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J. K. Backhouse
S. P. T. Houldsworth
This edition revised by
PJ. F. Homi
a Pure Mathematics 1
By the same authors (with B. E. D. Cooper) res
Pure Mathematics 2 =
(See page 579 of Book 1 for a list of contents)
Pure Mathematics
Book 1
Fourth Edition

J. K. Backhouse, m.a.
Emeritus Fellow, Linacre College, Oxford
Lately Tutor, Department of Educational Studies, University of Oxford
Formerly Head of the Mathematics Department, Hampton Grammar School

S. P. T. Houldsworth, .a.
Lately Headmaster, Sydney Grammar School
Formerly Assistant Master at Harrow School

This edition revised by

P. J. F. Horril, ma.
Head of the Mathematics Department, Nottingham High School

> Rp

LOonNgMan. sss= RAR

 ADDISON WESLEY LONGMAN LIMITED
Edinburgh Gate, Harlow, Essex CM20 2JE, England
and Associated Companies throughout the world

© Longman Group Limited, 1957, 1965, 1971, 1985

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in
any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise without either the
prior written permission of the Publishers or a licence
permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom
issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd,
90 Tottenham Court Road, London, WIP 9HE.

First published 1957

Second edition 1965
SI edition 1971
Fourth edition 1985
Fifteenth impression 1996
ISBN 0 582 35386 6

Set in Times Mathematics 569

' The Publisher’s policy is to use paper manufactured from

sustainable forests.

Printed in China
SWTC/I5
Contents

Preface Xill
Note on degree of accuracy of answers
Mathematical notation

Chapter 1 Coordinates and the straight line

1.1 Coordinates
1.2 The length of a straight line
1.3. The mid-point of a straight line
1.4 The gradient of a straight line
1.5 Parallel and perpendicular lines
1.6 The meaning of equations
1.7 The equation y=mx+c
1.8 The use of suffixes
1.9 Finding the equation of a straight line
1.10 Points of intersection

Chapter 2. Functions
2.1 Real numbers
2.2 Integers
2.3 Rational numbers
2.4 The irrationality of ,/2
2.5 Infinity
Zoe sets
2.7. The algebra of sets
2.8 Functions
2.9 The function notation
2.10 Composite functions
2.11 Graphs of functions
2.12 Graphs of some common functions
2.13 Further functions
2.14 Odd and even functions
2.15 Periodic functions
2.16 The inverse of a function
Vi

2.17 Investigating limits, using a calculator 47

2.18 Finding limits algebraically 49
pays) Continuity 50

Chapter 3 The gradient of a curve =)

oye The gradient of a curve 55

32 The gradient at a point 56
33 The gradient of y = x? at (2, 4) 57
3.4 The gradient function of y = x? oo
3:5 The differentiation of x* 61
3.6 Summary of results 62
Ba] The differentiation of a polynomial 63
3.8 Differentiation and the function notation 66
Sa Tangents and normals 69

Chapter 4 Velocity and acceleration 74

4.1 Gradient and velocity 74
4.2 Variable velocity 75
4.3 Velocity at an instant 75
4.4 The symbols és and 6t a7
4.5 Constant acceleration 80
4.6 Variable acceleration 81

Chapter 5 Maxima and minima 86

oe The symbols 6x, dy and dy/dx 86
Ry. Greatest and least values 87
ee To differentiate the function f(x) =x! v2
5.4 Maxima and minima 93
535 Curve sketching 98
5.6 Distance, velocity, and acceleration graphs 101

Chapter 6 Integration 106

6.1 The reverse of differentiation — geometrical interpretation 106
6.2 Velocity and acceleration 109
6.3 The area under a curve 114

Chapter 7 Further differentiation 124

Ti To differentiate the function f(x) = x" (n € Q) 124
v2 The chain rule 126
7.3 Rates of change 130
7.4 Products and quotients 132
 Vil
7.5 Implicit functions 136
7.6 Parameters 138
7.7 Small changes 139
7.8 Second derivative 141
Note: the derivatives of trigonometrical functions will be found in
Chapter 19.

Chapter 8 Further integration 147

8.1 Some standard curves 147
8.2 The integration of x” (ne Q) 148
8.3 Area as the limit of a sum 150
8.4 The integral notation 154
8.5 Solids of revolution 160
8.6 Centre of gravity 165

Chapter 9 Some useful topics in algebra 173

9.1 Surds 173

9.2 Laws of indices
9.3. Rational indices
9.4 Zero and negative indices
9.5 Logarithms
9.6 The functions x» a* and x} log, x
9.7 Roots of quadratic equations
9.8 Symmetrical functions
99 The remainder theorem 188

Chapter 10 Quadratic equations and complex

numbers
10.1 The quadratic equation ax? + bx +c=0
10.2 The quadratic formula
10.3. The quadratic function f(x) = ax? + bx +c
10.4. The graph of y=ax?+bx+c
10.5 Imaginary numbers
10.6 Complex numbers
10.7. The algebra of complex numbers
10.8 |Complex numbers as ordered pairs
10.9 The Argand diagram

Chapter 11 Matrices
11.1. Introduction
11.2 Matrix addition
Multiplication by a scalar 215
11.3.
Vill

11.4 Matrix multiplication 245

11.5 Matrix algebra 221
11.6 Transformations and matrices 226
1097 General properties of linear transformations 230
11.8 Composite transformations 225

Chapter 12 Permutations and combinations 243

12.1 Arrangements 243

122 The factorial notation
1233 Permutations
12.4 Combinations

Chapter 13 Series
134 Sequences: 256
Arithmetical progressions
Geometrical progressions
Formulae for the sums of A.P.s and G.P.s
Arithmetic and geometric means
Proof by induction
Further series
The )° notation
Infinite geometrical progressions

Chapter 14 The binomial theorem

14.1 Pascal’s triangle
14.2 Introduction to the binomial theorem
14.3 The binomial theorem
14.4 Convergent series
14.5 The binomial theorem for any index

Chapter 15 Vectors
15.1 Introduction
Displacement vectors
Unit vectors
Multiplication by a scalar
Equal vectors
Addition and subtraction of vectors
Position vectors
The ratio theorem
The centroid of a triangle
Menelaus’ theorem
Vectors in three dimensions
P9ih2 The vector equation of a line
133 Planes
15.14 The intersection of two planes
Hee) The scalar product of two vectors
15.16 The proof of the distributive law
13,17 Postscript

Chapter 16 The general angle and Pythagoras’

theorem
16.1 The general angle
16.2. Graphs of sin 6, cos 6, tan 0
16.3 Trigonometrical ratios of 30°, 45°, 60°
16.4 Trigonometrical equations
16.5 Trigonometrical ratios of —6, 180°+6, 90° +6
16.6 Pythagoras’ theorem

Chapter 17 —Trigonometrical identities

Lyat The formulae for sin (A + B), cos (A + B)
ie The formulae for tan (A + B)
17.3 The double angle formulae
17.4 The t-formulae
17.5 The form acos 6+ b sin 0
17.6 Proof of the addition formulae, using vectors
1
Sal) Introduction to the factor formulae
17.8 The factor formulae
17.9 Further identities and equations

Chapter 18 Further topics in trigonometry

18.1 Introduction
18.2 The sine rule
18.3 The cosine rule
18.4 The area of a triangle
18.5 Radians
18.6 Angular velocity
18.7 Inverse trigonometrical functions

Chapter 19 Derivatives of trigonometrical functions

19.1 Small angles
19.2 Derivatives of sin x and cos x
19.3 Derivatives of tan x, cot x, sec x, cosec x
x

Chapter 20 Loci 393

20.1 Introduction 295

20.2 The equation of a locus 394
20.3 Further examples 397
20.4 Tangents and normals 400

Chapter 21 The circle 405

21 The equation of a circle 405

DAWe Tangents to a circle 409
213 The intersection of two circles 411
21.4 Orthogonal circles 412

Chapter 22 Further topics in coordinate geometry 415

22H The equation of a straight line 415

22.2 Polar coordinates 417
22.9 Relations between polar and Cartesian coordinates 419
22.4 The distance of a point from a line 422
pee) Parameters 426
22.6 The parabola 432

Chapter 23 Variation and experimental laws 436

234 Variation 436
232 Joint variation 445
233 Variation in parts 448
23.4 Graphical determination of laws 451
23.0 Linear check of non-linear laws 455
23.6 Reduction of a law to linear form using logarithms 456

Chapter 24 Iterative methods for solving equations 466

24.1 Introduction 466
24.2 An iterative method for finding square roots 467
24.3 Further iterative formulae 469
24.4 Iteration — the test for convergence 474
24.5 The Newton—Raphson method 478

Chapter 25 Groups 486

22.1 Introduction 486
25.2 Latin squares 486
25.3 Isomorphisms 488
25.4 Further groups 491
 Xi

29.58) Cyclic groups 492

25.6 Symmetry groups 494
25.7 Subgroups 498
25.8 Group theory 499
297 Cosets 503
25.10 Lagrange’s theorem 505
25.11 Generators 506

Appendix Elementary algebra — revision S12

Simplification 512
Factorisation 513
Fractions 513
Further simplification 514
Completing the square 514
Changing the subject of a formula 515
Linear and quadratic equations 516
Simultaneous equations 518
Equations of higher degree 520

Answers 522

Contents of Book 2 ayy

Index 583
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Preface

I have personally used the previous editions of this book over many years and
with pupils ofa broad range of ability. I have always admired it for its common
sense approach to the subject, for the large number and great variety of its
examples and for the scope and grading ofits exercises. In recent years, however,
it has become increasingly clear that drastic revision was needed to take account
of the many changes which have appeared in A-level syllabuses since the book
was first written. At the time of writing the ‘common core’ syllabus is about to
appear at A-level and this new edition, and its companion volume, have been
prepared with this in mind.
Although many of the new chapters are concerned with so-called ‘modern’
topics, I make no apology for retaining the traditional style of the earlier
editions. Indeed, I hope that readers will feel that the book conforms to the spirit
of paragraph 582 of the Cockcroft Report, which says

‘Syllabus changes during the last ten years have lessened the dif-
ferences between the content of ‘modern’ and ‘traditional’ syllabuses
and many feel it is no longer appropriate to distinguish between them
.... We support the view that the distinction should no longer be
maintained.’

