Components Of Data Communication:

A Data Communication system has five components as shown in the diagram below:

1. Message is the information to be communicated by the sender to the receiver.

2. Sender The sender is any device that is capable of sending the data (message).

3. Receiver The receiver is a device that the sender wants to communicate the data (message).

4. Transmission Medium It is the path by which the message travels from sender to receiver. It can be
wired or wireless and many subtypes in both.

5. Protocol It is an agreed upon set or rules used by the sender and receiver to communicate data. A
protocol is a set of rules that governs data communication. A Protocol is a necessity in data
communications without which the communicating entities are like two persons trying to talk to each
other in a different language without know the other language.

DATA REPRESENTATION:

1. Text includes combination of alphabets in small case as well as upper case. It is stored as a
pattern of bits. Prevalent encoding system : ASCII, Unicode
2. Numbers combination of digits from 0 to 9. It is stored as a pattern of bits. Prevalent encoding
system : ASCII, Unicode
3. Images ―In computers images are digitally stored.
4. Audio Data can also be in the form of sound which can be recorded and broadcasted
5. Video refers to broadcasting of data in form of picture or movie.

DATA FLOW

The data can flow between the two devices in the following ways.

1. Simplex 2. Half Duplex 3. Full Duplex

Simplex
In Simplex, communication is unidirectional Only one of the devices sends the data and the other one
only receives the data.

Example: in the above diagram: a cpu send data while a monitor only receives data.

Half Duplex

In half duplex both the stations can transmit as well as receive but not at the same time. When one device
is sending other can only receive and viceversa (as shown in figure above.) Example: A walkie-talkie.

Full Duplex

In Full duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive at the same time.

Example: mobile phones

Computer Networks
Computer Networks are used for data communications Definition: A computer network can be defined as
a collection of nodes. A node can be any device capable of transmitting or receiving data. The
communicating nodes have to be connected by communication links.

A Compute network should ensure reliability of the data communication process, should c security of the
data performance by achieving higher throughput and smaller delay times

Categories of Network
Networks are categorized on the basis of their size.

The three basic categories of computer networks are:

 A.Local Area Networks (LAN) is usually limited to a few kilometers of area. It may be privately
owned and could be a network inside an office on one of the floor of a building or a LAN could
be a network consisting of the computers in a entire building.
 B.Wide Area Network (WAN) is made of all the networks in a (geographically) large area. The
network in the entire state of Maharashtra could be a WAN
  C.Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is of size between LAN & WAN. It is larger than LAN but
smaller than WAN. It may comprise the entire network in a city like Mumbai.

Network Topology

Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are interconnected to each
other. There are two types of topology: physical and logical topology.

Types of Network Topologies:

1. Bus Topology

2. Ring Topology

3. Star Topology

4. Mesh Topology

 Bus Topology: The simplest type of topology is called a bus topology, in which network
communication takes place over a single bus or channel.

Benefits of Bus topology:

 Easy to install and use.

 Other nodes won't be impacted if one node fails.

 Less wiring is needed.

 Economical to implement.

Bus topology drawbacks:

 Efficiency decreases as nodes increase (strength of signal decreases).

 A bus failure will result in network failure.

 The bus's limited length means that only a certain number of nodes can connect to it.

 As messages are broadcast to all nodes, there are more security concerns and risks.

 Ring Topology: When two computers are connected to form a ring, the topology is known as a ring
topology. The message passing is circular and unidirectional. A fixed amount of time is allotted for each
 computer to access the network for transmission in this deterministic network topology. Each node is a
part of a closed loop.

Ring topology advantages listed below:

 Simple installation

 Fewer Cables are needed.

 Minimizes the possibility of data collision.

 An easy problem to solve.

 The access time is the same for every node.

Ring topology disadvantages listed below

 The network as a whole will collapse if one node fails.

 Slow data transfer rate as each message has to go through the ring path.
 Getting more difficult to reconfigure.

