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2.2 - Language, Thought and Communication (Part 1)

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2.2 - Language, Thought and Communication (Part 1)

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aabudalah71

Available Formats

Download as RTF, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

You are on page 1/ 44

_______________________

Name:
_
2.2 Language, thought and
communication part 1 _______________________
Class:
_

_______________________
Date:
_

Time: 131 minutes

Marks: 131 marks

Comments:

Page 1 of 44
Q1.
Give one conclusion that the researcher could draw about the effect of eye contact on the
flow of a conversation. Use the results in the table to explain your answer.

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 3 marks)

Q2.
Other than regulating the flow of conversation, name one function of eye contact.

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 1 mark)

Q3.
Outline Piaget’s theory that language depends on thought.

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 4 marks)

Q4.
Two students were discussing a television programme they had seen about chimpanzees.

Charlotte: ‘Chimps are so clever; they almost communicate like humans’.

John: ‘I agree that there are similarities – but I’m not sure we would have much
success getting a date if we copied their flirting methods!’

Page 2 of 44
Charlotte: ‘That’s true – taking small bites of a leaf probably would be ‘lost in
translation’.

John: ‘And unlike humans, they wouldn’t be able to communicate about when they
wanted to go on a date’.

Compare human and animal communication. Refer to the conversation above in your
answer.

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 6 marks)

Q5.
Explain why some psychologists believe that non-verbal behaviour is innate.

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 4 marks)

Q6.

Page 3 of 44
Tim came home from school and said to his Mum:

‘In our lesson today, the teacher read out a story called the War of the Ghosts. Then we all
had to write down what we could remember of the story. It was very difficult. I wrote that
the two boys went fishing in a fishing boat, but really one of them went to a battle in a
canoe!!’

Discuss what Bartlett’s theory and research into reconstructive memory and at least one
theory of language and thought tell us about the possible relationship between language
and thought. Refer to Tim’s conversation with his mother as part of your answer.
(Total 9 marks)

Q7.
Read the item and then answer the question that follows.

Mary and Tracey are best friends, but their teacher does not allow them to
sit together in class. When Mary comes into the classroom, Tracey smiles
at her and Mary waves back. When the teacher is not looking Tracey
passes a note to Mary. After Mary reads the note she laughs out loud and
their teacher is not pleased. The teacher tells both girls to stop being silly
and pay attention. Mary frowns at the teacher.

From the passage above, identify two examples of verbal behaviour and two examples of
non-verbal behaviour.

Verbal behaviour Non-verbal behaviour

(Total 4 marks)

Q8.
Outline one difference in animal and human communication. Use an example to explain
your answer.

_______________________________________________________________________

Page 4 of 44
(Total 3 marks)

Q9.
Briefly evaluate Piaget’s theory that language depends on thought.

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 3 marks)

Q10.
Describe and evaluate Yuki’s study of emoticons.

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 6 marks)

Q11.
Read the item and then answer the questions that follow.

Researchers observed the behaviour of 20 babies who were 3 months

old. Ten of the babies were blind and the other 10 were not blind. The
researchers counted the number of times each baby smiled over a one
hour period. The results are shown in the table below.

Total number of smiles for each group of babies over a one hour

Page 5 of 44
period.

Babies who were blind Babies who were not

blind
33 40

(a) Outline what is meant by the term ‘innate’.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)

(b) With reference to the data in the table, discuss whether or not smiling might be an
innate non-verbal behaviour.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(6)

(c) Which of the following statements most accurately describes the target population
for this study? Shade one box only.

A Babies

B Babies who were 3 months old

C Blind babies

Page 6 of 44
D Smiling babies
(1)
(Total 9 marks)

Q12.
Identify and explain one function of eye contact.

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 2 marks)

Q13.
(a) Imagine that you are going to conduct a study to see how status affects personal
space during a conversation.

Use your knowledge of psychology to describe:

• how the study would be carried out

• the results you would expect to find in your study.

How I would carry out the study _________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

Page 7 of 44
The results I would expect to find ________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(5)

(b) Identify one other factor that might have affected the personal space of participants
in the study that you described in your answer to part (a). Explain your answer.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(3)
(Total 8 marks)

Q14.
Read the following descriptions of different types of communication.

Messages that do not require the use of

words or vocal sounds

Speaking using words

Vocal features that accompany speech,

such as tone of voice

From the following list of terms, choose the one that matches each description and write
either A, B or C in the box next to it. Use any letter only once.

A Paralinguistics
B Non-verbal communication
C Verbal communication

Page 8 of 44
(Total 2 marks)

Q15.
What is meant by personal space?

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 1 mark)

Q16.
Describe one study in which a factor that has been shown to affect personal space was
investigated. Include in your answer the aim of the study, the method used, the results
obtained and the conclusion drawn.

Aim ___________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

Method _________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

Results _________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

Conclusion ______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 4 marks)

Q17.
Studies of factors affecting personal space have been criticised. Outline two criticisms of
these studies.

_______________________________________________________________________

Page 9 of 44
_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 4 marks)

Q18.
(a) Identify two factors that affect personal space.

Factor 1 ____________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

Factor 2 ____________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)

(b) Briefly outline how one of the factors that you have identified in your answer to part
(a) might affect personal space.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(1)
(Total 3 marks)

Q19.
The following conversation took place between two office workers.

Katie: “Do you think that Dave was angry when we got to work this morning?”

Julie: “Yes, I do. Even though he didn’t say a word, I could tell by the
expression on his face.”

What is meant by non-verbal communication? Use the conversation above to

support your answer.

_______________________________________________________________________

Page 10 of 44
_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 2 marks)

Q20.
(a) Imagine that you are going to conduct a study to see if there is a difference in how
much a person is liked when they do or do not use postural echo during a
conversation.

Use your knowledge of psychology to describe:

• how the study would be carried out
• the way you would measure how much someone is liked
• the results you would expect to find in your study.

How the study would be carried out ______________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

The way I would measure how much someone is liked _______________________

___________________________________________________________________

The results I would expect to find ________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

Page 11 of 44
___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(5)

(b) Your investigation should control other factors that might affect how much someone
is liked. Briefly explain two factors that should have been controlled in the study that
you have described in your answer to part (a).

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(4)
(Total 9 marks)

Q21.
The following conversation took place between two students after a class.

Carole: “Have you noticed that our teacher never makes eye contact with you
when he is talking to you?”

Hayley: “Yes. I think that’s why I can never tell if it’s my turn to speak when I have
a conversation with him.”

Explain one function of eye contact. Use the conversation above to support your answer.

