CHAPTER 1 – INTEGERS AND ITS PROPERTIES

Introduction

The set of integers consists of zero, negative and positive numbers.

The word integer was introduced by Arbermouth Holst in 1563 when he was
doing an experiment. It has many interesting properties and the study of
these will be the main focus of this modularized material.

Learning Objectives:

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

discuss the basic concepts of integers, divisors, divisibility and linear

combination,
deduce properties and related facts on integers and divisors,
apply the properties of integers, divisibility, divisors, linear
combination, in solving problems and proving statements,
discuss and prove the Euclidean Algorithm,
discuss and prove the fundamental theorem of arithmetic,
solve problems involving linear Diophantine equations
determine whether a given a positive integer is prime or not using
definition and Sieve of Erathosthenes,
discuss twine primes, Fermat’s primes and Mersenne Primes.
deduce and prove properties of primes.

Learning Content
1.0 INTEGERS

Definition 1.1 Integers

The set of integers consist of the set {….-3,-2,-1, 0, 1, 2, 3,…}. We

shall denote this set by Z. This set consists of 3 subsets.

Z+ = the set of positive integers or non-negative integers

= {1, 2, 3,…}

Zero = {0}

Z- = the set of negative integers

= {-1, -2, -3,…}

Hence, the set Z is the union of positive integers, zero number and the
negative integers.

1.1 Properties of Integers

Two Basic Properties of Integers

1. Well Ordering Principle

2. Principle of Induction/Mathematical Induction (Peano’s Postulate on N)

Well-Ordering Principle

Every non-empty subset of Z+ has a least element.

Illustration 1.1

Consider the set defined by

A = {1, 3, 5, 7}. Clearly, the least element of set A is 1.

Illustration 1.2

The least element of a set of counting numbers greater than 2 is 3.

Why do you think so?
Principle of Mathematical Induction

Let P(n) be a statement involving the positive integers (counting

numbers). If we can prove that

1. P(1) is true, that is, p(n) is true for n=1.

2. If P(n) is true for n = k, where k is an arbitrary
3. For every positive integer n, it is also true for n=k+1, then the
statement is true for all positive integers.

The mathematical induction can be used to prove some statements

and its proof has two parts, namely:

1. Verification
2. Proof of induction

Example 1.1 Prove by mathematical induction that

1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + = n(n+1)/2 for all positive integers.

Proof:

Let P(n) = 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + = n(n+1)/2

Part I. Verification for n=1, n=2, n=3

1 = 1(1+1)/2 = 1(2)/2 = 2/2 = 1

1+2 = 2(2+1)/2 = 2(3)/2 = 6/2 = 3
1+2+3 = 3(3+1)/2 = 3(4)/2 =12/2 = 6

Therefore, P(n) is true for n=1, n=2 and n=3.

Part II.

Show that if P(n) is true for n = k, then it is also true for

n = k + 1, where k is any arbitrary positive integer. This means that
you have to prove that

If 1 +2 + 3 + . . . + k = k(k+1)/2

then

1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + k + k+1 = (k+1)[(k+1) + 1]/2 (*)

 By hypothesis,

1 +2 + 3 + . . . + k = k(k+1)/2

Adding the (k+1)th element of the sequence (first n positive

integers) to both sides of the above equation which is k+1, we have

1 +2 + 3 + . . . + k + (k+1) = k(k+1)/2 + (k+1).

1 +2 + 3 + . . . + k + (k+1) = k(k+1)/2 + 2(k+1)/2

1 +2 + 3 + . . . + k + (k+1) = (k2 +k + 2k +2)/2

1 +2 + 3 + . . . + k + (k+1) = (k2 + 3k +2)/2

Factoring the left side of the above equation, we have

1 +2 + 3 + . . . + k + (k+1) = (k+1)(k+2)/2

Notice that simplifying the right side of the above equation would
yield a quantity, which is equal to the right side of the equation (*) and
we have the result below.

1 +2 + 3 + . . . + k + (k+1) = (k+1)[(k +1) +1]/2

Part III. Conclusion

From Part I and Part II, by the Principle of Mathematical

Induction, the equation is true for all positive integers or P(n) is true for
all positive integers.

Here is something to think about!!!!!

Exercise 1.1

Use the Principle of Mathematical Induction to show that for all positive
integers,

a. 1 + 3 + 5 + . . . + (2n-1) = n2.
 b. 2 + 4 + 6 + . . . + 2n = n2 + n
n(n+1 )(2n+1)
c. 12 + 22 + 32 + . . . + n2 = 6 .
n(2 n−1 )(2 n+1)
d. 1 + 3 + 5 + . . . + (2n-1) =
2 2 2 2 3 .
n(n+1 )(n+2)
e. 1.2 + 2.3 + 3.4 + . . . + n(n+1) = 3

1.2 Divisibility

Theorem 1.1 The Division Algorithm

Given any two positive integers, a and b, there exist unique two
integers q and r (0  r  b and 0  q), called respectively quotient and
remainder, such that

a = b .q + r

Illustrations 1.3

1. Consider a = 870 and b = 84. Now, if we divide 870 by 84, we get 10

and a remainder of 30, Hence, 870 = 84 (10) + 30 where q = 10 and
r = 30.