 Star Topology: A computer network topology known as a star topology connects each node to a
central hub. The hub or switch acts as a bridge between the nodes. Any node making a service request or
offering a service must first get in touch with the hub. The other connected devices function as clients in
a star topology, while the hub and switch serve as a server.

Benefits of the star topology

 Less costly.

 Centralized management.

 Simple to scale.

 Other nodes won't be impacted if one node fails.

 Easy to upgrade and reconfigure.

Drawbacks of the star topology:

 The network will collapse if the primary device faults occur.

 There are a limited number of devices in the network.

 Mesh Topology: Mesh technology is a network configuration in which computers are linked to
one another by numerous redundant connections. There are numerous methods for transferring from one
computer to another. It lacks a switch, hub, or any other central computer that acts as a communication
hub.

Mesh topology benefits listed below:

 Direct communication is facilitated by dedicated links.

 There are no channel traffic issues.

 Due to each node having its own dedicated path, fault tolerance is good.

 Quick communication.

 Maintains security and privacy thanks to a separate communication channel.

 There are backup options in the network in case a node fails.

Mesh topology has the following drawbacks:

 Extremely high cabling is required.

 Implementation is expensive.

 The network is difficult to install and takes up a lot of space.

 Installation and regular maintenance are extremely difficult

  Hybrid Topology: A hybrid topology is a computer topology made up of two or more topologies.
All topologies in this topology are interconnected based on their needs to form a hybrid.

The following are the benefits of hybrid topology:

 It can support a large number of nodes.

 It allows us to modify the network to meet our specific requirements.

 Very Dependable.

The following are the drawbacks of hybrid topology:

 The design is complicated.

 Implementation is costly.

 MSAL (Multistation Access Unit) is required.

 Tree Topology: A computer network topology known as a "tree topology" is one in which all
nodes are either directly or indirectly connected to the main bus cable. Bus and Star topologies are
combined to create tree topology.

Protocol and Standard in Computer Networks:

Computer networks are dependent on protocols and standards which plays a vital role, which
enables communication between different devices and systems with one another and share data
seamlessly. Network protocol ensures that different technologies and components of the network are
compatible with one another, reliable, and able to function together.

Protocols and standards enable secure and efficient computer network communication. They regulate
data exchange, formatting, endpoints, and reliable device communication.These protocols and standards
 ensure network security and performance. Complying can prevent data breaches and system
breakdowns.

ISO-OSI reference model (Open System Interconnection):

There are n numbers of users who use computer network and are located over the world. So to
ensure, national and worldwide data communication, systems must be developed which are compatible to
communicate with each other ISO has developed a standard. ISO stands for International organization of
Standardization. This is called a model for Open System Interconnection (OSI) and is commonly known
as OSI model. The ISO-OSI model is a seven layer architecture. It defines seven layers or levels in a
complete communication system.
They are:
1. Application Layer 2. Presentation Layer 3. Session Layer 4. Transport Layer
5. Network Layer 6. Datalink Layer 7. Physical Layer
Below we have the complete representation of the OSI model, showcasing all the layers and
how they communicate with each other.
Feature of OSI Model:
 Big picture of communication over network is understandable through this OSI model.
 We see how hardware and software work together.
 We can understand new technologies as they are developed.
 Troubleshooting is easier by separate networks.
 Can be used to compare basic functional relationships on different networks.

Principles of OSI Reference Model:

The OSI reference model has 7 layers. The principles that were applied to arrive at the seven
layers can be briefly summarized as follows:
 A layer should be created where a different abstraction is needed.
 Each layer should perform a well-defined function.
 The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye toward defining internationally
Standardized protocols.
 The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow across the interfaces.
 The number of layers should be large enough that distinct functions need not be thrown
 Together in the same layer out of necessity and small enough that architecture does not become
unwieldy.
Functions of Different Layers:
Following are the functions performed by each layer of the OSI model. This is just an introduction, we
will cover each layer in details in the coming tutorials.
The Physical Layer
 Physical Layer is the lowest layer of the OSI Model.
 It activates, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
 It is responsible for transmission and reception of the unstructured raw data over network.
 Voltages and data rates needed for transmission is defined in the physical layer.
 It converts the digital/analog bits into electrical signal or optical signals.
 Data encoding is also done in this layer.
Data Link Layer
 Data link layer synchronizes the information which is to be transmitted over the physical layer.
 The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error free from one node to
another, over the physical layer.
 Transmitting and receiving data frames sequentially is managed by this layer.
  This layer sends and expects acknowledgements for frames received and sent respectively.
Resending of non-acknowledgement received frames is also handled by this layer.
 This layer establishes a logical layer between two nodes and also manages the Frame traffic
control over the network. It signals the transmitting node to stop, when the frame buffers are full.
The Network Layer
 Network Layer routes the signal through different channels from one node to other.
 It acts as a network controller. It manages the Subnet traffic.
 It decides by which route data should take.
 It divides the outgoing messages into packets and assembles the incoming packets into messages
for higher levels.
Transport Layer
 Transport Layer decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path.
 Functions such as Multiplexing, Segmenting or Splitting on the data are done by this layer
 It receives messages from the Session layer above it, convert the message into smaller units and
passes it on to the Network layer.
 Transport layer can be very complex, depending upon the network requirements. Transport layer
breaks the message (data) into small units so that they are handled more efficiently by the
network layer.
The Session Layer
 Session Layer manages and synchronize the conversation between two different applications.
 Transfer of data from source to destination session layer streams of data are marked and are
resynchronized properly, so that the ends of the messages are not cut prematurely and data loss is
avoided.
The Presentation Layer
 Presentation Layer takes care that the data is sent in such a way that the receiver will understand
the information (data) and will be able to use the data.
 While receiving the data, presentation layer transforms the data to be ready for the application
layer.
 Languages(syntax) can be different of the two communicating systems. Under this condition
presentation layer plays a role of translator.
 It perfroms Data compression, Data encryption, Data conversion etc. Application Layer
Application Layer is the topmost layer.
 Transferring of files disturbing the results to the user is also done in this layer. Mail services,
directory services, network resource etc are services provided by application layer.
  This layer mainly holds application programs to act upon the received and to be sent data.

Merits of OSI reference model

 OSI model distinguishes well between the services, interfaces and protocols.
 Protocols of OSI model are very well hidden.
 Protocols can be replaced by new protocols as technology changes.
 Supports connection oriented services as well as connectionless service.
Demerits of OSI reference model
 Model was devised before the invention of protocols.
 Fitting of protocols is tedious task.
 It is just used as a reference model.

TCP/IP architecture
TCP/IP means Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol. It is the network model used
in the current Internet architecture as well. Protocols are set of rules which govern every possible
communication over a network. These protocols describe the movement of data between the source and
destination or the internet. They also offer simple naming and addressing schemes.
Protocols and networks in the TCP/IP model

Overview of TCP/IP reference model:

TCP/IP that is Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol was developed by Department of
Defence's Project Research Agency (ARPA, later DARPA) as a part of a research project of network
interconnection to connect remote machines. The features that stood out during the research, which led to
making the TCP/IP reference model were:
  Support for a flexible architecture. Adding more machines to a network was easy.
 The network was robust, and connections remained intact until the source and destination
machines were functioning.