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 2 marks)

Page 12 of 44
Q22.
Some facial expressions are recognised in most societies. Is this statement true or false?

Tick the correct box.

TRUE FALSE

(Total 1 mark)

Q23.
Read the following article.

Waitresses are being trained to get bigger tips!

Customers were shocked to find that the waitresses in a local restaurant
had been trained to get bigger tips. The manager told them to squat down
when taking orders. “I couldn’t believe how I had been fooled so easily
into giving a generous tip by just a simple gesture,” said one unsuspecting
customer.

(a) Imagine that you are going to conduct a study to investigate how a gesture used by
waitresses (such as squatting down in front of customers), affects the size of the tips
that the customers give. Use your knowledge of psychology to describe:

• what you would do to carry out your study

• the results you would expect to find in your study.

What I would do: _____________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

The results I would expect to find: _______________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

Page 13 of 44
___________________________________________________________________
(4)

(b) What else might have affected the tipping behaviour of participants in the study that
you have described in your answer to part (a)? Explain your answer.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(3)
(Total 7 marks)

Q24.
What is meant by the term ‘eye contact’?

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 1 mark)

Q25.
Explain one function of eye contact. Describe the method and results of a psychological
study to support your answer.

Function _______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

Study __________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

Page 14 of 44
_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 5 marks)

Q26.
(a) Identify two factors that affect personal space.

Factor 1 ___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

Factor 2 ___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)

(b) Imagine that you have been asked to conduct a study to investigate one of the
factors that you have identified in your answer to part (a). Use your knowledge of
psychology to describe:

• what you would do to carry out your study

• the results you would expect to find in your study.

What I would do _____________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

The results I would expect to find ________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(5)

Page 15 of 44
(Total 7 marks)

Q27.
Read the following article which appeared in a popular magazine.

I don’t know what to believe

Dear Problem Page,
I am really worried about my friend. I have a feeling that she is really
sad. When I ask her if anything is wrong, she “says” that she is happy.
But the expression on her face tells me she is sad. I find it very
confusing. Do I believe my eyes or my ears?
Yours faithfully,
Ossie Goode

Briefly explain the difference between non-verbal communication and verbal

communication. Refer to the magazine article in your answer.

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 3 marks)

Q28.
In non-verbal communication, what is meant by eye contact?

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 1 mark)

Q29.
A psychologist conducted a study in which pairs of participants were observed having
conversations. In one condition, one of the participants wore dark glasses. In the other
condition, dark glasses were not worn. The psychologist recorded the number of pauses
and interruptions in both conditions.

Give the results that the psychologist would expect to find in this study.

Explain what can be learned about non-verbal communication by conducting the study
that has been described above.

Page 16 of 44
_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 3 marks)

Q30.
Read the following statement and decide whether it is TRUE or FALSE.

An implication of studies of posture is that, when people use an open posture, their arms
are folded.
Tick the correct box.

True False

(Total 1 mark)

Q31.
Read the following statement and decide whether it is TRUE or FALSE.

An implication of studies of posture is that people who use closed posture in conversation
are not liked as much as those who use open posture.
Tick the correct box.

True False

(Total 1 mark)

Q32.
Read the following article:

The science of attraction

(a gentle touch goes a long way !)
Some men rely on chat-up lines to attract women. But research has
discovered that sometimes a gentle touch is best. One psychologist
has said: ‘Touch a woman lightly on the arm when asking her to dance
and she is more likely to say yes.'

Page 17 of 44
What is meant by non-verbal communication? Refer to the article in your answer.

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 3 marks)

Q33.
(a) Describe the method and results of one study in which touch was investigated.

Method
_____________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

Results ____________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)

(b) Some people might say that studies of touch lack ecological validity. Outline one

Page 18 of 44
other criticism of the study that you have described in your answer to part (a).

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)
(Total 4 marks)

Q34.
Psychologists have studied factors that affect personal space. Explain at least one
criticism of these studies.

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 3 marks)

Q35.
Define the term verbal communication.

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 2 marks)

Page 19 of 44
Mark schemes

Q1.
[AO3 = 3]

3 marks: a correct conclusion and a clear and detailed explanation.

2 marks: a correct conclusion and a limited explanation.
1 mark: a correct conclusion and/or a muddled explanation OR a muddled conclusion and
a clear explanation.

Examples:

• The results in the table show that as the percentage of eye contact increases, the
percentage of non-flowing conversation decreases. Therefore, the researcher could
conclude that when there is more eye contact made in a conversation, then there is
also more smooth flowing conversation (3 marks).
• The results show that as the percentage of eye contact increases, the percentage of
non-flowing conversation decreases. The researcher could conclude that eye
contact affects how smoothly the conversation flows (2 marks).
[3]

Q2.
[AO1 = 1]

1 mark for any of the following.

• Signalling attraction
• Expressing emotion

Credit other relevant answers.

[1]

Q3.
[AO1 = 4]

Level Marks Description

Clear and accurate knowledge of Piaget’s theory with

2 some detail.
3-4
Clear Relevant terminology is used consistently throughout.
The answer is clear, coherent and focused.

Limited or muddled knowledge of Piaget’s theory is

1 present.
1-2
Basic Relevant terminology is occasionally used. The answer
may lack clarity, coherence, focus and logical structure.

0 No relevant content

Indicative content:

Page 20 of 44
• Piaget’s theory says that children develop language by matching the correct words
to their existing knowledge of the world. The child’s understanding of the concept
comes first and then they learn how to express their understanding of it – hence his
theory is that language depends on thought.
• Piaget believed that cognitive development leads to the growth of language and this
means that we can only use language at a level that matches our cognitive
development. A child may copy a word when they hear others use it, but until they
understand the concept, they will not actually be able to use the word to
communicate.
• Piaget’s theory is that children develop their ability to use language in stages. In the
sensorimotor stage, babies are learning what their bodies can do, and this includes
making vocal sounds. Babies begin to copy the sounds that they hear others
making. In the preoperational stage, children are able to voice their internal thoughts
but there is limited use of language for communicating with other people. In the
concrete operational stage, language has developed a lot but it is only used to talk
about actual, concrete things. In the formal operational stage, language can be used
to talk about abstract, theoretical ideas.
• Piaget believed that while all children move through these stages, some people do
not get to the formal operational stage.
[4]

Q4.
[AO2 = 3 AO3 = 3]

Level Marks Description

AO2: Clear application of knowledge and

understanding of the human and animal
communication being talked about in the conversation.
AO3: Analysis and evaluation of similarities and
3 differences of human and animal communication is
5-6
Detailed effective. Any conclusions drawn are sound and fully
expressed.
Relevant terminology is used consistently throughout.
The answer demonstrates a high level of substantiated
reasoning, is clear, coherent and focused.