2. Let a = 836 and b = 25. Dividing 836 by 25 gives 33 and a

remainder of 11. Therefore, 836 = 25(33) + 11.

Here’s something to think about!!!!

Exercise 1.2

Verify the Division Algorithm using the following values of a and b.

1. a = 329 and b = 16
2. a = 768 and b = 253
 3. a = 480 and b = 60
4. a = 2905 and b = 117
5. a = 5237 and b = 125

Illustration 1.4 Let a = 280 and b = 70, then 280 = 70(4) + 0.

In this case, 70 is an exact divisor of 280. Notice that if the remainder

is 0, b divides a exactly but this is not the case as we can see in illustrations
1 and 2, if the remainder is not 0.

The above idea about a number being divisible by exactly by another

number is given by the following definition.

Definition 1.2 Divisors

An integer a  0 is called a divisor or factor of an integer b if there

exists another integer c such that b = ac. The integer b is called an
integral multiple of a.

In symbols, we can state definition as follows:

If a  0  Z, then a b iff  c  Z s. t. b = ac.

a b is read as “a divides b”
iff is read as “if and only if”
 is read as “there is/there exists”
s.t. is read as “such that”

Illustrations 1.5

1. 2 6 (2 divides 6) since there is a 3  Z such that 6 = 2(3). Also, 3

6 (3 divides 6) since 6 = 3(2).

2. -4 12 since –3  Z and (-4)(-3) = 12. Clearly, -3 12.

3. For any a  Z, a 0 since 0 = a . 0. However, it is not the case that

0 a since there is no integer x such that 0 . x = a, unless a is also
zero and in which case x could be any integer, and, therefore, can’t
be unique. Hence, if a  0, then
0 a is meaningless. We say that a  0 is undefined.

4. Show that 4 does not divide 10, i.e. 4 10.

Suppose that 4 10 (4 divides 10). Then, there must be x  Z

such that 4(x) = 10 by definition of divisor/factor.
 Let us look for x if such integer exists.

Let x = 1, then 4(x) = 4(1) = 4

x = 2, then 4(x) = 4(2) = 8
x = 3, then 4(x) = 4(3) = 12

Now, we know that 10 is between 8 and 12 but there is no

integer x between 2 and 3. Hence, there is no way we can get the 10 in
4(x). Therefore, it is not true that

4 10 (4 divides 10). Thus, 4 10 (4 does not divide 10).

Here is something to think about!!!!

Exercise 1.3

1. Prove that 6 18 (6 divides 18) but 6 14 (6 does not divide
14).

2. Prove that 7 21 (7 divides 210 but 7 30 (7 does not divide
30).

1.3 Some Applications of the Definition of Divisor

1. Prove that the product of two even integers is even.

Proof:

Let m and n be two even integers. By definition of even integers, m

and n can be written as follows:

m = 2s, s  Z
n = 2t, t  Z

Consider, the product of m and n,

mn = 2s(2t)
= 2 (2st) by associative property on product of integers.
mn = 2r, r = 2st  Z (by closure property)

By the definition of divisor, 2 divides mn or mn is divisible by 2. This

implies that mn is even.
 Therefore, the product of any two positive integers is even.

Here’s something to think about!!!!

Exercise 1.4

Prove the following:

1. The sum of two even integers is even.

2. The sum of two odd integers is even
3. The product of two odd integers is odd.
4. The sum of odd and even is odd.
5. The product of odd and even is even.

1.4 Linear Combination

Definition 1.3 Linear Combination

If a, b, x, y  Z, then the expression ax + by is called a linear

combination of a and b.

Illustrations 1.6

1. If a = 2, b = 5 and x, y  Z, then the expression 2x + 5y is a linear

combination of 2 & 5.
2. Let a = 3, b = 7 and x, y  Z, then the expression 3x + 7y is a linear
combination of 3 & 7.

Here’s something to think about!!!!

Exercise 1.5

1. If a = 3, b = 8 and x, y  Z, then what is the expression for which a

and b is a linear combination of 3 and 8?

2. If a = 5, b = -11 and x, y  Z, then what is the expression for which a

and b is a linear combination of 5 and -11?

3. Is x + 4y a linear combination of two integers? If yes, for what two

integers will x +4y a linear combination of?
 4. How about 3x? Is it a linear combination of two integers? If yes, what
are the two integers?

5. How about -8y? Is it a linear combination of two integers? If yes, what

are the two integers?