This new edition of Pure Mathematics, Books 1 and 2, contains all the topics
which are in the ‘common core’ syllabus and the symbols used throughout are
those adopted by the Examining Boards. The pure mathematics content of most
‘single subject’ syllabuses is included and, while it cannot be guaranteed that all
‘double subject’ syllabuses are covered, the books will provide a sound course of
study for most of them. These books are also suitable for the pure mathematics
content of most AS level syllabuses.
The book has not been designed to be read straight through chapter by
chapter in numerical order, and most readers will probably prefer to develop
several branches simultaneously. Indeed, later sections of some chapters are
better delayed for a second reading; where a natural break occurs this has been
indicated in the text. New chapters and material have been incorporated
without unduly disturbing the overall contents of previous editions, and, to
make it easier to locate a particular topic, an index has now been provided.
Another new feature of this edition is an appendix on Algebra revision which

xiii
XiV
could be used at any stage in the course where the reader, or the teacher, feels
that some revision of basic skills is necessary.
Chapter 1 introduces coordinates and the straight line. Chapter 2 introduces
the idea of a function (this is a chapter to which the reader should return, when
new functions are introduced at later stages in the course). Thereafter, the
arrangement is
Chapters 3-8, Calculus
Chapters 9-14, | Algebra (including an introduction to matrices)
Chapter 15, Vectors
Chapters 16-19, Trigonometry
Chapters 20-22, Coordinate geometry

Finally there are chapters on variation, iterative methods, and an introduction

to group theory.
Teachers who are familiar with the previous editions will find that some of the
exercises have been pruned. Questions involving very heavy manipulation in
algebra and trigonometry, which are now out of fashion with Examining
Boards, have been replaced by more appropriate questions.
The individual reader has been kept in mind and he or she is advised to work
through the questions marked Qu.; the class teacher will find that many of these
questions are suitable for oral work. On some occasions proofs of important
results have been left to the reader; when these appear in the exercises they are
marked with an asterisk.
I would like to thank the previous authors for allowing me to tamper with
their work, and for their detailed and constructive criticisms of my drafts.
My thanks are also due to Michael Spincer and Sue Justice of Longman
Group for their help and encouragement. For the invaluable opportunity to give
my undivided attention to this project, I am indebted to the Master and Fellows
of Selwyn College, Cambridge, who kindly elected me a Fellow Commoner of
the College for the Lent Term 1983, and to the Governors of Nottingham High
School, for granting me the necessary leave of absence. I should also like to
acknowledge the valuable help of my colleagues and pupils who tried the new
material.
Lastly, but not least, I would like to thank my wife and family for their
patience over the last few years, especially during my term in Cambridge, and to
apologise for the many occasions when I have dodged the washing-up in order
to ‘work on my book’.

Nottingham Peter Horril

January 1984
 XV

Note on degree of accuracy of answers

In order to avoid tedious repetition in the wording of questions the following

conventions are observed throughout the book, unless there are specific
instructions to the contrary:
(a) When possible an exact answer is given. To this end it is normally
appropriate to retain surds and m in the answers where they occur. (The word
exact is used here in the rather limited sense of being derived from the data
without any intervening approximation.)
(b) When an answer is not exact, it is given correct to three significant figures,
or, if it is an angle measured in degrees, to the nearest tenth of a degree.
XVI

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the following examining bodies for permission to reproduce

questions from past examination papers:

University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate (C); Joint Matricula-

tion Board (JMB); University of London, School Examinations Department (L);
Oxford and Cambridge Schools Examination Board (O & C); University of
Oxford Delegacy of Local Examinations (O) and Oxford Colleges Admissions
Office.
Questions from the above bodies are indicated by the letters shown in
parentheses.
 Mathematical notation
The following notation is used in this book. It follows the conventions employed
by most GCE Examining Boards.

1. Set notation

= is an element of.
¢ is not an element of.
WM, DC xes, the set with elements a, b,c ...
a the set of elements x, such that ...
n(A) the number of elements in set A.
@ the empty set.
é the universal set.
A’ the complement of set A.
IN the set of natural numbers (including zero) 0, 1, 2,3...
Z thersetsol amiesers.0, 6 1, ct 2. te 35.
a the set of positive integers +1, +2, +3...
Q the set of rational numbers.
R the set of real numbers.
C the set of complex numbers.
= is a subset of.
me is a proper subset of.
U union.
‘a intersection.
La, b] the closed interval {x ¢R:a<x <b}.
(a, b) the open interval {x € R: a<x <b}.

2. Miscellaneous symbols
is equal to.
is not equal to.
is greater than, is less than.
. A
IN is greater than or equal to, is less than or equal to.
il
*
Vv
RV is approximately equal to.

XVvii
XViil

3. Operations
a+b a plus b.
a—b a minus b.
adxO; a0. aD. a multiplied by b.

a+b, =,ajb a divided by b.

y a Oi apap ae Okey ae nae ar ee

the value of the function fat x.

f isa function which maps each element of set A onto a
member of set B.
f maps the element x onto an element y.
the inverse of the function f.
gof or gf the composite function g(f(x)).
lim f(x) the limit of f(x) as x tends to a.
Ox an increment of x.
dy the derivative of y with respect to x.
dx
d"y
the nth derivative of y with respect to x.
abe
£"(x), £"(x), ... f(x) the first, second, ... nth derivatives of f(x).
J y dx the indefinite integral of y with respect to x.
b
[va the definite integral, with limits a and b.

[F(x)Ta F(b) — F(a).

5. Exponential and logarithmic functions
e* OF exp x the exponential function.
log, x logarithm of x in base a logarithms.
inx log, x.
lg x logio Xx

6. Circular and hyperbolic functions

sin x, cos x, tan x the circular functions sine, cosine, tangent.
cosec x, sec x, cot x the reciprocals of the above functions.
sin’! x or arcsin x the inverse of the function sin x (with similar abbrevi-
ations for the inverses of the other circular functions).
sinh x etc. the hyperbolic functions.

7. Other functions

Ja the positive square root of a.

 X1X
the modulus of a.
n factorial; n! =n x (n—1) x (n—2)x...x3x2x1
(0! = 1).
n!
when n,rée
WN and 0<r<n.
r'(n—r)!

n(n—1)...(n—r+1)
when ne
© andreN.
r!

the square root of —1.

a typical complex number, e.g. x +iy, where x, y€ R.
the real part of z; Re(x + iy) =x.
the imaginary part of z; Im(x +iy) = y.
the modulus of z; |x + iy| = ./(x? + y?).
the argument of z.
the complex conjugate of z.

a typical matrix M.
the inverse of a matrix M (provided it exists).
the transpose of matrix M.
the determinant of a square matrix M.
the identity matrix.

10. Vectors

a the vector a.
|a| or a the magnitude of vector a.
a the unit vector with the same direction as a.
i,j, k unit vectors parallel to the Cartesian coordinate axes.
AB the vector represented by the line segment AB.
|AB| or AB the length of the vector AB.
a.b the scalar product of a and b.
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 Chapter 1

Coordinates and the straight line

Coordinates
1.1 The first thing that a reader new to this stage of mathematics will discover
is that number, and the methods of algebra, may be brought to bear upon
geometrical ideas to a much greater extent than before, and with great clarity
and economy. To do this we must have a way of describing exactly and briefly
the position of a point in a plane (i.e. a flat surface).
We may think for a moment of the pirate of old, who buried his treasure chest
on a large flat featureless island, but was able to locate it when he returned.
Starting at the most westerly point, he measured 400 paces due East, and then
from there 100 paces due North. There, he knew, was the exact spot at which to
dig.
This illustrates the method we shall use to fix the position of a point on a
plane. Two straight lines cutting at right angles fix our directions, and we start
our measurement from their point of intersection O (Fig. 1.1).
The point O is called the origin. The x-axis is drawn across the page, and the
y-axis is drawn up the page; units of distance are marked off on them, positive in
one direction, negative in the other. The plane containing these axes is called the
Cartesian plane, after René Descartes (1588-1648) who did much to lay the
foundations of the subject we now call Coordinate Geometry. When the axes are
drawn in a vertical plane (for instance, when a teacher draws them on a board,
fixed to a vertical wall), the x-axis is always drawn as a horizontal line and the
y-axis as a vertical line; for this reason, they are often called the horizontal axis
and the vertical axis, respectively (even though when they are drawn on the page
of a book, lying on a horizontal table, both axes are horizontal!).
Consider the point A in Fig. 1.1. To reach A from O we travel 4 units in the
direction of Ox, and then 1 unit in the direction of Oy.

The x-coordinate (or abscissa) of A is +4.

The y-coordinate (or ordinate) of A is +1.

We say that the coordinates of A are (4, 1), or that A is the point (4, 1). The
x-coordinate is always given first, thus we distinguish between the points A(4, 1)

1
 I Il
2 Pure Mathematics
the
and B(1, 4). By use of the sign of the coordinates we distinguish between
points A(4, 1) and C(—4, — 1).

Figure 1.1

Qu.1 Write down the coordinates of the points D, E, O in Fig. 1.1.

Qu. 2 Sketch your own axes and plot the points P(2, 4), Q(—5, 7), R(4, — 2),
S(O, 3), T(2, 0).

The length of a straight line

1.2 Example1 Find the length of the straight line joining A(2, 1) and B(5, 5).
AC and CB are drawn parallel to the x-axis and y-axis respectively (Fig. 1.2).
Applying Pythagoras’ theorem to the right-angled triangle ABC,
AB? = AC? + CB?
=(5—2)? +(5—1)?
=9+ 16
AB =,/25=5
Notice that, if A had been the point (— 2, 1) in the above example, the length of
AC would still be the difference between the x-coordinates of A and B, since it
would be 5 —(—2)=54+2=7.

Qu. 3 Find the lengths of the straight lines joining the following pairs of points:
(a) A(3, 2) and B(8, 14), (b) C(—1, 3) and D(4, 7), (c)_E(p,q) and F(r, s).
 Coordinates and the straight line 3

Figure 1.2

The mid-point of a straight line

1.3. Example2 Find the mid-point of the straight line joining A(2,1) and
D(6, 5).
Let M, the mid-point of AD, have coordinates (p, gq). FM and ED are drawn
parallel to Oy; AFE is drawn parallel to Ox (Fig. 1.3).

Figure 1.3

In the triangle ADE, applying the mid-point theorem, since M is the mid-
point of AD, and MF is parallel to DE, F is the mid-point of AE. Thus
AF=FE

sep -—2.=6—-—p
 1:3
4 Pure Mathematics 1

6+2
TYa eae
a

The x-coordinate of M is seen to be the average of those of A and D. The

y-coordinate of M may be found similarly.
5$+1
le oe
Se
*. the mid-point of AD is (4, 3).

In practice, of course, the working would be presented in shortened form thus:

6+2Z S41\ 5
the mid-point of AD is (=
haan
***), i.e. (4, 3)

Qu. 4 Find the coordinates of the mid-points of the straight lines joining the
following pairs of points:
(a) A(4, 2) and B(6, 10), (b) C(—5, 6) and D(3, 2),
(c) E(—6, —1) and F(3, — 4), (d) G(p, q) and H(r, s).