AO2: Reasonable application of knowledge and

understanding of the human and/or animal
communication being talked about in the conversation.
AO3: There may be some effective analysis and
2 evaluation of similarities and differences of human and
3-4 animal communication. There may be an attempt to
Clear draw conclusions.
Relevant terminology is usually used. The answer
frequently demonstrates substantiated reasoning, and
is clear, generally coherent and focused although
structure may lack some logic.

1 1-2 AO2: Limited application of knowledge and/or

understanding of human and animal communication
Basic being talked about in the conversation.

Page 21 of 44
AO3: Analysis and evaluation of similarities and
differences of human and animal communication is of
limited effectiveness or may be absent. Any attempts to
draw conclusions are not always successful or present.
Relevant terminology is occasionally used. The answer
occasionally demonstrates substantiated reasoning,
but may lack clarity, coherence, focus and logical
structure.

0 No relevant content

Examiners are reminded that AO2 and AO3 are regarded as interdependent. When
deciding on a mark in instances where there is an attempt at more than one assessment
objective all attempts should be considered together using the best fit approach. In doing
so, examiners should bear in mind the relative weightings of the assessment objectives.

When an answer only contains content related to one of the skills (AO2/AO3), then the
levels descriptors for the award of marks for the skill attempted should be applied to the
answer, up to the maximum mark available.

Indicative content:

AO2

• Chimpanzees try to attract a mate (for reproduction) by taking small bites of leaves.
• Humans can plan/discuss events in the future - like where to go on a date.

AO3

• Animal communication has limited functions in comparison to human

communication. Animals are not able to use communication to plan ahead and
discuss future events.
• Both humans and animals communicate to ensure survival and reproduction, to
protect territory and to gather food.
• Because animals are more limited in their use of vocal sounds than humans, they
use their bodies to communicate in ways that humans generally do not.

Credit other relevant content.

[6]

Q5.
[AO1 = 4]

Level Marks Description

Clear and accurate knowledge of why some

psychologists believe that non-verbal behaviour is
2
3-4 innate.
Clear
Relevant terminology is used consistently throughout.
The answer is clear, coherent and focused.

1 1-2 Limited or muddled knowledge of why some

psychologists believe that non-verbal behaviour is
Basic innate.

Page 22 of 44
Relevant terminology is occasionally used. The answer
may lack clarity, coherence, focus and logical structure.

0 No relevant content

Indicative content:

• Neonates use a pre-cry expression that suggests sadness, as well as smiles and
facial expressions that show disgust, pain, and surprise. This suggests that these
expressions are genetic or innate, because newborn babies have not had time to
learn them by observing others.
• Babies who are born blind have smiling behaviours that are similar to that found in
babies with normal vision. This suggests that smiling is genetic or innate because
the information we receive through our different senses helps us to learn, therefore if
non-verbal behaviours are learned, people who are sensory deprived should not be
able to use them in the same way as people who can use all of their senses.
[4]

Q6.
[AO1 = 3 AO2 = 3 AO3 = 3]

Level Marks Description

AO1: Relevant knowledge and understanding of

Bartlett’s theory and research into reconstructive
memory and of theory(ies) of language and thought is
accurate with detail.
AO2: Clear application of knowledge and
understanding of Bartlett’s theory and research and of
3 theory(ies) of language and thought to Tim’s
7–9 comments.
Detailed
AO3: Analysis and discussion of Bartlett’s work and the
possible relationship to language and thought is
effective. Conclusions drawn are sound and fully
expressed.
Relevant terminology is used consistently throughout.
The answer demonstrates a high level of substantiated
reasoning, is clear, coherent and focused.
2 4–6 AO1: Relevant knowledge and understanding of
Bartlett’s theory and/or research into reconstructive
Clear memory and of theory(ies) of language and thought is
present but there are occasional
inaccuracies/omissions.
AO2: There is reasonable application of knowledge
and understanding of Bartlett’s theory and/or research
and of theory(ies) of language and thought to Tim’s
comments.
AO3: There may be some effective analysis and
discussion of Bartlett’s work and a possible relationship
with language and thought. There may be an attempt
to draw conclusions.
Up to 6 marks may be awarded if the answer only

Page 23 of 44
focuses on any two of AO1/AO2/ AO3 skills.
Relevant terminology is usually used. The answer
frequently demonstrates substantiated reasoning, and
is clear, generally coherent and focused although
structure may lack some logic.
AO1: Knowledge and understanding of Bartlett’s work
and/or of theory(ies) of language and thought is
present but limited. There may only be description of a
study.
AO2: Application of knowledge and understanding of
Bartlett’s theory and/or research and/or of theory(ies)
of language and thought to Tim’s comments is limited.
AO3: Analysis and discussion of Bartlett’s work and
possible relationship with language and thought is of
limited effectiveness or may be absent. Any attempts to
draw conclusions are not always successful or present.
1 Relevant terminology is occasionally used. The answer
1–3 occasionally demonstrates substantiated reasoning,
Basic but may lack clarity, coherence, focus and logical
structure.
OR
AO1: Award up to 3 marks for an answer that only
describes relevant theory and/or research.
AO2: Award up to 3 marks for an answer that focuses
only on application skills.
AO3: Award up to 3 marks for an answer that only
attempts to analyse the possible relationship to
language and thought and draws conclusions based on
the work of Bartlett and theory(ies) of language and
thought.
0 No relevant content

Examiners are reminded that AO1, AO2 and AO3 are regarded as interdependent. When
deciding on a mark in instances where there is an attempt at more than one assessment
objective all attempts should be considered together using the best fit approach. In doing
so, examiners should bear in mind the relative weightings of the assessment objectives.

When an answer only contains content related to one of the skills (AO1/AO2/AO3), then
the levels descriptors for the award of marks for the skill attempted should be applied to
the answer, up to the maximum mark available.

Indicative content:

AO1 Knowledge

• Bartlett proposed that human memory is not a literal reproduction of the past, but
instead relies on constructive processes that are sometimes prone to error and
distortion so we change our memories to fit in with what we already know even
though we believe we are thinking accurately.
• Evidence of the War of the Ghost study, including detail of how the story was
passed on and the changes that were noted in different groups.
• There are different theories about the relationship between language and thought –
thinking affects language is the view of Piaget.

Page 24 of 44
• Evidence for Piaget’s view from developmental studies.
• The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is that language determines the structure of thought
processes.
• Evidence for Sapir-Whorf view from cross-cultural studies.