The consequences of the above definition are the following properties.

1.5 Some Basic Properties of Divisors

1. If a b, then a bx  x  Z. (multiple)

2. If a b, b c, then a c. (transitive)
3. If a b, a c, then a (bx+cy)  x, y  Z.
4. If a b, b a, then a =  b.

Illustrations:

For (1), let a = 3, b = 18 and x =2, 3 18 (2)=3 36.

For (2), Let a = 4 and b = 12, c =36. Clearly, 4 12 and 12 36.
For (3), let a = 5, b = 15, c = 25, x =2 and y = 3 then 5 15x + 25 y
For (4), let a = -6 and b = 6, -6 6, then a = -b.

Property 3. If a b, a c, then a (bx+cy) for all x, y  Z.

Illustrations 1.7:

1. Since 2 6 and 2 8, then 2 (6x + 8y). This can be shown using
definition 1.1.

Note that we can express 6x + 8y as

6x + 8y = 2(3x) + 2(4y) where x, y  Z

= 2(3x + 4y)
= 2(s + t), s = 3x and t = 4y where s, t  Z
= 2p, p = s + t and p  Z

The above shows that 2 (6x + 8y).

Proof of Property 3:

Given: c a and c b

Statement to be proven: c (ax + by)

 Since c a and c b, then there exist integers m and n such that a=mc &
b= nc.

Then,

ax + by = mcx + ncy = c(mx + ny). This shows that c (ax + by) by

definition 1.1

As a consequence of Property 3, we have the following corollary.

Corollary 1.1

If a number c divides a sum of two numbers, and if it divides one of the

two numbers, then it also divides the other. In other words, if c (m+n)
where m, n  Z and c m, then c n.

Illustrations 1.8:

Suppose 3 divides the sum of x + 9, since it divides 9, the corollary

says that it must also divide x. Let us verify this by few examples.

If x = 1, x + 9 = 1 + 9 = 10. But 10 is not divisible by 3. Hence, we

disregard x=1.

If x = 2, x +9 = 2 + 9 = 11. But 11 is not divisible by 3. Hence, we

disregard
x = 2.
If x = 3, x +9 = 3 + 9 = 12. Here 12 is divisible by 3 and so with x = 3.
If x = 4, x +9 = 4 + 9 = 13. But 13 is not divisible by 3. Hence, we
disregard
x = 4.
If x = 5, x +9 = 5 + 9 = 14. But 14 is not divisible by 3. Hence, we
disregard
x = 5.
If x = 6, x +9 = 6 + 9 = 15 which is divisible by 3 and so with x = 6.

We have noticed from values of x that only for those divisible by 3 is

the expression x + 9 also divisible by 3.

1.6 Common Divisors

Common divisors of a and b are divisors common to a and b.

Divisors of 12: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12

Remarks 1.1

1) We shall consider only positive divisors of an integer.

2) An integer has a finite number of divisors.
3) Set of divisors of a and b is finite.

The above remarks show the existence of the greatest common

divisor.

Definition 1.4 Greatest Common Factor (GCF/GCD)

Let a and b be two integers,

g is the gcd of a and b iff the ff. are true:

1. g a and g b (g divides a and g divides b).

2. If d a (d divides a) and d b (b divides b), then g  d.
3. g  1.

Illustration 1.6

Consider 18 and 42 as two integers. We say that 6 is the gcd of 18 and

42 since

1. 6 18 and 6 42

2. 3 18 and 3 42 but 6 > 3
3. 6 > 1.

We shall denote the symbol, g = (a, b) or (a, b) = g the greatest common

divisor of a and b is g. In other words, the symbol g = (a, b) or (a, b) = g is
read as “the greatest common divisor of a and b is equal to d.

How to Find the gcd (Greatest Common Divisor)?

1. By listing the factors  brute force method

2. Euclidean Algorithm  repeated division algorithm
3. Division Algorithm

Euclidean Algorithm

The Euclidean Algorithm is a process for finding the greatest common

divisor (gcd) of two integers with repeated application of the Division
Algorithm.
Theorem 1.2

Let a, b  Z. by repeated application of Division Algorithm

b = aq1 + r1 0  r1  a
a = r1q2 + r2 0  r2  r1
r1 = r2q3 + r3 0  r3  r2
.
.
.
rk-2 = rk-1qk + rk 0  rk  rk-1
rk-1 = rkqk+1 + 0

Then, g.c.d. of a and b is g(a, b) = r k.

The above theorem implies that the last nonzero remainder gives the
g.c.d. of a and b.
Example 1.2

What is the gcd of 243 and 96?

Let a =243 and b = 96. Applying the Division Algorithm repeatedly,

243 = 96(2) + 51
96 = 51(1) + 45
51 = 45(1) + 6
45 = 6(7) + 3
6 = 3(2) + 0

Thus, the g.c.d of 243 and 96 is 3.