Exercise la
1 Find the lengths of the straight lines joining the following pairs of points:
(a) A(1, 2) and B(5, 2), (b) C(3, 4) and D(7, 1),
(c) E(—2, 3) and F(4, 3), (d) G(—6, 1) and H(6, 6),
(e) J(—4, —2) and K(3, —7), (f) L(—2, —4) and M(— 10, — 10).
2 Find the coordinates of the mid-points of the lines AB, CD, etc., in No. 1.
3 Find the distance of the point (— 15, 8) from the origin.
4 P,Q, R are the points (5, — 3), (—6, 1), (1, 8) respectively. Show that triangle
PQR is isosceles, and find the coordinates of the mid-point of the base.
5 Repeat No. 4 for the points L(4, 4), M(—4, 1), N(1, — 4).
6 A and B are the points (—1, —6) and (5, —8) respectively. Which of the
following points lie on the perpendicular bisector of AB?
(a) P(3,—4), = (b) Q(4,0),_ ~— (©) RG, 2), ~— (d) S(6, 5).
7 Three of the following four points lie on a circle whose centre is at the origin.
Which are they, and what is the radius of the circle?
A(— 1, 7), B(5, — 5), C(—7, 5), D(7, — 1).
8 A and B are the points (12, 0) and (0, — 5) respectively. Find the length of AB,
and the length of the median, through the origin O, of the triangle OAB.

The gradient of a straight line

1.4 Consider the straight line passing through A(1, 1) and B(7, 2) (Fig. 1.4). If
we think of the x-axis as horizontal, and the line through A and B as a road, then
 Coordinates and the straight line 5
someone walking from A to B would rise a vertical distance CB whilst
at the
same time he moves a horizontal distance AC.
The gradient of the road is CB/AC = (2 — 1)/(7 — 1) = 1/6. Instead of the two
points A and B we might just as well have taken any other two points on the line,
D and E; the gradient would then be expressed as FE/DF, which is the same as
CB/AC, since the triangles ABC and DEF are similar.

Figure 1.4

Definition
the increase in y
The gradient of a straight line is in moving from one point on the
the increase in x
line to another.

In moving from A to B, since both x and y increase by positive amounts, the

gradient is positive.
But now consider the gradient of PQ (Fig. 1.5). In moving from P to Q, the
increase in x is +2, but since y decreases, we may say the increase in y is —3.
Thus the gradient of PQ is —3.3

P(4, 10)

Q(6, 7)

Figure 1.5

Until the reader is accustomed to the idea of positive and negative gradient it
may help to think of it this way. In travelling along a line with x increasing (Le.
 1 1.4
6 Pure Mathematics

moving from left to right across the page) if going uphill the gradient is positive:
a
whereas if going downhill the gradient is negative. In calculating gradients
in the first few
figure should not be necessary, but one similar to Fig. 1.5 will help
examples.

Example 3 Find the gradient of the line joining R(4, 8) and S(5; — 2).

y-coord. of R — y-coord. of S
The ge x-coord. of R — x-coord. of S

he gee
4-5
10
= Sl
=F}
[Remember that the coordinates of R must appear first in the denominator
and numerator (or second in both). In this case {8 —(—2)}/(4—5) and
(—2—8)/(5 — 4) both give the correct gradient.]

The gradient of the line joining A(2, 1) and B(2, 9) presents us with a problem.
Proceeding as in Example 3, above, we might say that
y-coord. of A — y-coord. of B
the gradient of AB =
x-coord. of A — x-coord. of B

G sé:
0
—8
0
On the other hand we might also say that the gradient of AB
__ y-coord. of B — y-coord. of A
~ x-coord. of B— x-coord. of A
9=1
PB

skh
Bae
Now, what meaning should we attach to expressions like — 8/0 and + 8/0 and
how can the line AB have two apparently different gradients? This illustrates just
one of the difficulties which can arise when we attempt to divide by zero.
Because it gives rise to many insuperable problems, division by zero is never
allowed in mathematics; mathematicians say that an expression like 8/0 ‘does
not exist’. So what are we to do about the gradient of the line AB? We have to
 Coordinates and the straight line ‘|
accept that for a ‘vertical line’ such as AB, no numerical value can be given to its
gradient; however, we can still say that ‘AB is parallel to the y-axis’.

Qu.5 Find the gradients of the lines joining the following pairs of points:
(a) (4, 3) and (8, 12), (b) (—2, —3) and (4, 6),
(c) (5, 6) and (10, 2), (d) (—3, 4) and (8, — 6),
(e) (—5, 3) and (2, 3), (f) (p,q) and (r, s),
(g) (0, a) and (a, 0), (h) (0, 0) and (a, b).
Qu.6 A and B are the points (3, 4) and (7, 1) respectively. Use Pythagoras’
theorem to prove that OA is perpendicular to AB. Calculate the gradients of OA
and AB, and find their product.
Qu.7 Repeat Qu. 6 for the points A(5, 12) and B(17, 7).

Parallel and perpendicular lines

1.5 The gradient of a straight line was defined in §1.4; it may be proved that it is
also the tangent of the angle between the line and the positive direction of the
x-axis.

Figure 1.6

with
In Fig. 1.6 the gradient of AB is CB/AC, which is tan @. The reader familiar
the tangent of an obtuse angle will appreciate that this covers negative gradient
as well.
l
Since parallel lines make equal corresponding angles with the x-axis, paralle
lines have equal gradients. ;
y of the
Qu. 6 and 7 of §1.4 will have led the reader to discover a useful propert
gradients of perpendicular lines. This we will now prove.
8 Pure Mathematics 1 1.5

Consider the two straight lines AB and CD which cut at right angles at E.
EF is drawn perpendicular to the x-axis (Fig. 1.7).

a+ @=90°
a+
B = 90°
. 0=8

Figure 1.7

Let the gradient of AB be m, then

ataee tan 0
gies
FE
i
The gradient of CD = —-—
FH

rs 1
tan B
= 1
tan @
Sal
di 38

., the gradient of AB x the gradient of CD =m x (-x)=)

m
In general, if two lines are perpendicular, the product of their gradients is — 1.
Or in other words, if the gradient of one is m, the gradient of the other is — 1/m.
 Coordinates and the straight line 9
Qu.8 Write down the gradients of lines perpendicular to lines of gradient
(a) 3, (b) 4, (C) —6, (d) —4, (e) 2m, (f) —b/a, (g) —m/2.
Qu.9 Find if AB is parallel or perpendicular to PQ in the following cases:
(a) AQ, 4), B(6, 6), P(2, — 1), Q(12, 3);
(b) A(—1, — 1), BO, 4), P(—4, 3), Q(6, 1);
(c) A(0, 3), B(7, 2), P(6, — 1), Q(—1, —2).

The meaning of equations

1.6 The bare statement ‘P is the point (x, y)’ means that P can be anywhere in
the plane. Previously, if we have been asked to find P, we have been given some
data which enabled us to find one pair of numerical values for x and y, and so to
fix the position of P.
Suppose however that the data is in the form of the equation y = x? — 2x. This
does not give one pair of values for x and y, it gives as many as we like to find.
But P is not now free to be anywhere in the plane, since for any chosen value of x
there is only one corresponding value of y; P is now restricted to positions whose
coordinates (x, y) satisfy the relationship y = x* — 2x.
The reader will be familiar with the process of making a table of values as
shown below, in which certain suitable values of x are chosen, and the
corresponding values of y calculated.

Table of values for y = x? — 2x

ZA ied 4 1 3 2 5 3
fo oie cd a en ele pg Ried?
(erm Oe) a 5 inf
a a err 0 it 3
From this we find that the points (— 1, 3), (—4, 14), (0, 0), etc., have coordinates
which satisfy the relationship y =x” — 2x, and by plotting these points and
drawing a smooth curve through them (Fig. 1.8), we obtain all the possible

Figure 1.8
10 Pure Mathematics 1 1.6

positions of P corresponding to the values of x from x= —1 to x=3.

a
Just as coordinates are used to name a point, so an equation is used to name
curve, and we refer to ‘the curve y = x” — 2x’.
It must be stressed that the equation is the condition that the point (x, y)
should lie on the curve.
Thus, only if b = a? — 2a does the point (a, b) lie on the curve y = x? — 2x, and
in that case we say that the coordinates of the point satisfy the equation.
If gq# p* — 2p, the point (p, q) does not lie on the curve y= x2 = 2x.

Example 4 Do the points (— 3, 9) and (14, 186) lie on the curve y= ee

(a) The point (— 3, 9):

When x = —3, y=x?
=(— 3)? = +9,
”. (—3, 9) does lie on the curve y = x?.
(b) The point (14, 186):
When x = 14, y=x? = 14? = 196,
”. (14, 186) does not lie on the curve y = x’.

The next example illustrates another way of presenting this idea.

Example 5 Does the point (—7, 6) lie on the curve x* — y? = 14?

[ We use L.H.S. as an abbreviation for ‘the left-hand side’ of the equation and
R.H.S. for ‘the right-hand side’.]
x* —y*=14
When x = —7 and y= +6,
L.HS. = (— 7)? — 6? = 49 — 36 = 13
R.HLS.
= 14
The coordinates of the point do not satisfy the equation. Therefore (— 7, 6) does
not lie on the curve x? — y? = 14.

Qu. 10 Find the y-coordinates of the points on the curve y = 2x? ~ x — 1 for
which x = 2, — 3,0.
Qu. 11 Find the x-coordinates of the points on the curve y = 2x + 3 for which
the y-coordinates are 7, 3, —2.
Qu. 12 Find the points at which the curve in Qu. 10 cuts (a) the x-axis, and (b)
the y-axis.
Qu. 13 Determine whether the following points lie on the given curves:
(a) y=6x+7, (1, 13), (b) y=2x+ 2, (13, 30),
() 3x+4y=1,(-1,4), (@) y=x?—6, (2, —2),
(ce) xy
= 36, (—9, —4), (fx? + yp? = 25, 3,424).
The relationship between a curve and its equation gives riseto two main
groups of problems.
 Coordinates and the straight line 11
Firstly there are those problems in which we are given the equation, and from
it we are required to find the curve. With this type the reader will already be
familiar, in such work as the graphical solution of quadratic and other
equations.
Secondly there are those problems in which we are given some purely
geometrical facts about the curve, and from these we are required to discover the
equation. It is this second type of problem with which we are now mainly
concerned, but first we shall discuss a few more simple equations, to see what
they represent.
y=x. This equation is satisfied by the coordinates of the points (0, 0), (1, 1),
(2, 2), (3, 3), etc., and it is readily seen to represent a straight line through the
origin. Its gradient is 1.
x =2. Whatever the value ofits y-coordinate, provided that its x-coordinate
is 2, a point will lie on this curve. The points (2, 0), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), etc., lie on
the curve, which is a straight line parallel to the y-axis, 2 units from it, on the side
on which x is positive. :

Qu. 14 Make a rough sketch of the lines represented by the following

equations. Write down the gradient of each:
(a) y= 3, (b) y= 2x, () y=3x, (d) y=2x, (0) y= —x.