AO2 Application

• The unfamiliar language structures used in War of the Ghosts may have caused
participants to recall the story inaccurately: this might be why Tim did state he found
the task very difficult to do.
• The story was retold/recalled in a way that made sense using existing schemas.
This might be why Tim suggested fishing rather than a battle as the event, or the
boats rather than canoes.

AO3 Analysis and discussion

• Evidence from the Bartlett study might suggest that thinking depends on language.
• The results of the study suggest that only when people changes the words or
actions in the story – i.e. changed the language, could they then think about what
happened and recall anything coherent.
• The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis that the relationship between language and thought is
one in which language determines thinking is supported by the Bartlett study results.
• There is virtually no evidence to support Piaget’s view.
• The research of Bartlett and cross-cultural studies have tasks that are more socially
relevant to the way we use memory in everyday life and makes any analysis of the
relationship between language and thought based on this research more sound.
• However, some research has been criticised because it is difficult to accurately
measure participants’ responses; for example, the scoring method for Bartlett’s War
of the Ghosts study may not be reliable.
• The use of an unfamiliar style of story rather than the language used may have
been the reason why language seemed to affect thinking.
• There are contradictory findings from different studies. For example, research has
found that memories for distinctive events can be relatively resistant to change.
• Vygotsky’s view that language and thought develop independently.
[9]

Q7.
[AO2 = 4]

1 mark for each correct response for verbal, up to 2 marks

1 mark for each correct response for non-verbal, up to 2 marks.

Verbal Non-verbal

Tracey passing a note Tracey smiling

Mary laughing out loud Mary waving

Teacher telling off Mary frowning

[4]

Q8.
[AO1 = 1 and AO2 = 2]

Indicative content:

Page 25 of 44
AO1

1 mark for outlining a difference.

• Animal communication has more limited functions.

OR
• Greater variety of function for human communication.

AO2

2 marks for an appropriate example.

• Animals only communicate to pass messages about

survival/reproduction/territory/obtaining food such as a rabbit thumping to warn of
predators for survival or a bee waggle dance to tell other bees where food is.
• Humans communicate information about things that have not yet happened, they
can imagine possible events and talk about these.
[3]

Q9.
[AO3 = 3]

Up to 3 marks for a brief evaluation of Piaget’s theory.

3 marks: evaluation is clear and accurate.

2 marks: a clear evaluation, minor inaccuracy may be present.
1 mark: a muddled attempt at an evaluation.

Indicative content:

• Very little evidence to support Piaget’s theory.

• Very limited research currently taking place into his approach.
• Piaget may have misjudged the degree to which children use language to ask
questions and learn about the world.
• Piaget neglected the social function of language.
• There is more research supporting the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.

Accept other relevant evaluation points.

[3]

Q10.
[AO1 = 3 AO3 = 3]

Level Marks Description

AO1: Relevant knowledge and understanding of the

study is accurate with detail.
3 AO3: Clear and detailed evaluation of the relevant
5–6 study.
Detailed
Relevant terminology is used consistently throughout.
The answer demonstrates a high level of substantiated
reasoning, is clear, coherent and focused.
2 3–4 AO1: There is a clear description of the relevant study

Page 26 of 44
with less detail
OR there is a clear and detailed description but basic
evaluation.
AO3: There is a clear evaluation of the relevant study
with less detail
Clear OR there is a clear and detailed evaluation but basic
description. There may only be description of the study
at AO1 Level 3 for 3 marks max.
Relevant terminology is occasionally used. The answer
occasionally demonstrates substantiated reasoning,
but may lack clarity, coherence, focus and logical
structure.
AO1: There is a basic or muddled description of the
relevant study
1 AND/OR
1–2 AO3: There is a basic or muddled evaluation of the
Basic
relevant study.
Relevant terminology may not be used at all or may be
muddled.
0 No relevant content

Examiners are reminded that AO1 and AO3 are regarded as interdependent. When
deciding on a mark in instances where there is an attempt at more than one assessment
objective all attempts should be considered together using the best fit approach. In doing
so, examiners should bear in mind the relative weightings of the assessment objectives.

When an answer only contains content related to one of the skills (AO1/AO3), then the
levels descriptors for the award of marks for the skill attempted should be applied to the
answer, up to the maximum mark available.

Indicative content:

AO1

• Yuki showed American and Japanese students emoticons with six different
combinations of happy/neutral/sad eyes and mouths. Participants were asked to
give a rating between 1 and 9 for how happy they thought each face was.
• The Japanese students gave the highest ratings to the faces with happy eyes and
the American students gave the highest ratings to the faces with the happy mouths.
Japanese students gave the lowest ratings to the faces with sad eyes and the
American students gave the lowest ratings to the faces with sad mouths.
• The results show that Japanese and American people understand facial expressions
differently and give more weight to different parts of the face when interpreting
another person’s emotions. The Japanese focus more on the eyes while Americans
focus more on the mouth.
• Yuki concluded that this is because of differences in socialisation in the two cultures.

AO3

• Lack of ecological validity, e.g. Yuki et al used computer generated faces to test
participants not real faces.
• Demand characteristics, e.g. participants were aware they were taking part in a
piece of research so may have not given true responses.

Page 27 of 44
• Not representative, e.g. the samples in both conditions were students – no younger
or older people.
• Findings cannot be generalised, e.g. the study only looked at one element of
emotion (happy/sad) and not at any other emotions.

Accept other relevant information.

[6]

Q11.
(a) [AO1 = 2]

When a trait or characteristic/behaviour (accept an appropriate example) is due to

heredity/inherited/inborn/from genetics (1 mark) rather than being learned through
experience (1 mark).
2

(b) [AO2 = 3 AO3 = 3]

Level Marks Description

AO2: Clear application of knowledge and

understanding of the concepts of non-verbal
behaviour and innateness.
AO3: Analysis and discussion of the results and
2 their ability to support the concept of innateness
4–6 is effective. Conclusions drawn are sound and
Clear fully expressed.
Relevant terminology is used consistently
throughout. The answer demonstrates a high
level of substantiated reasoning, is clear,
coherent and focused.
AO2: Application of knowledge and
understanding of the concepts of non-verbal
behaviour and innateness may be attempted.
AO3: Analysis and discussion of the results and
1 their ability to support the concept of innateness
1–3 are of limited effectiveness. There may be an
Basic attempt to draw conclusions.
Relevant terminology is occasionally used. The
answer occasionally demonstrates substantiated
reasoning, but may lack clarity, coherence, focus
and logical structure.
0 No relevant content

Examiners are reminded that AO2 and AO3 are regarded as interdependent. When
deciding on a mark in instances where there is an attempt at more than one
assessment objective all attempts should be considered together using the best fit
approach. In doing so, examiners should bear in mind the relative weightings of the
assessment objectives.