Using continuous division, we obtain the same gcd of 3 for 243 and 96
as shown below.

2
96 24
3
19
2
51 96 1
51
45 51 1
45
 6 45 7
42
3 6 2
6
0

2
96 243
192
51 96 1
51
45 51 1
45
6 45 7
42
3 6 2
6
0

Therefore, the g.c.d of 243 and 96 is 3.

Example 1.3

Find the g.c.d if a = 657 and b = 963.

Using the Division Algorithm (DA) we can express,

963 = 657(1) + 306

Applying the Division Algorithm repeatedly we have,

657 = 306(2) + 45
306 = 45(6) + 36
45 = 36(1) + 9
36 = 4(9) + 0

Since the last nonzero remainder is 9, hence, the gcd (963, 657) = 9.

The above process can also be performed using the continuous division
as shown below.

1
65 96
7 3
 65
7
30 65 2
6 7
61
2
30 6
45
6
27
0
36 45 1
36
9 36 4
36
0

Here’s something to think about!!!!

Exercise 1.6

1. Find the gcd(39, 91), gcd(153, 201), gcd(132, 231), gcd(264, 824),
gcd(217, 1484).
2. Use the Euclidean Algorithm to find integers x and y satisfying the
following:
(a) gcd(7, 84) = 7x + 84y
(b)gcd(16, 92) = 16x + 92y
(c) gcd(26, 182) = 26x + 182y
(d)gcd(54, 81)=54x + 81y
(e) gcd(117, 2107) = 117x + 2107y

1.7 Some Divisibility Rules

1. An integer N is divisible by 3 if and only if 3ai (3 divides the

summation of ai’s) where ai’s are digits of the decimal expansion of N.

The polynomial form of an equation of an integer N:

N = a0 + a1(10) + a2(102) + a3(103) + . . . + an(10n)

Illustrations 1.9:

a. Let N = 123. Then a0 = 3, a1 = 2 and a2 = 1

ai = 1 + 2 + 3 = 6
Since 36, therefore, 3N or 3123.
 b. Let N = 5901. Then, a0 = 1, a1 = 0, a2 = 9 and a3 = 5
ai = 5 + 9 + 0 + 1 = 15, 315, hence, 35901.

2. An integer N is divisible by 9 if and only if 9ai (9 divides the

summation of ai’s) where ai’s are digits of the decimal expansion of N.

Illustrations 1.10:

a. Consider N = 234. Then, a0 = 4, a1 = 3 and a2 = 2

ai = 4 + 3 + 2 = 9. Note that 99, hence, 9234

b. N = 9288, a0 = 8, a1 = 8 a2 = 2 and a3 = 9.
ai = 8 + 8 + 2 + 9 = 27. Since 927, therefore, 99288.

3. An integer N is divisible by 4 if and only if M is divisible by 4 where M

is formed by the last 2 digits of N.

Illustrations 1.11:

a. N = 3572, M = 72. Clearly 472, and 43572 or 3572 is divisible 4.

b. N = 41414, M = 14. In this case, 4 does not divide 14. Hence, 41414
is not divisible by 4.

4. An integer N is divisible by 8 if and only if M is divisible by 8 where M

is formed by the last 3 digits of N.

Illustrations:

a. Let N = 10016. Then M = 016 and is divisible by 8. Thus, 10016 is

divisible by 8.

b. Suppose N = 50112, M 112. Observe that 8112. Therefore 50112 is

divisible by 8.

5. If an integer N is divisible by 2k if and only if 2kM, where M is the

number formed by the last k digits of N. This means that if the last k
digits of N is divisible by 2k, then N is divisible by 2k.

For 21 = 2: N is divisible by 2, so we only test last digit.

For 22 = 4: N is divisible by 4, so we only test the last two
digits.
For 23 = 8: N is divisible by 8, so we only test the last
three digits.
 For 24 = 16 N is divisible by 16, so we only test the last
four digits.
.
.
.
For 2k N is divisible by 2k, so we only test the last k digits.
6. An integer N is divisible by 11 if and only if M is divisible by 11,
where M is the difference between the sum of the digits of N in the
even places and the sum of the digits in the odd places.

Illustrations 1.12:

a. Let N = 3157892.

The sum of odd places = 3 + 5 + 8 + 2 = 18

The sum of even places = 1 + 7 + 9 = 17

Since the difference between 18 and 17 is 1 and 1 is not divisible

by 11, hence, 3157892 is not divisible by 11.

b. Let N = 3156802.

The sum of odd places = 3 + 5 + 8 + 2 = 18

The sum of even places = 1 + 6 + 0 = 7

The difference between 18 and 7 is 11 and 11 is divisible by 11,

hence, 3156802 is divisible by 11.

c. Let N = 509190.