The equation y = mx +c
1.7. We come now to the second type of problem mentioned above, in which
from some geometrical facts about a curve we discover its equation. And the
examples we do will, in turn, help us to interpret straight line equations more
skilfully. ;

Example 6 Find the equation of the straight line of gradient 4 which passes
through the origin.
If P(x, y) is any point on the line, other than O, the gradient of the line may be
written y/x (Fig. 1.9).

erx 4
Hence y = 4x is the required equation.

Qu. 15 Write down the equations of the straight lines through the origin
having gradients (a) 3, (b) —2, (c) m. .
Qu. 16 Rearrange the following equations in the form y = mx, and hence write
down the gradients of the lines they represent:
(a) 4y =x, (b) 5x + 4y =0, (c)i3x=2y,
ayo insole
12 Pure Mathematics 1 ie)

Figure 1.9

Example 7 Find the equation of the straight line of gradient 3 which cuts the
y-axis at (0, 1).
Let P(x, y) be any point on the line other than (0, 1).
The gradient of the line may be written (y — 1)/x (Fig. 1.10).

M4

Figure 1.10
 Coordinates and the straight line 13
Hence y = 3x + 1 is the required equation.

Qu. 17 By the method of Example 7, find the equations of the straight

lines of
given gradients cutting the y-axis at the named points:
(a) gradient 3, (0, 2), (b) gradient 3, (0, 4),
(c) gradient 3, (0, — 1), (d) gradient4, (0, 2),
(e) gradient 4, (0, 4).
If a straight line cuts the y-axis at the point (0, c), the distance of this point
from the origin is called the intercept on the y-axis.

Figure 1.11 |

Then the equation of a straight line of gradient m, making an intercept c on

the y-axis (Fig. 1.11) is

haopra

Le. y=mx+e
This line is parallel to y = mx, which passes through the origin, and it is m, the
coefficient of x, which in each case determines the gradient. The effect of altering
the value of the number c (c being the intercept on the y-axis) is to raise or lower
the line, without altering its gradient; the sign of c determines whether the line
cuts the y-axis above or below the origin.
_ We might be tempted to think at this stage that in y = mx +c we have found
the form in which all straight line equations may be written. But remember that
on p. 6 we ran into trouble trying to find the gradient of a line parallel to the
y-axis; for such a line it is impossible to find a numerical value for m, and the
equation is x =k, where k is a constant.
The various straight line equations we have met are summarised below. It
 1 1d,
14 Pure Mathematics
term
should be noted that only terms of the first degree in x and y and a constant
occur; this, in fact, is how we may recognise a straight line, or linear, equation.

y=mx + cis a line of gradient m, passing through (0, c).

y=mx isa line of gradient m, passing through the origin.
y=c is a line of zero gradient (i.e. parallel to the x-axis).
xk is a line parallel to the y-axis.

Example 8 Find the gradient of the straight line 7x +4y+2=0, and its
intercepts on the axes.

The equation may be written

4y=—7x—2
or y=—4x-3
This is now in the form y = mx +c, where m= — 4, and c = —4, and we see that
the gradient is — 3, and that the intercept on the y-axis is — 4. In fact, to find the
intercepts on each axis it is better to go back to the original equation
7x+4y+2=0
To find the intercept on the y-axis:
putting x=0,. 4y+2=0,- -. y==— tR|-

To find the intercept on the x-axis:

putting p=0; “7x4 DSO; of x=
The intercepts on the x-axis and y-axis are — 4 and —4 respectively.

Qu. 18 Arrange the following equations in the form y=mx +c, hence write
down the gradient of each line; also find the intercepts on the y-axis:
(a) 3y=2x +6, (b) x—4y+2=0, (c) 3x +y+6=0,
(d) 7x =3y +5, (ec) y+ 4=0, (f) Ix+my+n=0.
Qu. 19 Write down the equations of (a) the x-axis, (b) the y-axis, (c) a straight
line parallel to the y-axis through (4, 0), (d) a straight line parallel to the x-axis
making an intercept of —7 on the y-axis.

Exercise Ib
1 Find the gradients of the straight lines joining the following pairs of points:
(a) (4, 6) and (9, 15), (b) (5, — 11) and (—1, 3),
(c) (—24, —4) and (44, — 1), (d) (7, 0) and (—3, —2).
2 Show that the three given points are in each case collinear, i.e. they lie on the
same straight line:
(a) (0, 0), (3, 5), (21, 35), (b) (—3, 1), (1, 2), (9, 4),
(c) (—3,4), (1,2), (7, -1), . (d) (1,2),(0, — 0), (—2,—7).
3 Find the gradients of the straight lines which make the following angles with
the X-axis, the angle in each case being measured anti-clockwise from the
positive direction of the x-axis:
(a) 45°, (b) 135°, (c) 60°, _—(d) (150°.
 Coordinates and the straight line 15
Find if AB is parallel or perpendicular to PQ in the following cases:
(a) A(4, 3), B(8, 4), P(7, 1), Q(6, 5);
(b) A(— 2, 0), BC, 9), Pe 35); Q(6, 17);
(c) A(8, —5), B(11, — 3), Pt); Q( —3,, 7);
(d) A(—6, — 1), B( — 6, 3), P(2;,0); Q(2, — 5);
(e) A(4, 3), B( — 7, 3), P(5, 2), Q(5, — 1);
(f) A(3, 1), B(7, 3), Poe.) Q(1, 0).
Nn Show that A(—3, 1), B(1, 2), C(O, — 1), D(—4, —2) are the vertices of a
parallelogram.
Show that P(1,7), Q(7, 5), R(6, 2), S(O, 4) are the vertices of a rectangle.
Calculate the lengths of the diagonals, and find their point of intersection.
si Show that D(—2, 0), E(4, 14), F(34, — 34) are the vertices of a right-angled
triangle, and find the length of the shortest side, and the mid-point of the
hypotenuse.
Find the y-coordinates of the points on the curve y= x* + 1 for which the
x-coordinates are — 3, 0, 1, 5. Find the coordinates of points on the curve
whose y-coordinates are 5, and 17. Sketch the curve.
Find the coordinates of the points on the curve y =x? for which x = — 3,
— 1, 1, 3; and also of the points for which y = —8, 0, +8. Sketch the curve.
Determine whether the following points lie on the given curve:
(a) y=3x—5,(—1, —8), (b) 5x —2y+7=0, (1, —1),
(c) y=x°, (—4, 64), (d) x*y=1, (—2, 4).
Find the intercepts on the axes made by the straight line 3x — 2y + 10=0.
Hence find the area of the triangle enclosed by the axes and this line.
Find the coordinates of the points at which the following curves cut the axes:
(a)°y =x” —x=12, (b) y= 6x? — 7x + 2,
(c) y=x?—6x4+9, (ay ax 9x2,
(ec) y=(x + I)(x—5)’, eye oO NO — 9).
13 Plot the following points on squared paper, and write down the equations of
the straight lines passing through them, in the form y = mx +c:
(a) Gr i a 1); (0, 0), (4, 4), (b) ie 1, 1), (0, 0), (, itt 1),
(c) (—4, —2), (, 0), (8, 4), (d) (0, — 4), (4, —2), (6, — 1),
(e) (—5, 2); (—5, 0), (—5, — 2), (f) (—3, 7), (3, 3), (6, 0).
14 Write down the equation of the straight line
(a) through (5, 11) parallel to the x-axis,
(b) which is the perpendicular bisector of the line joining (2, 0) and (6, 0),
(c) through (0, — 10) parallel to y = 6x + 3,
(d) through (0, 2) parallel to y + 8x =0,
(e) through (0, — 1) perpendicular to 3x —2y +5=0.
15 Find the equation of the straight line joining the origin to the mid-point of
the line joining A(3, 2) and B(5, — 1).
16 P(—2, —4), Q(—5, —2), R(2, 1), S are the vertices of a parallelogram. Find
the coordinates of M, the point of intersection of the diagonals, and of S.
17 (a) Write down the gradient of the straight line joining (a, b) and (p, q). Write
down the two conditions that these points should lie on the line
y = 7x— 3. From these deduce the gradient of the line.
 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 1b
16

(b) Repeat for the line 3x + 2y— 1 =0, and check your result by writing the
equation in the form y= mx + ¢.

The use of suffixes

1.8 When we wish to refer to points whose coordinates are not given, it is
convenient to write them as
(x;,¥1) readas ‘x one, y one’
(x, y2) readas ‘x two, y two’, etc.
It is important to write the number (the suffix) at the bottom of the letter, so as to
avoid confusion between x, and x”, x, and x*, and so on. This is a suitable point
at which to summarise some of the early results of this chapter, using this
notation.
If A and B are the points (x,, y,) and (x2, y2) respectively,

thelengthofABis / {(x, — x2)? +(¥1 —y2)"}

Wo 2)
the mid-point of AB is (*Saker es
fh ~faaling 4

the gradient of AB is Bas Wao PO NarA.

X92 aed x4
x4 Sit X2

the condition for A to lie on ax + by +c=0 Is

ax, +by,+c=0

Finding the equation of a straight line

1.9 The method of Example 7 in §1.7 can of course be used to find the equation
of any straight line provided (a) that we know one point through which the line
passes, and (b) that we know, or can calculate, the gradient. Two examples will
illustrate this.

Example 9 Find the equation of the straight line of gradient —%, which passes
through (—4, 1).
Let P(x, y) be any point on the line other than (—4, 1) (Fig. 1.12).
The gradient of the line may be written
Pet Ma |
(A) NLA
But the gradient is given as — 3,
 Coordinates and the straight line hy

Figure 1.12

.. 3y—3 = —2x—8
Hence the required equation is 2x +3y+5=0.

Example 10 Find the equation ofthe straight line joining the points (—5, 2) and

The gradient ofthe line= ENG

2 ae SMSF
0 3

If P(x, y) is any point on the line other than (3, —4), the gradient may be
written

“Ay +4) = —3(x

— 3)
.. 4y+16= —3x4+9
Hence the required equation is 3x +4y+7=0.

