ = μ0 μr (S has units of A/Wb)

The inverse of reluctance is known as permeance (ease of flux passage)

 Mutual Inductance
When two loops with or without contacts between them affect
each other through the magnetic field generated by one of them,
they are said to be magnetically coupled.

The transformer is an electrical device designed on the basis of

the concept of magnetic coupling. It uses magnetically coupled
coils to transfer energy from one circuit to another.

The transformers are used in power systems for stepping up or

stepping down ac voltages or currents.

The transformers are used in electronic circuits such as radio

and television receivers for such purposes as impedance
matching, isolating one part of a circuit from another, and for
stepping up or down ac voltages and currents.

3
6
 Mutual Inductance
When two inductors (or coils) are in a close proximity to each other, the magnetic
flux caused by current in one coil links with the other coil, thereby inducing voltage
in the latter. This phenomenon is known as mutual inductance.
A coil with N turns, when current i flows through
the coil, a magnetic flux is produced around it.
According to Faraday’s law:

Any change in 𝜙 is caused by a change in the current.

or where

L is called self-inductance, because it relates the voltage induced in a coil by a

time-varying current in the same coil.

When two coils with self-inductances L1 and L2 that are close to each other. Coil 1
has N1 turns, while coil 2 has N2 turns. Assume that the second inductor carries no
current. The magnetic flux 𝜙1 emanating from coil 1 has two components: One
component 𝜙 11 links only coil 1, and another component 𝜙12 links both coils.
3
7
 Mutual Inductance
Entire flux 𝜙 1 links coil 1, so the voltage induced in
coil 1 is

or

Where L1=N1d𝜙1/di1 is the self inductance of coil 1

Only flux 𝜙12 links coil 2, so the voltage induced in coil 2 is
or Where

M21 is known as the mutual inductance of coil 2 with respect to coil 1. Subscript
21 indicates that the inductance relates the voltage induced in coil 2 to the current
in coil 1.
The open-circuit mutual voltage (or induced voltage) across coil 2 is

Suppose the current flow in coil 2, while coil 1 carries no current. The magnetic
flux 𝜙2 emanating from coil 2 comprises flux 𝜙22 that links only coil 2 and flux 𝜙21
that links both coils.
3
8
 Mutual Inductance
The entire flux 𝜙2 links coil 2, so the voltage induced in
coil 2 is

Where L2=N2d𝜙2/di2 is the self inductance of coil 2

Only flux 𝜙21 links coil 1, so the voltage induced in coil 1 is

Where
M12 is known as the mutual inductance of coil 1 with respect to coil 2.
The open-circuit mutual voltage (or induced voltage) across coil 1 is

Mutual inductance is the ability of one inductor to induce a voltage across a

neighboring inductor, measured in henrys (H).
Mutual Inductance - Dot Convention
Although mutual inductance M is always a positive quantity, the mutual voltage
Mdi/dt may be negative or positive, The dots are used along with the dot
convention to determine the polarity of the mutual voltage.
If a current enters the dotted terminal of one coil, the reference polarity of the
mutual voltage in the second coil is positive at the dotted terminal of the second
coil.

If a current leaves the dotted terminal of one coil, the reference polarity of the
mutual voltage in the second coil is negative at the dotted terminal of the second
coil.
 Mutual Inductance - Dot Convention
The Procedure for Determining Dot Markings

a) Arbitrarily select one terminal—say, the D

terminal—of one coil and mark it with a dot.
b) Assign a current into the dotted terminal and label
it iD.
c) Use the right-hand rule to determine the direction
of the magnetic field established by iD inside the
coupled coils and label this field 𝜙D.
d) Arbitrarily pick one terminal of the second coil—
say, terminal A—and assign a current into this
terminal, showing the current as iA.
e) Use the right-hand rule to determine the direction of the flux established by iA
inside the coupled coils and label this flux 𝜙A.
f) Compare the directions of the two fluxes 𝜙D and 𝜙A. If the fluxes have the same
reference direction, place a dot on the terminal of the second coil where the test
current (iA) enters. (The fluxes 𝜙D and 𝜙A have the same reference direction, and
therefore a dot goes on terminal A). If the fluxes have different reference
directions, place a dot on the terminal of the second coil where the test current
leaves.
Analyze Circuits Involving Mutual Inductance
The total inductance for coupled coils in series is

For the time domain circuit shown in fig.(a). Applying

KVL to coil 1 gives

For coil 2, KVL gives

The above two equations can be written in the frequency domain as

Analyze Circuits Involving Mutual Inductance
For the frequency domain circuit shown in fig.(b). Applying KVL to coil 1 gives

Model that makes analysis of mutually coupled easier to solve

 Energy in a Coupled Circuit
The energy stored in an inductor is given by

For the circuit, assume that currents and are zero initially, so
that the energy stored in the coils is zero. Let i1 increase from
zero to I1 while maintaining i2=0, the power in coil 1 is

The energy stored in the circuit is

If we now maintain i1=I1 and increase i2 from zero to I2, the mutual voltage
induced in coil 1 is M12di2/dt while the mutual voltage induced in coil 2 is zero,
since I1 does not change. The power in the coils is now

The energy stored in the circuit is

 Energy in a Coupled Circuit
The total energy stored in the coils when both i1 and i2 have reached constant
values is

If we reverse the order by which the currents reach their final values, that is, if we
first increase i2 from zero to I2 and later increase i1 from zero to I1, the total
energy stored in the coils is

Comparing the above two equations leads to

The above equation was derived based on the assumption that the coil currents
both entered the dotted terminals. If one current enters one dotted terminal while
the other current leaves the other dotted terminal, the sign of the mutual energy
term is reversed.
 Energy in a Coupled Circuit
Since I1 and I2 are arbitrary values, they may be replaced by i1 and i2 which gives
the instantaneous energy stored in the circuit

The positive sign is selected for the mutual term if both currents enter or leave the
dotted terminals of the coils; the negative sign is selected otherwise

Establishing an Upper Limit for M

The energy stored in passive circuit cannot be negative, so

Add and subtract the term

The squared term is never negative; at its least it is zero. Therefore, the second
term must be greater than zero;

Or
 Energy in a Coupled Circuit
The Coupling Coefficient
Coupling coefficient (k) is used to describe the degree of coupling between coils.

• If the entire flux produced by one coil links another coil, then k=1 and we have
100 percent coupling, or the coils are said to be perfectly coupled.
• For k<0.5, the coils are said to be loosely coupled.
• For k>0.5, the coils are said to be tightly coupled.