The sum of odd places = 5 + 9 + 9 = 23

The sum of even places = 0 + 1 + 0 = 1

Clearly, 509190 is divisible by 11 since the difference between

23 and 1 is 22 which is divisible by 11.

Divisibility by 7

A number is divisible by 7 if the difference between twice the units

digit and the number formed by the remaining digits after truncating the
units digit is a multiple of 7.

Illustration 1.13

Is 343 divisible by 7? Following the rule as follows:

 a) Truncate the units digit, 3.
b) Twice the units digit is 2 x 3 = 6.
c) Subtracting 6 from the remaining digits 34 (after truncating the
units digit, 3) gives 34 – 6 = 28 which is divisible by 7.

Hence 343 is divisible by 7.

Illustration 1.14

Verify whether 8050 is divisible by 7. Following the rule we have,

a) Truncate the units digit, 0.

b) Twice the units digit is 2 x 0 = 0.
c) Subtracting 0 from the remaining digits 805 (after truncating the
units digit, 0) gives 805 – 0 = 805 is still a big number.
d) Repeat the process, that is, truncate the units digit, 5.
e) Twice the units digits is 2 x 5 = 10.
f) Subtracting 10 from the remaining digits 80 (after truncating 5)
gives 70 which is a multiple of 7 (divisible by 7)

Hence, 8,043 is divisible by 7.

Note: The process may be repeated thereafter if the difference

between the remaining digits and twice the last digit is still a big
number.

Here’s something to think about!!!!

Exercise 1.7.

A. Without performing the division operation for the following integers

together with corresponding divisor, determine whether the divisibility
holds true or not. If not, explain why.

1. 207 by 3 6. 246600 by 9
2. 12016 by 4 7. 216910 by 3
3. 122345 by 6 8. 4010022 by 4
4. 123110 by 8 9. 2301200 by 8
5. 289905 by 11 10. 2505801 by 11

B. State/Discuss/Explain the rule for divisibility by 13.

 C. State/Discuss/Explain the rule in determining whether an integer is
divisible by 7, 11 and 13.

1.8 Linear Diophantine Equations: ax + by = c, where a, b and c are

integers

Historical Notes:

Linear Diophantine Equations is an honor of Diophantus. His life comes

from an epigram found in a collection called the Greek Anthology:
“Diophantus passed one sixth of his life in childhood, one twelfth in youth,
and one-seventh as a bachelor. Five years after his marriage was born a son
who died four years before his father, at half his father’s age”. From this the
reader can infer that Diophantus lived to age of ____.

ax +by =c

Figure 1.1. The Graph of Linear Equation

Note: The equation describing this line has infinitely many solutions.

Definition 1.5 Linear Diophantine Equation

The equation ax + by = c is a Linear Diophantine Equation if and only if

the solutions are restricted to integers only.

Example 1.4 : 4x + 3y = 5

(0, 5/3) is not a solution

(2, -1) is a solution

 Figure 1.2: The graph of 4x + 3y =5

Observed that the above equation has a solution x = 2 and y = -1

which are integers.

Example 1.5. The linear Diophantine equation, 4x + 10y = 11 has no

solution which are integers or integral solution. Why do you
think so?

What did you observe in the above two equations?

What is the gcd of a and b in equation 1? How about the gcd of a and b
in equation 2?

Does the gcd of a and b in equation 1 divide c? What about in equation

2?

1.9 How to Determine if a Linear Diophantine Equation has Solution?

Theorem 1.3

The equation ax + by = c has a solution (integral solution) if the

greatest common divisor of a and b divides c or c is divisible by the gcd of a
and b.

Observed that Example 1.4 (4x + 3y = 5) has an integral solution

because (4, 3) = 1 (gcd of 4 and 3 is 1) and it divides 5. On the other hand,
Example 1.5, 4x + 10y = 11 has no integral solution since (4, 10) = 2 does
not divide 11.

Theorem 1.4

If x0, y0 are particular solutions to ax + by = c, then the general

solution are given by

x = x0 + bt/d, t  Z
 y = y0 – at/d, t  Z
d = (a, b)

1.10 Solution of Linear Diophantine Equation Using the Euclidean

Algorithm.

Example 1.6

Let us consider the equation 33x + 14y = 319. What are the integral
solutions of this equation?

We begin by examining whether the equation has solution(s). The

greatest common divisor of 33 and 14 is 1 and it divides 319 or (33, 14)319.
Hence, the equation has a solution.