When an answer only contains content related to one of the skills (AO2/AO3), then
the levels descriptors for the award of marks for the skill attempted should be
applied to the answer, up to the maximum mark available.

Page 28 of 44
Indicative content:

A02

• The non-verbal behaviour in the study is the smiling of the babies which was
counted as number of smiles.
• The results for both conditions can be described as similar because 33 and 40
are close numbers, only 7 different.
• The results for both conditions can be described as different because 40 is
higher than 33 by 7 smiles.

AO3
• Drawing the conclusion that the results were very similar suggests that babies
do not have to be able see in order to learn to smile, smiling is innate.
• Drawing the conclusion that the results were different suggests that babies
have to learn to smile, it is not innate.
• Another conclusion could be that we do not have enough information from the
study (about what they were smiling at) to relate the results to innate
behaviour.
• The classification of mouth movements as a smile could have been inaccurate
which means the data collected could be invalid.

Accept other relevant points which could affect the conclusions drawn, e.g.
familiarity of adults.
6

B
1
[9]

Q12.
This mark scheme is from a question paper that assessed a previous specification and
has not been edited. Click [here] to access a document explaining the differences that
might apply to it.

[AO1 = 1 mark AO2 = 1 mark]

2 marks: a clear identification of a function and a clear explanation.

1 mark: a limited or muddled answer

OR a clear identification
OR a clear explanation

Possible functions: regulating the flow of conversation, providing feedback, expressing

emotion (such as anger or attraction), showing you are listening, indicating interest or
attraction.

Accept other relevant functions.

Indicative content:

• Eye contact regulates the flow of conversation because people use eye movements
to signal turn taking.
• Dilated pupils can be seen as a sign we are attracted to someone. We are also
more likely to find someone with dilated pupils to be more attractive.

Page 29 of 44
• People prefer those who look at them more frequently. This may be because we
interpret a high level of looking as a signal of attraction.

Accept other relevant explanations.

[2]

Q13.
This mark scheme is from a question paper that assessed a previous specification and
has not been edited. Click [here] to access a document explaining the differences that
might apply to it.

(a) [AO2 = 5 marks]

AO2: Up to 3 marks for a description of a method.

3 marks: a clear and plausible description of the method with at least two conditions
of the IV described and reference to a conversation being part of the research
method used.

2 marks: a plausible description of the method with either one element missing OR
a lack of clarity

1 mark: a limited or muddled description.

AO2: Up to 2 marks for description of appropriate results in line with known

psychological research.

2 marks: a clear description of appropriate results that contain both conditions of the
IV with a comparison made between them and an indication that space/distance (not
comfort levels) was the DV.

1 mark: a limited or muddled description.

(b) [AO3 = 3 marks]

AO3: 1 mark for a correct factor.

Possible factors: culture/cultural norms (NB accept race and ethnicity), sex/gender
differences, individual differences (e.g. personality, age), relationship. Accept other
relevant factors.
NOTE: Do not accept factors that affect the amount of space available – e.g. the
room being crowded.

AO3: Up to 2 marks can be awarded for a relevant explanation of the identified

factor.

2 marks: a clear explanation containing a comparison and a reference to

space/distance (and not just comfort levels).

1 mark: a limited or muddled description.

Indicative content:
• Within some cultures, personal space is closer than in other cultures. For
example, white English people stand further away from each other than
people from Arab cultures.

Page 30 of 44
• Two people of different genders usually stand further apart when in
conversation than two people of the same gender.
• Introverts prefer to have more personal space than extroverts so an individual
difference like personality could have been a factor affecting the personal
space in the described experiment.

Accept other relevant explanations.

NOTE: The factor affecting personal space can be embedded within the
explanation.

NOTE: IF the study described in part (a) is not about how status affects personal
space, answers for part (b) can still be creditworthy BUT if no study is described in
part (a), then no marks can be awarded.
3
[8]

Q14.
This mark scheme is from a question paper that assessed a previous specification and
has not been edited. Click [here] to access a document explaining the differences that
might apply to it.

[AO1 = 2]

Messages that do not require the use of

B
words or vocal sounds

Speaking using words C

Vocal features that accompany speech,

A
such as tone of voice.
[2]

Q15.
This mark scheme is from a question paper that assessed a previous specification and
has not been edited. Click [here] to access a document explaining the differences that
might apply to it.

[AO1 = 1]

AO1: 1 mark for correct definition of personal space that includes reference to distance (or
room) and a sense of other people.

NOTE: Do not accept ‘space’ as a reference to distance.

[1]

Q16.
This mark scheme is from a question paper that assessed a previous specification and
has not been edited. Click [here] to access a document explaining the differences that
might apply to it.

[AO1 = 4]

Page 31 of 44
Any relevant study can receive credit, the most likely factors being cultural norms, sex
differences, individual differences and status.

Creditworthy points:
• A suitable aim for a factor affecting personal space.
• A method containing details of how the research was carried out.
• Results that give a clear indication of outcome for the method described (figures
need not be given).
• A valid conclusion that is based on the described outcome of the study and
describes how the chosen factor affects personal space.

4 marks: A clear description of a relevant and recognisable study containing all four
required elements.
3 marks: A reasonable description of a relevant and recognisable study containing all four
elements or a description with one element missing or unclear.
2 marks: A description of a relevant and recognisable study that is either very brief or has
more than one element missing or unclear.
1 mark: A muddled description of a study with some relevance.

NOTE: Credit ‘touch studies’ if touch is clearly shown to be a factor affecting personal
space.
[4]

Q17.
This mark scheme is from a question paper that assessed a previous specification and
has not been edited. Click [here] to access a document explaining the differences that
might apply to it.

[AO3 = 4]

AO3: 4 marks in total - up to 2 marks can be earned for each outline of a criticism (Max;
2 marks per criticism).
2 marks: A clear outline of a criticism.
1 mark: A limited or muddled outline of a criticism.

Possible criticisms:
• The outcome of these studies could be misleading, because the factors do not
operate in isolation in everyday life.
• When we are with people we probably use a number of different distances
depending on what is happening at the time/how much space is available.

Credit other valid criticisms.

NOTE: Answers that just give criticisms can still receive full marks if these criticisms are
also relevant to other studies of factors affecting personal space.