Examples 9 and 10 illustrate the most direct approach. The equation as first
written is the direct statement of the condition that the point (x, y) should lie on
the given line.
Another method is given below as an alternative solution to Example 9. We
know that the equation y = mx + c represents a straight line of gradient m; so the
equation y = —4x +c represents any line of gradient — 4, according to the value
of the constant c, and our problem is to find the appropriate value of c for the
 Pure Mathematics 1 1.9
18

given line. To do this we use the fact that if the point (x,, y,) lies on the straight
line y = mx + ¢, its coordinates satisfy the equation of the line, i.e. y; = mx, +.

Example 9 = (Alternative solution)

The equation is of the form y= —4$x +c.
Since (—4, 1) lies on this line,

Hence the required equation is y= —4x —3, or 2x + 3y+5=0.

Qu. 20 Use the methods of Examples 9 (first solution) and 10 to find the
equations of the straight lines
(a) through (4, — 3), of gradient 3, (b) joining (— 3, 8) and (1, — 2).
Qu. 21 Using the method of Example 9 (alternative solution) find the equa-
tions of the straight lines
(a) through (5, — 2), of gradient 3, (b) joining (— 2, 5) and (3, —7).
Qu. 22 Write down the equation of the straight line through (x,,y,) of
gradient m.

Points of intersection
1.10 Ifthe two straight lines x + y— 1 =0 and 2x — y—8 =O cut at the point
P(a, b) then the coordinates of P satisfy the equation of each line, and we may
write

a+b—1=0
2a—b—8=0

The solution of these equations is a= 3, b = —2, which tells us that the given
lines cut at (3, — 2). In practice we obtain the result by solving the equations
simultaneously for x and y.
Qu. 23 Find the points of intersection of the following pairs of straight lines:
(a) 2x —3y= and 4x +6 y=19, (b) y=3x+ and 2x + 23y =17,
(c) y=cand y=mx+c, (d) x= —aand y=mx-+c.
Qu. 24 Can you find the point of intersection of
3x —2y—10=0 and, 4y=6x—7?
Qu. 25 Find the points of intersection of the curve y = 12x? + x —6 and the
X-axis.

Exercise Ic
1 Find the equations of the straight lines of given gradients, passing through
the points named:
(a) 4, (hk 3), (b) 3, (= 2; 5), (c) 4; (2, veh 5),
 Coordinates and the straight line 19

@) -2,75, ©46.-, © -$6,-3.

Find the equations of the straight lines joining the following pairs of points:
(a) (1, 6) and (5, 9), (b) Ge2)iand-e3);
(c) (—3, 4) and (8, 1), (d) (—1, —4) and (4, — 3),
(e) (3, 2) and (3, 4), (f) (—%, 0) and (5, 11).
Find the points of intersection of the following pairs of straight lines:
(a) x +y=0, y= —7,
(b) sy 2 we? yx 11;
(c) 3x+2y—1=0, 4x4+ 5y+3=0,
(d) 5x + 7y + 29 =0, 11x —3y—65=0.
Find the equation of the straight line
(a) through (5, 4), parallel to 3x —4y +7 =0,
(b) through (— 2, 3), parallel to 5x —2y —1=0,
(c) through (4, 0), perpendicular to x + 7y + 4=0,
(d) through (— 2, — 3), perpendicular to 4x + 3y —5=0.
Find the equation ofthe perpendicular bisector of AB, where A and B are the
points (—4, 8) and (0, — 2) respectively.
a Repeat No. 5 for the points A(7, 3) and B(—6, 1).
Find the equation of the straight line joining A(10, 0) and B(O, — 7). Also find
the equation of the median through the origin, O, of the triangle OAB.
P, Q, R are the points (3,4), (7, —2), (—2, —1) respectively. Find the
equation of the median through R of the triangle PQR.
Calculate the area of the triangle formed by the line 3x — 7y + 4=0 and the
axes.
Find the circumcentre of the triangle with vertices (— 3, 0), (7, 0), (9, — 6).
Show that the point (1, 2) lies on the circumcircle.
Find the equation of the straight line through P(7, 5) perpendicular to the
straight line AB whose equation is 3x + 4y — 16 = 0. Calculate the length of
the perpendicular from P to AB.
ABCD is a rhombus. A is the point (2, — 1), and Cis the point (4, 7). Find the
equation of the diagonal BD.
L(—1, 0), M(3, 7), N(5, —2) are the mid-points of the sides BC, CA, AB
respectively of the triangle ABC. Find the equation of AB.
Find the points of intersection of x* =4y and y = 4x.
The straight line x — y — 6 =0 cuts the curve y = 8x at P and Q. Calculate
the length of PQ.

Exercise 1d (Miscellaneous)
1 Find the equation of the line joining the points (6, 3) and (5, 8). Show also
that these two points are equidistant from the point (— 2, 4).
2 What is the equation of the straight line joining the points A(7, 0) and B(0, 2)?
Obtain the equation of the straight line AC such that the x-axis bisects the
angle BAC. a
3 Find the equations of the following straight lines, giving each in the form
ax + by+c=0:
20 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 1d

(a) the line joining the points (2, 4) and (— 3, 1),

(b) the line through (3, 1) parallel to the line 3x + Sy = 6,
(c) the line through (3, — 4) perpendicular to the line 5x —2y =3.
Write down the condition that the straight lines
y=mx+c, and y=m,x+C

should be at right angles. Find the equations of the straight lines through
the point (3, —2) which are (a) parallel, and (b) perpendicular to the line
2y + 5x =17.
The points A, B, C have coordinates (7, 0), (3, — 3), (— 3, 3) respectively. Find
the coordinates of D, E, F, the mid-points of BC, CA, AB respectively. Find
the equations of the lines AD, BE, and the coordinates of K, their point of
intersection. Prove that C, K, F are in a straight line.
Find the equation of the straight line
(a) joining the points (—3, 2) and (1, —4),
(b) through (—1, 3) parallel to the line 2x + 7y —8 =0,
(c) through (2, — 3) perpendicular to the line 5x —2y—11=0.
Find the equations of the lines passing through the point (4, —2) and
respectively (a) parallel, (b) perpendicular to the line 2x—3y—4=0.
Find also the coordinates of the foot of the perpendicular from (4, —2) to
2x—3y—4=0.
A line is drawn through the point (2, 3) making an angle of 45° with the
positive direction of the x-axis, and it meets the line x =6 at P. Find the
distance of P from the origin O, and the equation of the line through P
perpendicular to OP.
Prove that the points (—5, 4), (—1, —2), (5, 2) lie at three of the corners of
a square. Find the coordinates of the fourth corner, and the area of the square.
10 The vertices of a quadrilateral ABCD are A(4,0), B(14, 11), C(0, 6),
D(— 10, —5). Prove that the diagonals AC, BD bisect each other at right
angles, and that the length of BD is four times that of AC.
11 The coordinates of the vertices A, B, C of the triangle ABC are (—3, 7),
(2, 19), (10, 7) respectively.
(a) Prove that the triangle is isosceles.
(b) Calculate the length of the perpendicular from B to AC, and use it to find
the area of the triangle.
12 A triangle ABC has A at the point (7,9), B at (3, 5), C at (5, 1). Find the
equation of the line joining the mid-points of AB and AC; and find also the
area of the triangle enclosed by the line and the axes.
13 One side of a rhombus is the line y = 2x, and two opposite vertices are the
points (0,0) and (45,43). Find the equations of the diagonals, the co-
ordinates of the other two vertices, and the length of the side.
14 Prove that the four points (4, 0), (7, — 3),(—2, —2),(—5, 1) are the vertices of
a parallelogram and find the equations of its diagonals.
15 Find the equation of the line which is parallel to the line x +4y—1=0,
and:which passes through the point of intersection of the lines y=2x and
x+y—3=0.
 Coordinates and the straight line 21
16 Find the equations of the lines which pass through the point ofintersection
of the lines x —-3y=4 and 3x +y=2, and are respectively parallel and
perpendicular to the line 3x + 4y =0.
17 The three straight lines y = x, 2y = 7x, and x + 4y — 60 = 0 form a triangle.
Find the equations of the three medians, and calculate the coordinates of
their point of intersection.
18 The points D(2, — 3), E(—1, 7), F(3, 5) are the mid-points of the sides BC,
CA, AB respectively of a triangle. Find the equations of its sides.
19 Prove that the points (1, —1), (—1, 1), (/3, Aie)) are the vertices of an
equilateral triangle. Find the coordinates of the point of intersection of the
medians of this triangle.
20 The points A(—7, — 7), B(8, — 1), C(4, 9), D are the vertices of the parallel-
ogram ABCD. Find the coordinates of D. Prove that ABCD is a rectangle
and find its area.
21 Find the equation of the line which is parallel to the line 3x + 4y = 12 and
which makes an intercept of 5 units on the x-axis. Find also the equation of
the line which is perpendicular to the given line and which passes through
the point (4, 5).
22 A, B, C are the points (1, 6), (— 5, 2), (3, 4) respectively. Find the equations of
the perpendicular bisectors of AB and BC. Hence find the coordinates of the
circumcentre of the triangle ABC.
23 Find the equation of the straight line joining the feet of the perpendiculars
drawn from the point (1, 1) to the lines 3x — 3y —4=0 and 3x + y—6=0.
24 Through the point A(1, 5) is drawn a line parallel to the x-axis to meet at B
the line PQ whose equation is 3y = 2x — 5. Find the length of AB and the
sine of the angle between PQ and AB; hence show that the length of the
perpendicular from A to PQ is 18 + ,/13. Calculate the area of the triangle
formed by PQ and the axes.
Chapter 2

Functions
Real numbers
2.1. Any student of mathematics who has progressed this far will be thoroughly
familiar with the real numbers; they are the bricks and mortar of arithmetic. All
the weighing, measuring and calculating that are used in commerce and science
require the use of the real numbers. To the mathematician, they are the numbers,
both positive and negative, which can be represented by points on the ‘real
number line’. Some of them are illustrated in Fig. 2.1.

44) 23h oe OT eel) +3

Sy Oey les Be PN2 Tt 1%

Figure 2.1

Integers
2.2 One of the earliest mathematical skills that a child has to learn is the skill of
counting: ... ‘one, two, three, ...”. In mathematics these numbers are called the
counting or natural numbers. However, in order to develop mathematical ideas
beyond very elementary arithmetic, it is necessary to extend the concept of
natural numbers in two important directions. One of these is the extension to
negative, as well as positive, numbers. Mathematicians refer to the positive and
negative numbers, together with zero, as integers. An integer then is any number
of the form .... —4, —3, —2, —1,0, +1, +2, +3, ....

Rational numbers
2.3. The other important extension of the natural numbers is the idea of
fractions, e.g. 4, 4, 7, .... In mathematics we extend this idea still further to
include fractions which are bigger than one, e.g. 7/5, 22/7 (these are often called
improper fractions), and we also allow them to be positive or negative. The
collective name for all such numbers is rational numbers (rational is the adjective
derived from the noun ‘ratio’).