By the Division Algorithm, a = 33 and b = 14 can be written as,

33 = 14(2) + 5 or [5 = 33 – 14 (2)]

Using the Euclidean Algorithm or repeated application of the Division

Algorithm, the above equation can be expressed as follows:

14 = 5(2) + 4 or [(4 = 14 – 5(2)]

5 = 4(1) + 1 1 = 5 – 4(1)
= 5 + 4(-1)
4 = 1(4) + 0 = 5 + [14 –5(2)](-1)
= 5 + 14(-1) + 5(2)
= 5(3) + 14 (-1)
= [33 – 14(2)](3) + 14 (-1)
= 33(3) – 14(6) + 14(-1)
= 33(3) + 14(-6) + 14(-1)
1 = 33(3) + 14(-7)

We see that using backward approach as shown in the right side of the
above, the g(33, 14) = 1 is a linear combination of 33 and 14.

Now with the given equation, 33x + 14y = 319 and

33(3) + 14(-7) = 1. (*)

What do we do to equation (*) so that the right side of this equation

will become 319?

Hence, we have
 [33(3) + 14(-7) = 1] 319
33(3)(319) + 14(-7)(319) = 1 (319)
33(957) + 14(-2233) = 319

Therefore, x = 957 and y = -2233 are solutions of the equation.

Let us denote x0 = 957 and y0 = -2233 be the particular solutions of

the equation 33x + 14y = 319

Recall that the general solutions of the equation are of the form,

X = x0 + bt/d and Y = y0 – at/d, t  Z.

So we have,
X = 957 + 14t/1 and Y = -2233 – 33t/1

Hence, the general solutions of the equation 33x + 14y = 319 are
expressed in the following:
X = 957 + 14t and Y = -2233 – 33t.

Thus, for every t  Z, the solutions for 33x + 14y = 319 can be
obtained using the above general solutions.

If t = 0, x = 957 and y = -2233

If t = 1, x = 971 and y = -2266
t = 3, x = 999, y = -2332

Here’s something to think about!!!!

Exercise 1.8

Determine whether each of the following linear Diophantine equations

has solutions. If yes determine all the solutions, otherwise, explain why.

1. 8x + 13y = 17 4. 54x + 81y = 18

2. 25x + 95y = 970 5. 14x + 98y = 17
3. 9x + 51y = 23 6. 13x + 65y = 26

1.11 Applications of linear Diophantine Equation

The famous application of the Linear Diophantine Equation is the

problem on “The Spider and the Beetle”. The problem is stated this way,
Example 1.7

How many spiders and beetles are there in a cage if there are 46 legs?

If you have not heard what we call the Diophantine Equation, you
might do it by trial and error. This is to consider the number of legs both a
spider and a beetle have and to assume possible number of spiders to
determine the number of beetles. However, this involves tedious work. The
Euclidean Algorithm and above two theorems can be used to solve the
problem.

Solution:

If we let x be the number of spiders and y be the number of beetles.

The equation would be

8x + 6y = 46

Do you think the above equation describes the given problem? Why

Now we evaluate whether the above equation has a solution. Notice

that
(6, 8) =2 or the gcd of 6 and 8 is 2 divides 46, we say that the equation has
solution.
By the Division Algorithm, a = 8 and b = 6 can be written as,

8 = 6 (1) + 2

Using Euclidean Algorithm, we have

6 = 2(3) + 0

Hence, the greatest common divisor can be expressed as linear

combination of 8 and 6 as follows:

2 = 8 – 6(1)
2 = 8(1) + 6(-1) (*)

Note that the given equation is 8x + 6y = 46, so we multiple (*) by 23

to make the quantity in the left side of the equation equal to 46 and to
obtain the desired solutions of this equation as shown below.

[8(1) + 6(-1) = 2] 23
8(23) + 6(-23) = 46
 Therefore, the particular solutions are x=23 and y=–23. However, we
cannot say that there are 23 spiders and –23 beetles. Hence, we need to
consider the general solutions of the equation. Based on these particular
solutions, the general solutions can be obtained from the following
equations:

X = 23 + 6t/2 and Y = -23 – 8t/2

X = 23 + 3t and Y = -23 – 4t

The values of X and Y must be positive, that is, x > 0 and y > 0. Why
do you think so?

Consider,

23 + 3t >0 and –23 – 4t >0

3t > -23 -4t > 23, recall the property of inequality,

a>b, c<0, ac < bc.

Hence,

t > -23/3 t < -23/4

t > -7.67 t < - 5.75

In the Number Line, the solutions of the two inequalities can be

obtained. Figure 2 shows the graph of the two given inequalities. The blue
color shows the graph of 23 + 3t > 0 while the yellow color illustrates the
graph of -23 – 4t > 0. Meanwhile, the intersection of the two graphs is the
portion with a combination of blue and yellow with endpoints, t = -7.76 and
t = - 5.75.
 tt == -- 7.67
7.67 t = -5.75

Figure 1.3: The graph of 23 + 3t >0 and –23 – 4t >0

What is the solution set of the above two inequalities? Which of these
points should be considered? What are the integral solutions of the
inequalities? What are the possible values of t?