NOTE: Simply stating that the explanation lacks ecological validity, without elaboration,
will earn no credit.
[4]

Q18.
This mark scheme is from a question paper that assessed a previous specification and
has not been edited. Click [here] to access a document explaining the differences that

Page 32 of 44
might apply to it.

(a) [A01 = 2]

AO1: 1 mark for each correct factor.

Possible factors:
Cultural norms, facial expression, sex / gender differences, individual differences
(e.g.: personality – introvert / extravert), relationship, status. Accept other relevant
factors.
2

(b) [A01 = 1]

AO1: 1 mark for a brief outline of how one of the factors will affect personal space.

Possible points:
Cultural norms: within some cultures, personal space is closer than in other cultures.
Sex differences: there is usually more space between ourselves and members of
the opposite sex.
Individual differences: Introverts prefer more personal space compared to
extraverts.
Status: We tend to stand closer to people of the same status as ourselves.

NOTE: Do not accept answers that only refer to feeling more / less comfortable
without reference to space.
1
[3]

Q19.
This mark scheme is from a question paper that assessed a previous specification and
has not been edited. Click [here] to access a document explaining the differences that
might apply to it.

[AO1 = 1 AO2 = 1]

AO1: 1 mark for a correct definition of non-verbal communication.

Possible definition:
Conveying messages (accept showing your feelings) without voice/words OR conveying
messages with body language / facial expression/gestures.

AO2: 1 mark for appropriate reference to conversation.

Possible reference:
Julie could tell by the expression on Dave’s face that he was angry.

NOTE: This is the only part of the conversation that can receive credit in support of the
answer.
[2]

Q20.
This mark scheme is from a question paper that assessed a previous specification and
has not been edited. Click [here] to access a document explaining the differences that
might apply to it.

Page 33 of 44
(a) [A02 = 5]

AO2:
• 3 marks - A clear plausible description of a method, with both conditions
clearly identified.
• 2 marks - A description of a method with both conditions clearly identified.
• 1 mark - Only one condition present and/or description muddled.
Plus
• An indication of what would be measured (1 mark). For example, ask
participant to give a liking score or answer to indicate how much the other
person was liked (1 mark). (Must refer to liking).
Plus
• 1 mark for description of appropriate results in line with known psychological
research (must refer to liking).
5

(b) [A03 = 4]

NOTE: If the study in part (a) is not about postural echo, correct factors in part
(b) that are appropriate for the study described should be awarded marks. If
there is no study in part (a), no marks can be awarded for part (b).

AO3: Up to 4 marks (2 + 2) for a brief explanation of two other factors that might
affect how much someone is liked in the study that was described.

Possible factors:
There are many possible factors that can receive credit. Here are just a few;
• Facial expression (1 mark). If a person was frowning / smiling, it might
affect liking (1 mark).
• Personality (1 mark). If a person was outgoing/reserved they might be liked
more / less (1 mark).
• Sex / Gender (1 mark). Participants may feel more liking towards members of
the same / opposite sex / gender (1 mark).
• Culture (1 mark). We may feel that we like / dislike people of the same /
different culture (1 mark).
4
[9]

Q21.
This mark scheme is from a question paper that assessed a previous specification and
has not been edited. Click [here] to access a document explaining the differences that
might apply to it.

[AO2 = 2]

AO2: One mark for identifying an appropriate function of eye contact from the
conversation.

Possible functions:
To signal turn taking in conversation. Also allow; ensuring the smooth flow of conversation;
providing feedback about, for example: emotion, interest, attraction.

One mark for appropriate reference to conversation; Hayley said she could never tell
when it was her turn to speak.
[2]

Page 34 of 44
Q22.
This mark scheme is from a question paper that assessed a previous specification and
has not been edited. Click [here] to access a document explaining the differences that
might apply to it.

[AO1 = 1]

TRUE FALSE

✓
[1]

Q23.
This mark scheme is from a question paper that assessed a previous specification and
has not been edited. Click [here] to access a document explaining the differences that
might apply to it.

(a) [AO2 = 4]

Up to 3 marks for the description of an appropriate method. Answers will most

likely be based on the work of Lynn and Mynier.

NOTE: Credit may be given for other gestures, for example, touch, provided
the description makes psychological sense.

Points of description:
A clear description of method that contains two or more conditions (2 marks)
An indication of what would be measured (1 mark). Maximum of 3 marks
If just one condition is described, regardless of any indication of a
measurement award 1 mark only.
Plus
1 mark for description of appropriate results in line with known psychological
research.

No mark for results if only one condition has been described.

(b) [AO3 = 3]

AO3: Up to 3 marks for saying what else might have affected tipping behaviour
(1 mark) and relevant explanation (2 marks).

Possible answers:
Size of bill, same or opposite sex customers, facial expression, etc.

NOTE: A list of three different things should receive a maximum of 1 mark.

Two things identified with one elaborated can receive full credit (2 + 1).

Possible elaboration:
Tips are often calculated as a percentage of the bill (1 mark), therefore the
higher the bill, the greater the tip might be (1 mark).
Male customers might feel more attracted to the waitresses than female
customers (1 mark).
Therefore males might feel inclined to give a greater tip (1 mark)

Page 35 of 44
If the waitress is smiling, she might appear friendlier (1 mark) and customers
might give a higher tip to waitresses who smile compared to waitresses who
frown (1 mark)
Other appropriate and well-reasoned examples should receive credit also.
3
[7]

Q24.
This mark scheme is from a question paper that assessed a previous specification and
has not been edited. Click [here] to access a document explaining the differences that
might apply to it.

[AO1 = 1]

Possible definition: Eye contact is when two people are looking at each other’s eyes at the
same time (1 mark).
Allow: Looking at each other’s face at the same time, eyes meet, catching someone’s eye
(1 mark). NOTE: Do not allow ‘looking at each other at the same time.' This is too vague.
[1]

Q25.
This mark scheme is from a question paper that assessed a previous specification and
has not been edited. Click [here] to access a document explaining the differences that
might apply to it.

[AO1 = 1 AO2 = 4]

AO1: 1 mark for identifying one function of eye contact.

Possible functions: Signalling turn taking in conversation, regulating the flow of information
in conversation, providing feedback about how the message is being received/about
emotions, smooth flow of conversation, etc.

AO2: Up to 4 marks for describing the method and results of a supporting study.

Points of description: Method containing condition(s) of a study (up to 2 marks), and

results of condition(s) (up to 2 marks). NOTE: for the maximum marks both the method
and results must contain some elaboration; (for example, as in the Kendon study), or
comparison; (for example, as in the Argyle study).