The overall idea was to allow one application on one computer to talk to(send data packets) another
application running on different computer.Below we have discussed the 4 layers that form the TCP/IP
reference model:
Layer 1: Host-to-network Layer:
 Lowest layer of the all.
 Protocol is used to connect to the host, so that the packets can be sent over it.
 Varies from host to host and network to network.
Layer 2: Internet layer
 Selection of a packet switching network which is based on a connectionless internetwork layer is
called a internet layer.
 It is the layer which holds the whole architecture together.
 It helps the packet to travel independently to the destination.
 Order in which packets are received is different from the way they are sent.
 IP (Internet Protocol) is used in this layer.
 The various functions performed by the Internet Layer are:
 Delivering IP packets
 Performing routing
 Avoiding congestion
Layer 3: Transport Layer
 It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path.
 Functions such as multiplexing, segmenting or splitting on the data is done by transport layer.
 The applications can read and write to the transport layer.
 Transport layer adds header information to the data.
 Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that they are handled more
efficiently by the network layer.
 Transport layer also arrange the packets to be sent, in sequence.
Layer 4: Application Layer
The TCP/IP specifications described a lot of applications that were at the top of the protocol stack. Some
of them were TELNET, FTP, SMTP, DNS etc.
  TELNET is a two-way communication protocol which allows connecting to a remote machine
and run applications on it.
 FTP(File Transfer Protocol) is a protocol, that allows File transfer amongst computer users
connected over a network. It is reliable, simple and efficient.
 SMTP(Simple Mail Transport Protocol) is a protocol, which is used to transport electronic mail
between a source and destination, directed via a route.
 DNS(Domain Name Server) resolves an IP address into a textual address for Hosts connected
over a network.
 It allows peer entities to carry conversation.
 It defines two end-to-end protocols: TCP and UDP
 TCP(Transmission Control Protocol): It is a reliable connection-oriented protocol which handles
byte-stream from source to destination without error and flow control.
 UDP(User-Datagram Protocol): It is an unreliable connection-less protocol that do not want
TCPs, sequencing and flow control. Eg: One-shot request-reply kind of service.
Merits of TCP/IP model
 It operated independently.
 It is scalable.
 Client/server architecture.
 Supports a number of routing protocols.
 Can be used to establish a connection between two computers.
Demerits of TCP/IP
 In this, the transport layer does not guarantee delivery of packets.
 The model cannot be used in any other application.
 Replacing protocol is not easy.
 It has not clearly separated its services, interfaces and protocols.

Transmission Media
Transmission media is a communication channel that transmits information from the
source/transmitter to the receiver. It is a physical path for data transfer through electromagnetic signals.
Guided Transmission Media:
Guided media are also known as wired or bounded media. These media consist of wires through
which the data is transferred. Guided media is a physical link between transmitter and recipient. These
media types are used for shorter distances since physical limitation limits the signal that flows through
these transmission media.

Twisted Pair Cable:

In this type of transmission media, two insulated conductors of a single circuit are twisted
together to improve electromagnetic compatibility. These are the most widely used transmission medium
cables. These are packed together in protective sheaths. They reduce electromagnetic radiation from pairs
and crosstalk between the neighboring pair. Overall, it improves the rejection of external electromagnetic
interference. These are further subdivided into unshielded and shielded twisted pair cables.

 Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable(UTP): These consist of two insulated copper wires that
are coiled around one another.

 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): This twisted cable consisted of a foil shield to block
external interference.

Optical Fibre Cable: These are thin strands of glass that guide light along their length. These contain
multiple optical fibers and are very often used for long-distance communications.

Coaxial cable :These guided transmission media contain an insulation layer that transmits information
in baseband mode and broadband mode.

Stripline : This is a transverse electromagnetic (TEM) transmission media that is built on the inner
layers of multi-layer printed circuit boards. These are used in high or low-level RF signals that require
isolation from surrounding circuitry.

Microstripline : Microstripline is simiar to stripline, it is not sandwiched and are present above the
ground plane. These can be fabricated with any technology where the conductor is separated from the
ground plane by a dielectric layer called subtrated.
Unguided Transmission Media
Also known as unbounded or wireless media, they help in transmitting electromagnetic signals
without using a physical medium.

Radio Waves : Radio waves are transmitted in every direction throughout free space. Since these are
omnidirectional, sent waves can be received by any antenna.

Infrared : These waves are useful for only very short distance communication. Unlike radio waves, they
do not have the ability to penetrate barriers.

Microwaves : For these waves, it is important for the transmitter and receiver antenna to be aligned.
This is why it is known as line-of-sight transmission. Due to this, they are suitable for shorter distances.