If t = -6, then X = 5 and Y = 1. This means that there are 5 spiders and
1 beetle. The other possible solutions of t will give corresponding number of
spiders and beetles.

Here ‘s something to think about!!!!

Exercise 1.9

1. How many 25-centavo and 10-centavo coins are there if the total
amount is
P1.75?
2. A grocer orders apples and oranges at a total cost of P241.20. If apples
cost him P7.50 each and oranges cost him P5.40 each, how many of
each type of fruit did he order?
3. A theater charges P180 for adult admission and P75 for children. If the
total receipts were P36,375 on a particular day, how many people
attended the show. Assume that more adults than children were
present.
1.12 Primes

Def’n 1.6 Prime

An integer p is prime iff (if and only if) p>1 and the only positive
divisors of p are p and 1.

Alternative Def’n. of Prime

An integer p is prime iff (if and only if) p>1 and there exist no divisors
d such that
1 < d < p.

1.13 Canonical Form of Integers

Theorem 1.5 The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic (Unique

Factorization Theorem)

Every integer n>1 is a product of primes in one and only one way, a
part from the order of factors.

Illustrations 1.16:

1. 12 = 2.2.3 = 2.3.2 = 3.2.2 = 22.3

2. 28 = 2.2.7 = 2.7.2 = 7.2.2 = 22.7
3. 56 = 2.2.2.7 = 2.2.7.2 = 2.7.2.2 = 7.2.2.2 = 2 3.7
4. 90 = 2.3.3.5 = 2.3.5.3 = 3.5.2.3 = 3.5.3.2 = ….. = 2.3 2.5
5. 150 = 2.3.5.5 = 2.5.5.3 = 5.5.3.2 = 5.5.2.3 = 2.3.5 2

Let n an integer, then

n = p1 p2 p3. . . pk

where pi is a prime.

1.14 How to Determine if an Integer is Prime?

A. By definition
B. Sieve of Eratosthenes

A. Determine if N is prime using the theorem:

Theorem 1.6

If no prime less than the √N (square root of N) divides N then N is

prime.
 Given any integer N, we can start by approximating √N
to the nearest integer.

Example 1.8. Suppose N = 91

The (square root of 91) √ 91  10.

Test if a prime which is less than √ 91  10 is a divisor of 91.
The prime numbers 2, 3, 5, 7 are less 10.

Notice that 2 does not divide 91 and so with 3 and 5 but 7 divides 91.

Therefore, 91 is not a prime number since there is a p = 7 which is

prime such that it divides 91.

Example 1.9. Consider the integer 211.

N= 211 and √ 211  15

The prime numbers which are less than 15 are 2, 3, 5, 7, 11 and 13.

Now, we observed that 2, 3, 5, 7, 11 and 13 does not divide 211.

Hence, 211 is a prime number.

Here is something to think about!!!!

Exercise 1.10

Determine whether each of the following is prime or not prime. Explain

your answer.

1. 701
2. 977
3. 1009
4. 2119
5. 3023
B. Sieve of Eratosthenes

Eratosthenes is a Greek scholar who discovered a convenient

procedure to determine the prime numbers. This method is called Sieve of
Eratosthenes and it is done in the following manner.

1. List all the numbers you wish to test.

2. Cross out every number which is divisible by 2, except 2 itself.
3. Next, cross out all multiples of 3, except 3 itself
4. Ignore 4 since it is already crossed out
5. Cross out all multiples of 5, except 5 itself.
6. Six is already crossed out so cross out all multiples of 7, except 7 itself.

After performing the above procedures, the prime can now be

determined given the first 50, 100, 1000, 2000, etc. positive integers.

Let us consider the first 50 positive integers,

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

9 10 11 12 13 14 1
5
16 17 18 19 20 2 22
1
23 24 2 26 2 28 29
5 7

30 31 32 3 34 3 36
3 5
37 38 3 40 41 42 43
9
44 4 46 47 48 49 50
5

Legend: / multiples of 2 is crossed out

multiples of 3 not crossed out by 2 is crossed out
multiples of 5 not crossed out by 2 or 3 is crossed out
X multiples of 7 not crossed out by 2, 3 or 5 is crossed out

Thus, the prime numbers in the set of the first 50 integers are 2, 3, 5,
7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, and 47.

Here’s something to think about!!!!

Exercise 1.11.

Use the Sieve of Eratosthenes to determine the prime numbers from

the first

1. 100 integers
2. 150 integers
3. 200 integers
4. 250 integers
5. 300 integers

Definition 1.7 Twin Primes

Two primes are said to be twin primes if they are separated by just a
single composite number.

Example 1.10

The prime numbers, 17 and 19 are separated by only the composite

number 18. Hence, they are twin primes.