NOTE: For full credit, the function and study must match
[5]

Q26.
This mark scheme is from a question paper that assessed a previous specification and
has not been edited. Click [here] to access a document explaining the differences that
might apply to it.

(a) [AO1 = 2]

AO1: 1 mark for each appropriate factor. Allow any factor that makes sense.

Possible factors: cultural norms, sex differences, individual differences, status, age,
facial expression, etc.

Page 36 of 44
NOTE: If the study does not match either factor, award 1 mark max for factor
2

(b) [AO2 = 3]

AO2: Up to 3 marks for the description of an appropriate method. Answers will most
likely be based on the work of Argyle & Dean, Willis, Williams, Summer, Zahn.

Points of description:
• Methodology, e.g. observation (1 mark)
• Outline of conditions (up to 2 marks)
• Indication of sample (1 mark). Do not accept ‘People’
• Task (1 mark)
• Indication of what would be measured (1 mark)
max 3

[AO2 = 2]

AO2: Up to 2 marks for description of appropriate results in line with known

psychological research.

Points of description: Figures need not be given. For maximum marks, reference
must be made to all conditions described in the method. Maximum of 1 mark if
results of only one condition are given.

NOTE: Reference to one condition only would earn a maximum of 1 mark without a
clear comparison to a second condition; for example, ‘English people stand further
away from each other.' This would earn 1 mark; compared to whom?
2
[7]

Q27.
This mark scheme is from a question paper that assessed a previous specification and
has not been edited. Click [here] to access a document explaining the differences that
might apply to it.

[AO1 = 2 AO2 = 1]

AO1: Up to two marks can be earned for briefly explaining the difference between non-
verbal and verbal communication.
Possible points to include: Non-verbal communication is conveying messages that do not
require the use of words or vocal sounds (1 mark). Verbal communication is conveying
messages using words or vocal sounds (1 mark). They are different ways of conveying
messages (1 mark). One way uses words or vocal sounds and the other way does not (1
mark).

AO2: 1 mark for appropriate reference to the article.

Possible reference: In the article, the letter writer is unsure whether the non-verbal
message or the verbal message is more accurate (1 mark).
[3]

Q28.
This mark scheme is from a question paper that assessed a previous specification and
has not been edited. Click [here] to access a document explaining the differences that
might apply to it.

Page 37 of 44
[AO1 = 1]

Possible definition: Eye contact is when two people in conversation are looking at each
other’s eyes at the same time (1 mark). Looking at each other’s face at the same time (1
mark). Allow: eyes meet, catching someone’s eye. NOTE: Do Not Allow ‘Looking at each
other at the same time’. This is too vague.
[1]

Q29.
This mark scheme is from a question paper that assessed a previous specification and
has not been edited. Click [here] to access a document explaining the differences that
might apply to it.

[AO2 = 3]

Answer: In the study described, we would expect more pauses and interruptions in the
condition where dark glasses are worn (1 mark).

Possible points: The study can provide information about the function of eye contact in
conversation (1 mark). Wearing dark glasses interrupts eye contact (1 mark). If there are
more pauses and interruptions in one condition, it will show that eye contact helps the
smooth flow of conversation (1 mark). It can make people feel uncomfortable (1 mark).
Eye contact is very important in conversation (1 mark). Up to 2 marks.
[3]

Q30.
This mark scheme is from a question paper that assessed a previous specification and
has not been edited. Click [here] to access a document explaining the differences that
might apply to it.

[AO2 = 1]

True False

✓
[1]

Q31.
This mark scheme is from a question paper that assessed a previous specification and
has not been edited. Click [here] to access a document explaining the differences that
might apply to it.

[AO2 = 1]

True False

✓
[1]

Q32.
This mark scheme is from a question paper that assessed a previous specification and

Page 38 of 44
has not been edited. Click [here] to access a document explaining the differences that
might apply to it.

[AO1 = 2 AO2 = 1]

AO1 marks by definition or may be by example.

Possible answer: Non-verbal communication is conveying messages (1 mark) that do not

require the use of words. (1 mark). Allow ‘without the use of words’ (1 mark)

AO2 mark for reference to the article.

Possible answer: The article suggests that a light touch on the arm is a good means of
non-verbal communication (1 mark).
Allow ‘for example, the article refers to touch.’ (1 mark)
[3]

Q33.
This mark scheme is from a question paper that assessed a previous specification and
has not been edited. Click [here] to access a document explaining the differences that
might apply to it.

(a) [AO1 = 2]

AO1 Up to 2 marks for the method (method must have two conditions) and results of
an appropriate study. The most likely study will be Fisher, Rytting & Heslin (1976).

Possible answer: Students in a library were handed books by the librarian. Half of
the students were briefly touched on the hand by the librarian. The other half weren’t
touched.

When questioned later, the students (females) who were touched had a much more
positive attitude towards the library and the librarian.

Even if method has only one condition if the results are clear for 2 conditions award
1 mark.

[The study referred to in the article took place in 2008. The study found that two-
thirds of women agreed to dance with a man who touched them on the arm for a
second while making the request. When the same man kept his hands by his side
while asking women to dance, his success rate fell by 50%. (Allow full credit if the
method & results of this study are described)]
2

(b) [AO3 = 2]

AO3 Up to 2 marks for the outline of one relevant criticism of the study described
even if the study is not relevant to touch. Criticism stated (1), elaboration (1)

Possible answer: The participants were all students (1 mark), therefore we do not
know if males are affected in the same way (1 mark).

Note: accept answers that say participants were all female.

Note: generic criticisms maximum 1 mark.

2
[4]

Page 39 of 44
Q34.
This mark scheme is from a question paper that assessed a previous specification and
has not been edited. Click [here] to access a document explaining the differences that
might apply to it.

[AO3 = 3]

AO3 marks for a detailed explanation of one criticism or a brief outline of more than one
criticism. Ethical criticisms are also acceptable.

Possible answer: Studies of factors which affect personal space can be misleading (1
mark) because they do not operate in isolation from other aspects of NVC (1 mark). For
example, someone’s facial expression when we interact with them could affect our use of
personal space (1 mark).
[3]

Q35.
This mark scheme is from a question paper that assessed a previous specification and
has not been edited. Click [here] to access a document explaining the differences that
might apply to it.

[AO1 = 2]

AO1 Up to 2 marks for an accurate definition which may be by example.