Ze
 Functions 23
Unfortunately, but for mathematicians rather interestingly, that is not the end
of the story; the rational numbers do not ‘fill’ the number line. There are points
on the number line, that representing We for example, which do not represent
rational numbers. In other words, some real numbers are not rational numbers.
In the next section we shall prove that ,/2 is not rational.
Before we can do this, we must state clearly and unambiguously what we
mean by a rational number. A rational number is a number of the form a/b, in
which a and b are integers with no common factor. (If there is a common factor, it
should be cancelled, e.g. 12/15 should be simplified to 4/5.) The number b must
not be zero. Notice however that b can be 1; this enables us to regard any integer,
including zero itself, as a rational number. An integer is simply a rational
number whose denominator b is equal to 1. Notice that a can be larger than b;
5/3 is a perfectly acceptable rational number.

The irrationality of /2
2.4 The Greek mathematicians of the 4th century BC knew all about the
theorem of Pythagoras so they knew that the hypotenuse of a right-angled
triangle, whose other two sides have a length of 1 unit, would have a length of
2 units. They discovered the proof that ,/2 is irrational, which is expressed in
modern terms below.
Firstly we assume that ,/2 can be expressed as a rational number. That is, we
assume that two integers, a and b, with no common factor, can be found such that

j2=¢a
Multiplying both sides by b gives
yf20a
and squaring both sides we have
Win ene
This equation tells us that a” is a multiple of 2, that is, it is an even number. Now,
the squares of even numbers are even and the squares of odd numbers are odd,
so we can deduce that a itself is an even number. Consequently it can be written
as 2c, where c is a natural number. Substituting 2c for a in the last equation, we
have
2b” = (2c)* = 4c”
and dividing through by 2 gives
oe
As before we can now deduce that b?, and hence b itself, is an even number.
Thus the initial assumption that ,/2 is a rational number has led us to the
conclusion that both a and b are even numbers, that is, they have a common
factor of 2. But a and b have no common factor, so we have contradicted
 Pure Mathematics 1 D4
24

ourselves. Now there are only two possible ways out of this impasse; either the
argument is faulty (the reader should go through it again to satisfy himself that
this is not the case) or the original assumption is false. Hence ,/2 is not a rational
number.
This proof is an example of a very important type of argument called reductio
ad absurdum.
With only minor amendments it can be adapted to prove that the square root
of any prime number is irrational. If such a square root is multiplied by a
rational number, the result is also irrational. Numbers such as whe wy Bs6 are
often called surds; we shall return to these in Chapter 9.
There are other irrational numbers, x for example, but we shall not go into the
details here. Readers who wish to know more should consult.a more advanced
mathematics book. In particular, they should look for the names Cantor
(1845-1918) and Dedekind (1831-1916) who were largely responsible for
investigating irrational numbers.
Qu.1 Are the following statements true or false? If you think they are false
explain clearly why you have come to this conclusion.
(a) All prime numbers are odd numbers.
(b) Any natural number can be expressed as a rational number.
(c) The square root of a natural number is an irrational number.
(d) m= 22/7, so m is a rational number.

Infinity
2.5 If you have a calculator, work out the value of 1/n for n = 0.1, 0.001, 0.0001,
0.000 0001. (Even if you do not have a calculator it is easy to find the answers!)
You should find that 1/n gets bigger and bigger as n gets smaller and smaller; we
say that 1/n ‘tends to infinity as n tends to zero’. The symbol oo is normally used
for infinity. However the idea of ‘infinity’ is a very risky one for the unwary.
Consider, for example the two lists

1, ee uh 4, > 6,

ale: NS aS ae Wate
How many terms are there in each of these lists? One might say ‘infinity’, but
look carefully; since each number in the second list is the square of the
corresponding number in the first, one could claim that each list contains the
same number of terms. Yet the second list clearly omits many of the terms which
are in the first, so one could also claim that the second list contains fewer terms
than the first. ‘Infinity’ then is a dangerous concept and should be handled with
great care. Mathematicians, unless they are very brave or very foolish, usually
try to dodge it. In particular they never divide by zero; instead they usually say
that an expression like 1/0 does not exist. Infinity itself is not a number.

{
Example 1 Find the values of x for which the expression a does not
.

exist. —_ x ns
 Functions 25
The expression does not exist if
x?—x-—6=0
(x—3)(x+2)=0
Len either x—=3=0 or x+2=0
The expression does not exist when x = 3 or —2.

Qu. 2 Find the values of x for which the following expressions do not exist:

2G
——., b
1
—+————.,
x 10
(a) 2x +5 Ura ee

Sets
2.6 In the previous sections we have already encountered the need to refer to
particular collections, or sets, of numbers. For the benefit of any reader who has
not met the idea of a set in mathematics before, a set is any clearly defined
collection of objects (in this chapter the objects will always be numbers, but in
later chapters you will meet sets of other mathematical objects or elements). The
members of a set may be defined by listing them, or by describing them carefully
in words. It is usual to enclose the list of members of a set in curly brackets, e.g.

{2, 4, 6, 8} is the set of even numbers less than ten

(2,53,-5;'7} is the set of prime numbers less than ten
{3, 6,9, ...,99} is the set of multiples of three, less than a hundred

Notice that when the pattern has been clearly established, as in the last case, the
three dots indicate that the pattern continues until the last term is reached. In
some cases there may be no last term, for example the set of square numbers,

{1,4,9, 16, 25, 36, ...}

When listing the members of a set, an individual member is never repeated. Thus
the set of prime factors of 1200 is {2, 3, 5}.
When we wish to indicate that a particular number belongs to a certain set,
the symbol ¢€ is used. Thus if P is the set of prime numbers we may write
37eEP
and this means ‘37 is a member of the set of prime numbers’. In contrast,
36¢P
means ‘36 is not a member of the set of prime numbers’.
The symbol :is often used in this context to mean ‘such that’. Thus if we use IN
to indicate the set of natural numbers, the mathematical statement
A= {x*:xeN}
means ‘A is the set whose members have the form x3, where x is such that it
26 Pure Mathematics 1 2.6

belongs to the set of natural numbers’. Thus A = {1, 8, 27, 64, ...}. Or again,
B= {3n?:neN}
means ‘B is the set whose members have the form 3n”, where n is a member of the
set of natural numbers’, ie. B = {3, 12, 27, 48, 75, ...}.
C={x: -3<x<.+3}
means that C is the set which contains any real number x between —3 and + 3,
inclusive.
Some very important sets have standard symbols:

Nis used for the set of natural numbers, N = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, RSS

Z is the set of integers, positive or negative, Z={..., —3, —2, —1,0, +1,
oe RO
Z* is the set of positive integers, Z* ={+1, +2, +3, +4, +5, +6, ...},
Q is the set of rational numbers, (see §2.3),
R is the set of real numbers.

In a later chapter you will meet C, the set of complex numbers.

The algebra of sets

2.7 (Readers who have studied this in an elementary course may wish to omit
this section; on the other hand readers who have not met it before may need to
supplement the section with further exercises from a more elementary textbook.)
Given two sets A and B, the set consisting of all those elements which belong
both to 4 and B is called the intersection of A and B. The symbol for it is AN B.
Thus if
A= {2, 4, 6, 8, 10,12} and B= ({3, 6, 9, 12}
the intersection of A and B is the set {6, 12} and we write
ANB={6, 12}
The set consisting of those elements which belong to A or B, or both, is called
the union of A and B and the symbol for it is AUB. (The symbol u can be
remembered as the initial letter of union.) It is important to remember that when
we list the members of a set we never repeat any individual element. Thus in the
case of the sets A and B in the previous paragraph,
AUB= {2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12}

Example 2 Given that A is the set of odd numbers less than 20, and B is the set of
prime numbers less than 20, list the members of A, B, ANB, AUB.

A=KilgrdeS7,Qoikdped did Se Udy 19}

Bef? 3.5.7, dint a9}
ANB ={3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19}
AUB={I, 2, 3, 5,7, 9, 1, 13, 15, 17, 19}
 Functions 27,
Notice that if P is the set of odd numbers and Q is the set of multiples of 2then
there would be no number which belongs to PA Q. Such a set, that is a set with
no members, is called an empty set; the symbol for it is @. Thus in the example
above we write PA Q = @. (@ is pronounced ‘ur’, as in hurt.)
Sometimes it is convenient to have a special symbol for all the elements which
are involved in a particular topic, or in a particular question. The normal
symbol used for this is &; it is called the universal set. In this context, it is also
frequently useful to have a symbol for all the elements of the universal set &
which are not in a given set A. The symbol used for this A’ and this set is called
the complement of set A. For example, given that
& ={1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,9, 10} andthat xX = {4, 8}
the complement of X is the set
Xan DY28B05,16, 1109), 10}
Notice that for any set P,
POE =e an OP =e

If every member of a certain set H is also a member of a set K, then H is

called a subset of K. For example, {2, 4, 6, 8} is a subset of {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
and the symbol used for this purpose is <. Thus Hc K reads ‘H is a subset
of K’.
Finally, the notation n(A) is used to denote ‘the number of elements in set A’.
Thus in Example 2 above, n(A) = 10, n(B) = 8, n(AQB)=7 and n(AUB)=11.
Notice that
n(AU B)=n(A) + n(B) — n(AB)
The reader should think carefully about this equation and should be able to see
that it is true for any sets A and B.

Exercise 2a
1 Given that A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, list the members of the following sets:
(a) {x*:xeEA}, (b) {1/x:
xe A},
(c) {2x:xeA}, (d) {4x+1:xe A}.
2 Given that A={—3, —2, —1, 0, +1, +2, +3} list the members of the
following sets:
(a) {x?:xeA}, — (b) {x?—x:
xe A},
(c) {x*:xe A}; — (d) {1/(x
+5): x€ A}.
3 In this question, x €¢Z*. List the members of the following sets:
(a) {x?: x < 10}, (b) {10x —x?: x < 10},
(c) {10—x: x < 10}, (d) {x/2: x < 10}.
4 Are the following statements true or false? If you think a statement is false,
give a clear reason for your conclusion.
(a) All factors of an even integer are even.
(b) All the factors of an odd integer are odd.
28 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 2a

(c) Z—Q.
(d) Any odd square number can be expressed in the form 4m + 1, where
meZ”.
5 List the members of the set of real numbers for which the expression
1
does not exist.
(«= Ne — De -3)
6 In this question, & is the set of positive integers less than 100 and the sets A
and B are subsets of &. A is the set of multiples of 5, and B is the set of
multiples of 7.
(a) List the members of A, B, ANB, AUB.
(b) Describe in words the members of set AB.
(c) Write down the values of n(A), n(B), n(A7 B) and n(A UB). Verify that
n(A VU B) =n(A) + n(B) — n(AnB).
7 Given that @ is the set of natural numbers less than or equal to 20, list the
members of the following subsets of &:
(a) A, the multiples of 3, (b) B, the multiples of 4,
(c) A’, the complement of A, (d) B,
(ec) (AUBY, (f) A’OB’.
Comment on your answers.
io.) Express as recurring decimals the rational numbers (a) 1/3, (b) 2/7, (c) 3/11.
9 Express the recurring decimal 0.7 as a rational number. (Hint: let x = 0.7 and
consider 10x.)
10 Express the following recurring decimals as rational numbers:
(a) O42, (b) 0.657, (c) 0.428571.