Switching in Computer Networks-

A switched network consists of a series of interlinked nodes, called switches. Switches are devices
capable of creating temporary connections between two or more devices linked to the switch. In a
switched network, some of these nodes are connected to the end systems (computers or telephones, for
example). Others are used only for routing.

The process of moving the data packets towards their destination by forwarding them from one port to the
other port is called as switching.

Various switching techniques are-

Message Switching-

In message switching,

 There exists no dedicated path to transfer data.

 The entire message is treated as a single data unit.
  The message is then forwarded from hop to hop.
 Store and Forward is an important characteristic of message switching.
 The message carries a header that contains the full information about the destination.
 When any intermediate switch receives the message, it stores the entire message.
 The message is stored until sufficient resources become available to transfer it to the next switch.
 When resources become available, the switch forwards the message to the next switch.

Advantages :

 It improves the channel efficiency over Circuit Switched Network.

 It is helpful in reducing traffic congestion.
 The message may be temporarily stored in the route and then forwarded whenever required.
 It is helpful in setting the message priorities due to store and forward technique

Disadvantages:

 It requires enough storage at every switch to accommodate the entire message during the
transmission.
 It is extremely slow due to store and forward technique.
 Also, the message has to wait until sufficient resources become available to transfer it to the next
switch.

Circuit Switching -

This switching technique operates in the following three phases-

1. Establishing a circuit
2. Transferring the data
3. Disconnecting the circuit

 A circuit is established between the two ends.

 Circuit provides a dedicated path for data to travel from one to the other end.
 Resources are reserved at intermediate switches which are used during the transmission.
 The intermediate switches are connected by the physical links.

 After the circuit is established, The entire data travels over the dedicated path from one end to the
other end.
 After the data transfer is completed, The circuit is torn down i.e. disconnected.
 Total time taken to transmit a message in circuit switched network

= Connection set up time + Transmission delay + Propagation delay + Tear down time

where-

Transmission delay = Message size / Bandwidth

Propagation delay = (Number of hops on way x Distance between 2 hops) / Propagation speed

Advantages-

Circuit switching has the following advantages-

 A well defined and dedicated path exists for the data to travel.
 There is no header overhead.
 There is no waiting time at any switch and the data is transmitted without any delay.
 Data always reaches the other end in order.
 No re ordering is required.

Disadvantages-

 Circuit switching has the following disadvantages-

 The channel is blocked for two ends only.
 It is inefficient in terms of utilization of system resources.
 The time required for establishing the circuit between the two ends is too long.
 Dedicated channels require more bandwidth.
 It is more expensive than other switching techniques.
 Routing decisions can not be changed once the circuit is established.

Note: Circuit switching is implemented at physical layer

DATAGRAM NETWORKS

If the message is going to pass through a packet-switched network, it needs to be divided into packets of
fixed or variable size. The size of the packet is determined by the network and the governing protocol. In
packet switching, there is no resource allocation for a packet. The allocation is done on a first come, first-
served basis. When a switch receives a packet, no matter what is the source or destination, the packet
must wait if there are other packets being processed.

In datagram switching,

 There exists no dedicated path for data to travel.

 The header of each packet contains the destination address.
 When any intermediate switch receives the packet, it examines its destination address.
 It then consults the routing table.
 Routing table finds the corresponding port through which the packet should be forwarded.
  Datagram switching is normally done at the network layer

The datagram networks are sometimes referred to as connectionless networks. The term connectionless
here means that the switch (packet switch) does not keep information about the connection state. There
are no setup or teardown phases.switch (or packet switch) has a routing table which is based on the
destination address. The routing tables are dynamic and are updated periodically. The destination
addresses and the corresponding forwarding output ports are recorded in the tables.

 The efficiency of a datagram network is better than that of a circuit-switched network.

 There may be greater delay in a datagram network than in a virtual-circuit network.

VIRTUAL-CIRCUIT NETWORKS

Virtual circuit switching operates in the following three phases-

1. Establishing a circuit
2. Transferring the data
3. Disconnecting the circuit

 A logical connection is established between the two ends.