1.15 Conjectures of Mersenne and Fermat on Prime Numbers

Let us investigate the conjectures of Mersenne and Fermat concerning

prime numbers.

Definition 1.8 Mersenne’s Prime

The set of numbers of the form

2n – 1 where n > 1

are called Mersenne numbers.

This set of numbers is invented by Father Marin Mersenne (1588-

1648), a French monk. A subset of this set which are primes is said to be
Mersenne primes. He asserted that
2n – 1 is prime if n is prime.

For n =2, 22 -1 = 3 is a prime

n = 3, 23 -1 = 7 is a prime

n = 5, 25 -1 = 31is a prime
 n = 7, 27 -1 = 127 is prime

n = 11, 211 -1 = 2047 is not a prime

n = 13, 213 -1 = 8191 is a prime

Noticed that his assertion is false when n = 11.

He found out that and 2n – 1 is prime if n = 17, 19, 31, 67, 127 and 257
and composite for all other primes p < 257.

Thus, the assertion of Mersenne in general is not valid.

The list of Mersenne prime numbers is given in the next page.

Table 1.1. List of 38 Mersenne Prime Numbers

Mersenne Number Number of Digits Date of
Discovery
___________________________________________________________
1 22 - 1 1 unknown
 2 23 – 1 1 unknown
3 25 – 1 2 unknown
4 27 – 1 3 unknown
13
5 2 -1 4 1456
6 217 – 1 6 1588
7 219 – 1 6 1588
8 231 – 1 10 1772
9 261 – 1 19 1883
89
10 2 –1 27 1911
11 2107 – 1 33 1914
12 2127 – 1 39 1876
13 2521 – 1 157 1952
14 2607 – 1 183 1952
1279
15 2 –1 386 1952
16 22203 – 1 664 1952
17 22281 – 1 687 1952
18 23217 – 1 969 1957
19 24253 – 1 1281 1961
4423
20 2 –1 1332 1961
21 29689 – 1 2917 1963
22 29941 – 1 2993 1963
23 211213 – 1 3376 1963
24 219937 – 1 6002 1971
21701
25 2 –1 6533 1978
26 223209 – 1 6987 1978
27 244497 – 1 13395 1979
28 286243 – 1 25962 1983
29 2110503 – 1 33265 1989
132049
30 2 –1 39751 1983
31 2216091 – 1 65050 1985
32 2756839 – 1 227832 1992
33 2859433 – 1 258716 1994
34 21257787 – 1 378632 1996
1398269
35 2 –1 420921 1996
36 22976221 – 1 895932 1996
37 23021377 – 1 909526 1998
38 26972593 – 1 2098960 1999
__________________________________________________________
Source: Introduction to Number Theory by David Burton

Explore and discover the next Mersenne primes! Who knows you will
discover the next Mersenne primes!!!!

Definition 1.9 Fermat’s Prime

Any number of the form 2n +1, n ≥ 0 is called Fermat numbers. This is

denoted by Fn. In symbol, we write the set of all Fermat Numbers,

Fn = 2n + 1 where n ≥ 0.
 Fermat observed that
F0 = 21 +1 = 3
F1 = 22 + 1 = 5
F2 = 24 + 1 = 17
F3 = 28 + 1 = 257
F4 = 216 + 1 = 65,537
.
.
.

He claimed that

2n + 1 is prime if n is a power of 2.

Is his conjecture correct?

In 1732, Euler disproved his conjecture and found out that

F5 = 232 +1 = 4,294,967,297 is divisible by 641.

Hence, 2n + 1 is not prime for all n, where n is a power of 2.

Here’ s something to think about!!!!

Exercise 1.12 (Project to be submitted before the midterm

examination)
1. On the table below, indicate the number of primes and the proportions
of primes between the two ranges.

Range Number Proportio Range Numbe Proporti

of n r of on
Primes Primes
1 – 100 25 25/100 1 – 100
1 – 200 100 – 200
1 – 300 200 – 300
1 – 400 300 – 400
1 – 500 400 – 500
1– 500 –
1000 1000
1– 1000 -
2000 2000
1– 2000 –
4000 4000

What do you observe about the set of prime numbers?

2. Observe the last digits of prime numbers and answer each of the
following:

2.1 What numbers appear as the last digits of prime numbers? List
them down.

2.2 Are some last digits appear often than others in the first 100
primes? What about the first 200 Primes?

3. Consider the possible remainders when primes are divided by a

particular number.

3.1 What remainders occur when prime numbers are divisible by 2?

3.2 How about if you divide them by 3. Do some remainders occur

more frequently than others?

3.3 Try dividing by 4 or 6

3.4 Try some other divisors

4. Investigate the separation of primes by different composites.

4.1 Which primes are consecutive, i.e., no composite separates

them?
4.2 What separations are possible?

4.3 What do you observe about the frequencies of various

separations as you proceed through the set of primes?