Functions
2.8 Consider the two exercises (1) and (2) below.
(1) A stone is projected vertically upwards. Its height, h metres, after t seconds,
is given approximately by the formula h = 20t — 5t*. Use the formula to calculate
its height after 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 seconds.

The answers to this exercise are shown in the table below:

(2) Given that x € {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} find the corresponding set of values of y, where y
is given by the rule:

(a) y=x*, (db) y=1/x, (0) y=/(5— x).

The three answers to this exercise are

(a) {1,4,9, 16,25}, ) {(LEAAAB © (2, /3, 2, 1,0}.

 Functions 29
All exercises like these have certain features in common. In each case, a set of
values is given for one of the variables. Then a rule is given and this is applied to
the given set of numbers, to produce a set of values of the other variable. In
mathematics there are standard terms which are used to describe these features.
The variable for which the values are given (t in exercise (1), x in (2)) is called the
independent variable and the set of values of the independent variable is called
the domain. The rule which is applied to the independent variable is called the
function and the variable which is produced by the rule is called the dependent
variable. (In (1) h is the dependent variable and in (2) y is the dependent variable.)
The set of values of the dependent variable is called the range of the function. In
exercise (2) part (a), the range is the set {1, 4, 9, 16, 25}.
When these standard terms are used there are some important restrictions
which must be observed in order to avoid certain difficulties and possible
misunderstandings. In many instances the domain will be R, the set of real
numbers. However, it may be necessary to restrict R, to exclude numbers to
which the rule cannot be applied. For instance in exercise (2) part (b), x must not
be zero, and in part (c) x must not be greater than 5 since this would require us to
find the square root of a negative number. The other restriction, which must be
observed, is that the rule must provide one and only one value of the dependent
variable. There is no difficulty over this point in the exercises above, but suppose
that the rule is ‘y is the angle whose sine is x’. In this case, if x = 0.5, then y could
be 30°, 150°, 390°, ...; in fact this particular rule would produce infinitely many
values of y for a given value of x. This difficulty has to be faced by the
manufacturer of a pocket calculator. Since a calculator has a single display for
showing numbers, it is only possible for a calculator to show one answer to a
given calculation. In the case of finding an angle whose sine is given, the designer
must use a standard convention for deciding which answer should appear in the
display. Similarly, when we define a function, we must define it carefully so that
it produces just one value of the dependent variable. Another example in which
this difficulty could arise would be the rule ‘y is the square root of x’, because any
positive value of x would yield two values of y (both +5 and —S are square roots
of 25). It should be noted however that there is a convention in mathematics
that the square root sign ,/ is reserved for the positive square root only, that
is - 25= +5 (not —5). With this convention it is perfectly in order to regard
y=,/x as a function.
The member of the range which corresponds to a certain member of the
domain is usually called the image of that member, e.g. in (2) (a) above, 25 is the
image of 5. Notice that there is no objection to having two distinct members of
the domain with the same image, vide (1) above, in which both t= 1 and t=3
have the image 15. The converse however is not allowed; a member of the
domain must not have more than one image. When each member of the range
has exactly one corresponding member of the domain the function is called |
‘one-to-one function’. Thus if the domain is R, the set of all real numbers, y = x°
represents a one-to-one function, but y = x? does not. A function which is not
one-to-one is said to be ‘many-to-one’.
 Pure Mathematics 1 2.8
30

Qu.3 For each of the rules below, state carefully the largest possible subset of
R which would be a suitable domain. In each case describe the corresponding
range.
(a) y=1/x-3), (y= VY(10-2), ©) y=/(25—?),
(d) y=1/(25—x?), — (@) y=1/(25 +x’).
Qu.4 Which of the rules below represent functions (distinguish between one-
to-one functions and many-to-one functions)? In each part, the domain is R.
(a) y=x*, = (b) p= x°, > © y? +x? =25, (d) y=x? =x.

The function notation

2.9 Sometimes we need to discuss several functions simultaneously and
consequently a notation which enables us to distinguish between them can be
very convenient. Suppose we have two functions, both having R as the domain,
and suppose one of them squares each member of the domain and the other
doubles each member of the domain. We write f(x) to represent the image of x
under the function f; our first function would be represented by f(x) = x? and
the second by g(x) = 2x. The usual letters to use for this purpose are f, g, h and
their corresponding capital letters, but other letters may be used if desired.
In the illustration above, f(5)= 25 and g(5)=10. We can also write f(a) = a’,
f(a +h) =(a+h)’, g(k) = 2k, and so on.

Example 3 Given that h(x)=x?—x, find the values of h(10), h(—3), h(4),
h(t + 1), h(5k).
h(10)= 107 —10 =100 —10=90
h— 3)=(— 3)" —(—3) = 4 3 le
h(d)
=(4? -(G)=4-4=3
h(t+ 1) =(¢+ 17% —(¢4+D=8 4+2t+1-t—-1l=224+t
h(5k)
= (5k)? — 5k = 25k? — 5k
There is an alternative to this notation, which can also be quite useful. In this
notation the function f(x) = x3 is written
ROR
This statement should be read ‘f is a function which maps x onto x3’. The
function g(x) = 2x now becomes g: xt» 2x. When x =5, we write f: 5+> 125 and
g: 5+ 10.

Composite functions
2.10 In this section f and g will be used to represent the functions f(x) = x? and
g(x) =x + 5. The domain of both functions will be R.
Notice that f(3) =9 and g(9) = 14. Thus if we start with x = 3 and apply to it
first function f and then function g, we shall obtain the number 14. This could be
written g(f(3)) = g(9) = 14, but it is usually abbreviated to gf(3) = 14 (alternat-
ively, the notation gof(3) = 14 may be used). Similarly gf(10) = 100 + 5 = 105. In
 Functions Bi
general

Pits) x- 5
The function gf(x) is called a composite function. Notice that the order of the
functions which make up a composite function is very important. With f and g
defined as above,

fa(x) = (x + 5)? = x? + 10x 4+ 25

Remember that when a composite function is written down, the individual
functions must be read from right to left.

Example 4 Given that F: x + (10 + x), G: x x3 and H: x x/2, write down

the functions (a) FG, (b) GF, (c) FGH.
(a) FG:x+r+(10+x°)
(b) GF:xh (10+ x)
(c) H: x # (x/2)
GH: x + (x/2)°, hence GH: x > x3/8
FGH: x 10 + x3/8

Example 5 Given that f(x) = 25 —x* and that g(x) =./x, find, where possible,
the values of (a) gf(0), (b) gf(4), (c) gf(13).

(a) “f(0)=25,_ | gf(0)=2(25) =5,

(b) £(4)=9, gi(4) = 29). = 3,
(c) f(13)=25—169=—144, but we cannot evaluate g(—144) because a
negative number does not have a real square root.

Example S(c) illustrates a difficulty which can arise when forming a composite
function. If the domain of the function f(x), above, is R then its range is
{y:ye R, y<25} and this includes negative numbers, which are not in the
domain of the function g(x) = 4 x. This can only be avoided if we restrict the
domain of f(x) to {x:xeR, —5<x<-+5}. In general, when a composite
function gf(x) is formed, the range of the function f(x) must be a subset of the
domain of the function g(x).
Some mathematicians insist that whenever a function is defined its domain
should be explicitly stated and, strictly speaking, they are correct. However this
soon becomes rather tedious and most people adopt the less rigid convention
that, unless the domain has some special features that need comment, it may be
assumed that the domain is intended to be R; the reader is normally expected to
use common-sense to exclude any members of the domain which give rise to
obvious difficulties (e.g. square roots of negative numbers, fractions with a zero
denominator). This is the convention which will generally be employed in this
book, although in this chapter, the domain will be described in full.
The term co-domain is sometimes used for any set which contains the range.
For example, the function f(x) = x* maps real numbers onto real numbers and
so one can say the domain is R and the co-domain is R, but since all the images
a) Pure Mathematics 1 210

are positive (or, to be precise, non-negative) the range is the set of non-negative
real numbers.

Exercise 2b
1 Given that g(x) =x? + 1, find the values of
(a) (0), (b) 2(5), =) a2), ~— (A) a —2).
2 The domain of the function g(x) = 5x + 1 is {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. Find its range.
3 The domain of the function f(x) =x* + 1 is R. Find its range.
4 The domain of the function f(x) = 1/(1 + x”) is R. Find its range.
5 The domain of the function f(x) = 1/,/(25 — x) is a subset of R. Write down
the largest possible set which is a suitable domain.

In Nos. 6-10 the domain is R.

6 Given that f: x +> 5x + 1 and that g: x + x”, express the composite functions
fg and gf in their simplest possible forms.
7 Given that f(x) =x?, express as simply as possible
f(5 + h) —f(5
(a) f(5 +h), (b) nas are (h #0).
8 If f(x) =x? express as simply as possible
f(a + h) — f(a)
h , (h#0).

9 Given that f(x) = x? find

(a) f(2), (b) f(— 10), (c) f(4),
(d) f(Sa), (e) f(a/3), (f) f(a+ h),
f(a + h) —f(a—h)
(g) f(a+h)—f(a—h), _(h) ah \ (h #0).
10 If f(x) = 7x and g(x) =x + 3 and fg: x + y, express as simply as possible the
rule which maps x onto y. Find the values of p, g, r such that
(a) fg: St p, (b) fg: 10+ q, (c) fg: rts 35.
Find also the function, F, which reverses the function fg, that is, it maps y
onto x.