 It provides a dedicated path for data to travel from one to the other end.
 Resources are reserved at intermediate switches which are used during the transmission
 The entire data travels over the dedicated path from one end to the other end.
 The connection is disconnected after transmission.

Virtual Circuit Switching Datagram Switching

The first packet during its transmission-

1) Informs the intermediate switches that more
packets are following. The first packet does not perform any such task
during its transmission.
2) Reserve resources (CPU, bandwidth and buffer)
for the following packets at all the switches on the
way.
 The packets are never discarded at intermediate The packets may be discarded at intermediate
switches and immediately forwarded since switches if sufficient resources are not available
resources are reserved for them. to process the packets.

It is a connection oriented service since resources

It is a connection less service since no resources
are reserved for the packets at intermediate
are reserved for the packets.
switches.

All the packets follow the same dedicated path. All the packets take path independently.

Data appears in order at the destination since all the Data may appear out of order at the destination
packets take the same dedicated path. since the packets take path independently.

It is highly reliable since no packets are discarded. It is not reliable since packets may be discarded.

It is costly. It is cost effective.

Only first packet requires a global header which

identifies the path from one end to other end.
All the packets require a global header which
All the following packets require a local header contains full information about the destination.
which identifies the path from hop to hop.

ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) uses virtual

IP Networks use datagram switching.
circuit switching.

Virtual circuit switching is normally implemented at Datagram switching is normally implemented at

data link layer. network layer.

MULTIPLEXING

Multiplexing is the name given to techniques, which allow more than one message
to be transferred via the same communication channel. The channel in this context could be a
transmission line, e.g. a twisted pair or co-axial cable, a radio system or a fibre optic system etc.
Frequency-Division Multiplexing
Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is an analog technique that can be applied when
the bandwidth of a link (in hertz) is greater than the combined bandwidths of the signals to be
transmitted. In FOM, signals generated by each sending device modulate different carrier
frequencies. These modulated signals are then combined into a single composite signal that can
be transported by the link. Carrier frequencies are separated by sufficient bandwidth to
accommodate the modulated signal. These bandwidth ranges are the channels through which the
various

signals travel. Channels can be separated by strips of unused bandwidth-guard bands-to prevent
signals from overlapping. In addition, carrier frequencies must not interfere with the original
data frequencies.
Multiplexing Process

Figure is a conceptual illustration of the multiplexing process. Each source generates a

signal of a similar frequency range. Inside the multiplexer, these similar signals modulates
different carrier frequencies (/1,12, and h). The resulting modulated signals are then combined
into a single composite signal that is sent out over a media link that has enough bandwidth to
accommodate it.
Demultiplexing Process

The demultiplexer uses a series of filters to decompose the multiplexed signal into its constituent
component signals. The individual signals are then passed to a demodulator that separates them
from their carriers and passes them to the output lines. Figure 3 is a conceptual illustration of
demultiplexing process.

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM): This is possible when data transmission rate of the
media is much higher than that of the data rate of the source. Multiple signals can be transmitted
if each signal is allowed to be transmitted for a definite amount of time. These time slots are so
small that all transmissions appear to be in parallel.

Synchronous TDM: Time slots are preassigned and are fixed. Each source is given it's time slot
at every turn due to it. This turn may be once per cycle, or several turns per cycle ,if it has a high
data transfer rate, or may be once in a no. of cycles if it is slow. This slot is given even if the
source is not ready with data. So this slot is transmitted empty

Asynchronous TDM: In this method, slots are not fixed. They are allotted dynamically
depending on speed of sources, and whether they are ready for transmission.
Wavelength-Division Multiplexing

Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is designed to use the high-data-rate capability of

fiber-optic cable. The optical fiber data rate is higher than the data rate of metallic transmission
cable.

WDM is conceptually the same as FDM, except that the multiplexing and demultiplexing
involve optical signals transmitted through fiber-optic channels. The difference is that the
frequencies are very high.