Possible answer: Verbal communication requires the use of words or vocal sounds to
convey messages (2 marks). Do not allow “to communicate”.
[2]

Page 40 of 44
Examiner reports

Q12.
The majority of students achieved full marks on this question and displayed excellent
knowledge of breaking/maintaining eye contact in order to facilitate turn taking. Some
students appeared to misunderstand the question and just explained eye contact, rather
than a function of eye contact.

Q13.
(a) Although some students answered this question very well, it was not uncommon for
answers to just describe a study into personal space, rather than a study that
investigated the effect of status. Other answers attempted to address the effect of
status but seemed unsure as to what the term meant - with a number of answers
taking it to mean ‘relationship status’. Another issue was that people described
confederates of different status having conversations with participants, but then they
did not identify what the status of the participants was. This made the description of
the method limited and also had a knock-on effect on the clarity of the results.

(b) This question was generally well answered with a high majority of students referring
to a relevant factor such as age, culture or personality. Unfortunately, students often
referred to levels of comfort whilst standing next to someone of the same/different
gender (for example) rather than the actual physical distance between them.

Q15.
55% of students provided an appropriate definition for personal space. Most of those who
failed to do so gave a definition where ‘space’ was the only reference given for the
concept of distance. Students should be advised to avoid using any parts of key terms to
explain/define them.

Q16.
This question was generally well answered with many students displaying knowledge of
relevant studies. However, a number of students described a study into personal space
generally, rather than a study that investigated a factor affecting personal space. Many
answers continue to have aims and conclusions with virtually identical wording.
Conclusions need to be based on the described outcome of the study and describe what
the results show about the aspect that has been under investigation.

Q17.
Many students were able to give some relevant criticisms, but they often struggled to
clearly develop their answers and less than 10% gained full marks. Some answers
focused on just one study (most commonly the study they had described in the previous
question). Where these answers gave criticisms that were relevant to personal space
studies in general, full marks could still be earned. However, some gave answers about
the lack of generalisation due to the use of specific types of participants or a study being
carried out in a specific country, and these answers were not creditworthy.

Q18.
(a) Most students received two marks here although there was some confusion over the
difference between personal space and how much space a certain situation may

Page 41 of 44
allow you to have around you. Some answers were too vague to receive any credit
(ie eye contact) or were not exact enough in their use of language (ie the use of race
rather than culture/ethnicity).

(b) This question was generally well answered with many students making some
reference to research findings. The most frequent issue occurred when students
simply referred to ‘feeling comfortable/uncomfortable’ and did not mention
space/distance at all.

Q19.
The majority of students provided a good definition and article reference here. Most of
those who failed to do so gave a good reference to the article but were unclear with their
definition. Students should be advised to avoid using the word ‘communicate’ when
explaining communication.

Q20.
(a) This ‘scenario’ type of question appeared for the first time a few years ago and
allows students to demonstrate how they can apply their knowledge (AO2). Students
are becoming increasingly better prepared for this type of question and many
answered it well. The majority of answers were based on the McGinley (1975) study.

Many responses which earned fewer than five marks, did so because they did not
provide measurements or results specifically for ‘liking’, referring instead to the
confederate’s level of friendliness, or how well the conversation flowed. Some
students described studies that investigated open/closed posture rather than
postural echo.

(b) There were some very well thought out answers here that clearly explained how the
chosen factors would affect the liking of the confederate if they were not controlled.
Some students, however, gave answers that were simply about controlling a variety
of extraneous variables but which were not made relevant to an effect on how much
someone is liked.

Q21.
This was well answered. Most students could explain one function of eye contact. Those
students who earned just 1 mark here did not use the relevant part of the conversation to
support their answer. They should have referred to Hayley not knowing when it was her
turn to speak. It was also quite common to see answers incorrectly stating that a function
of eye contact is ‘so that we know if someone is talking to us or someone else’.

Q23.
(a) Students were better prepared for this type of item and many answered it very well.
This type of question appeared for the first time last year and allows students to
demonstrate how they can apply their knowledge (AO2). The majority of answers
were based on the Lynn and Mynier (1993) study. Others chose to describe studies
containing gestures other than having waitresses squatting to take orders. If these
studies made psychological sense, full credit was given. Many responses which
earned fewer than four marks neglected to say what would be measured in their
study or only described one condition.

(b) There were some excellent ideas here. However, some students did not explain their
answer, as required by the question, they simply listed several factors that may

Page 42 of 44
affect tipping behaviour, limiting the number of marks they could earn to 1 mark.

Q24.
This was a straightforward question but many students did not earn the mark. The crucial
piece of information that was missing from many answers was that people have to look at
each other’s eyes at the same time for eye contact to happen. Answers that did not make
that point clearly received no credit.

Q25.
This was the first time that this question style, offering 5 marks, has appeared in a Unit 1
paper and students handled it very well. The mark scheme allowed many routes to top
marks and students took good advantage of this, with many earning 4 or 5 marks.
However, the question clearly required the method and results of a study of eye contact.
Therefore, those students who described a study of pupil dilation, in which participants
looked at photographs rather than into another person’s eyes could not earn marks for
those answers. There was no eye contact involved in that study.

Q26.
(b) This is the first 5 mark question of this style to appear in a Unit 1 paper and, again,
students handled it well. The mark scheme offered different ways to achieve 3
marks for the method, citing five possible points of description. Therefore
descriptions were varied and good. Reporting of results tended to be straightforward
and the majority of students earned 4 or 5 marks for their answers. Those who
struggled were unclear about how personal space was measured. Students who
described confederates sitting next to people on park benches to see how
uncomfortable they appeared were less successful.

Q27.
This was well answered by the majority of students, although some simply defined the
terms rather than explaining the difference between them. Students should be advised to
avoid using the word ‘communicate’ when explaining communication.

Q29.
This was very well answered. The majority of students understood the NVC issues raised
by the study described.

Q32.
This was well answered by many students and the majority were awarded a mark for
referring to the article. However, many definitions included the words ‘communication’ and
non-verbal’, and these were not creditworthy. Alternative words and phrases must be
found when providing a definition for ‘non-verbal communication’.

Q33.
This was one of the best answered items in the question paper. A large number of
students described the ‘library’ study, as expected. Others were quite inventive with their
descriptions of touch studies, many of these worthy of full credit. There were a number of
descriptions that did not relate to ‘touch’, and these earned no marks. Generic evaluations
that did not relate specifically to the touch study described were limited to a maximum of 1
mark.

Page 43 of 44
Q35.
This question was well answered. Many candidates who failed to earn maximum marks
used the word ‘communicate’ within their definition. Candidates should be reminded that
words other than the term given in the question itself must be used when providing
definitions or elaboration of terminology.

Page 44 of 44

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