Graphs of functions
2.11 When the domain is the set of real numbers R, it is always represented by
the horizontal axis, and the corresponding values of the dependent variable are
represented by points on the vertical axis. When x and y are used to represent
typical members of the domain and the co-domain, these axes are called
the x-axis and the y-axis respectively. Fig. 2.2 shows the graph of a function
y = f(x). A typical member a of the domain and its image f(a) are shown.
Bearing in mind that each member of the domain has exactly one image in the
co-domain, a graph like the one shown in Fig. 2.3 does not represent the graph
of a function. In this diagram, a has three possible images in the co-domain.
 Functions 33

y = f(x)
f(a) |e

xv

Figure 2.2

Figure 2.3

Although this is a purely artificial example, made up to illustrate the point,

consider the circle, centre (0, 0), radius 10. The coordinates of any point P on the
circle satisfy the equation x? + y? = 100, so a relation exists between the values
of x and y at each point, and a graph can be drawn, but this is not the graph of a
function because there are values of x for which there are two possible values of
y, e.g. when x = 6, y= +8 or y= —8 (see Fig. 2.4).
 P|
34 Pure Mathematics 1

Figure 2.4

Graphs of some common functions

2.12 Fig. 2.5 illustrates the graphs of y= x”, y= x? and y = x*; any reader who
is not familiar with these already is advised to draw and save graphs of these
functions. (Start by plotting the values of y corresponding to values of x from
x= —2 to +2, at intervals of + of a unit.) Note that all of these graphs pass
through the point (1, 1); y=x? and y=x* also pass through (—1, 1), while
y=x? passes through (—1, —1). Notice also that the graphs ‘flatten out’
between x = —1 and x = +1, as the power increases. (Try plotting y=x!°: a
calculator may be needed for some of the calculations.)
Fig. 2.6 shows the graphs of y = 1/x, (x #0) and y= wfx, (x > 0). (Remember
that the square-root sign means the positive square root.)
Any reader who is not familiar with these graphs is advised to make careful
copies, using a calculator where necessary, and to save the graphs for future
reference. Notice also that if the functions are changed to y = 1/(x — 2), (x ¥ 2),
and y= mT(x — 2), (x > 2), then the shape of the graphs is unaltered but the graph
is translated 2 units to the right. In general, the graph of y = f(x — a) will have the
same shape as y = f(x) but it will be translated a units to the right.
The modulus of x, written |x|, is probably new to many readers; the modulus of
x is the magnitude of x, thus |+ 5| = +5 and |—7| = +7. A table of values of |x|
for x = —4 to x= + 4 is shown below:

5ap Oy pila a Seales ape ietei Remarok Deemer

bac]O' sed etree Ree comes ed TOW died nie dower ined
and the graph of y =|x| is shown in Fig. 2.7.
 ae oa) 4
r
rg perirrs ae
Hy Hoe
eeege Cees

‘Figure 2.5
e Osea al mini

HG :

z aes ma
im
ae: i iz

Hii4
Functions
35
 Oa2
36 Pure Mathematics 1

Figure 2.7

The instructions ‘plot the graph of ...’ and ‘sketch the graph of ...’ have very
definite, but distinct, meanings in mathematics. The instruction ‘plot the graph
of y=x?, for x =0 to 5’ means that the necessary values of y should be
calculated, the points should be accurately plotted on graph paper and the
points should be joined with a neat smooth curve. In contrast, a sketch of a curve
should not be done on graph paper; plain, or ordinary lined paper should be
used. Only a few points need to be plotted, but points which have special
importance should be marked. The sketch should not be limited to a small part
of the domain. Instead, every effort should be made to convey the overall
appearance of the graph throughout its domain.

Example 6 Sketch the graph of y= 5 + 2, (X43).

(ii)
Figure 2.8
 Functions 37
The graph of y = 1/x is one of the standard graphs; a sketch of it is shown
in Fig. 2.6. Replacing x by x —3 translates the graph 3 units to the right, and
so a sketch ofy= 1/(x — 3) would be like Fig. 2.8(i). When the final 2 is added to
1/(x — 3) the graph is translated 2 units vertically upwards. Hence the sketch
graph of y= 1/(x — 3) +2 should look like Fig. 2.8(ii).

Exercise 2c

Sketch (detailed plotting is not required) the graphs of the following functions.
Where possible, the sketch should be obtained by modifying one of the standard
graphs in the preceding section.
1 y=2x+1. 2 y=(x+2)°.
3 y=x’ +5. 4y=1/(x+4), (x#—4).
5 y= —x*, (SE apes
Cay (0 oO 8 y= tix? (x £0),
So far x has always been used for the independent variable and y for the
dependent variable, but x and y are not the only letters which may be used. In
Nos. 9-15 t is used for the independent variable, hence the t-axis is horizontal,
and z is used for the dependent variable.
9 2=(t—4)°. 10 z=100—12, (—10<r< +10).
i z=|t—3}, 12 z=|(t+4)(t —4)].
13°2=/141+1)|. 14 z=1/(1 +t).
15 z=|t|—|t+1].
16 Fig. 2.9 shows the graph of an unspecified function y=f(x). Trace the

Ms

Figure 2.9
38 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 2c

diagram and use the tracing to show, on a single diagram, sketch graphs of
(a) y=f(x—6), = (b) y= f(x +3), (©) y= f(x) +2.
17 Use the tracing from No. 16 to draw the graph of y = f(x) and superimpose
on it sketches of the following graphs, showing clearly their relationship to
the graph of y = f(x):
(a) y=5f(x), (b) y=F(5x), =) y=—-f), ~~) y=f(—).
*18 Describe, in words, the appearance of the following graphs, relative to the
graph of y = f(x):
(a) y=f(x—-a), (b) y I mee(x) +4, (c).y =k x fe),
(d) y= —f(), (e) y I =(—x).

Further functions
2.13 Example 7 In 1981 the cost of posting a parcel, weighing not more than
10 kg, was given by the table below. Explain why this table expresses the cost of the
parcel as a function of its weight and draw a graph of the function.

Not over Cost Not over Cost

kg £1.10 6 kg £22)
2kg £1.43 7kg £2.50
3 kg PLS 8 kg £2.45
4kg £1.90 9kg :
Sa fe
S5kg £2.05 10 kg £2.65

The table expresses the cost as a function of the weight because if the weight is
known, the table indicates the cost of postage. A function is any rule which
enables the dependent variable to be found, when the independent variable is
known. It is not necessary to express the rule as a formula. The graph is shown in
Fig. 2.10.

Figure 2.10
The function in Example 7 differs from the functions discussed earlier in the
chapter, in that different rules apply to different parts of the domain. Many
of
 Functions 39
the functions which arise from real life problems are like this. When a
multi-
stage rocket is fired, the function which expresses its velocity in terms of time
will
have different mathematical formulae corresponding to each stage of the rocket
motor. Examples 8 and 9 illustrate further functions which display this
characteristic.

Example 8 The domain offunction fis R.

f:xt+1 when
x <0, and
f:xt>x?+1 whenx>0.
Sketch the graph of this function. (See Fig. 2.11.)

Figure 2.11

Example 9 The domain of the function f is R.

f:xrel, ifxeZ, and
f:xr+2, ifxێZ.

Write down f( +5), f(— 1), f(0), £(3.4), f/2) and f(x).
Sketch the graph of y =f(x).

Figure 2.12
 2.14
40 Pure Mathematics 1

+5 is an integer, 1.e. 4+5eZ. Similarly f(—1)=1 and

f(+5)=1, because
(Oy =4ay
But 3.4, ,/2 and x are not members of Z, so f(3.4) = f(./2) = f(m) = 2.
The graph of this function consists of the points ... (—2, 1), (—1, 1), (0, 0),
(1, 1), (2, 1) ... and the straight line y= 2, with ‘holes’ in it whenever x is an
integer (Fig. 2.12). In the diagram, the ‘holes’ have been exaggerated for the sake
of clarity.

Odd and even functions

2.14 Functions whose graphs are symmetrical about the vertical axis (i.e. the
y-axis in Fig. 2.13) are called even functions.

Figure 2.13

In terms of the algebra, this means that for any value of a, f(a) =f(—a).
Obvious examples of even functions are functions of the form f(x) = x”, where n
is an even integer, hence the name, even function. Another important even
function is f(x) = cos x (see Chapter 16).
A function with the property f(—a)= —f(a), for every member a of the
domain, is called an odd function. The graph of an odd function will have
rotational symmetry of order 2 about the origin, that is, after a 180° rotation
about the origin the graph will be superimposed upon itself (Fig. 2.14).

Figure 2.14
 Functions 41
Functions of the form f(x)=x", where n is an odd number, will be odd
functions. Another important odd function is f(x) = sin x (see Chapter 16).

Example 10 Prove that the sum of two even functions is an even function and that
the sum of two odd functions is an odd function.
Let f(x) and g(x) be two even functions. Then f(x) and g(x) have the property
f(— a) = f(a) and g(—a) = g(a), for any member a of the domain.
Let F(x) be the sum of f(x) and g(x), that:is F(x) = f(x) + g(x). Then if a is any
member of the domain

F(— a) =1(— a) + g(—a)

= f(a) + g(a)
= F(a)
hence F(x) is an even function.
Similarly if f(x) and g(x) are odd functions, then

F(— a) = f(—a) + g(—a)

= —f(a) — g(a)
= —F(a)
hence F(x) is an odd function.
Qu.5 Prove that the product of two even functions is an even function.
Qu.6 Prove that the product of two odd functions is an even function.
Qu. 7 Is the product of an even function and an odd function odd or even?

Periodic functions
2.15 A function whose graph repeats itself at regular intervals is called a
periodic function (see Fig. 2.15). Such functions are especially important in
science. The sound wave of a note of constant pitch, for example, is periodic.

Figure 2.15

The length of the interval between repeats is called the period of the function.
If the period is a, then for any value of h in the domain of the function,
f(h + a) = f(h)
 25
42 Pure Mathematics 1
(see
The most common periodic functions are the trigonometric functions
Chapter 16) sin x and cos x; they have a period of 360°, because

sin (x + 360)? =sinx° and _ cos (x + 360)° = cos xe

Example 11 Sketch the graph of the periodic function such that f(x) =x, for
—1<x< +1, where the period of f(x) is 2.

Between x = —1 and x= +1, the graph is the ordinary straight line y = x.

Outside this interval, the graph repeats itself every 2 units (Fig. 2.16).

yy

Figure 2.16

Example 12 Sketch the graph of y = f(x) where f(x) = ./(1 — x”), when0 <x <1,
and f(x) is an even function with a period of 2.
The equation y = ./(1 — x”) produces an arc of a circle between x =0 and
x= +1. Because the function is even, the graph is symmetrical about the
vertical axis. Thus between x = — 1 and x = +1, the graph is a semi-circle, and
this is then repeated at regular intervals of 2 units (Fig. 2.17).

Figure 2.17

The inverse of a function

2.16 Consider the function y = f(x), i where f(x) =4x3
= + 1.: A sk t i
is shown in Fig. 2.18. i ‘paciihcan
 Functions 43

Figure 2.18

If we are given a member of the range, say y = 9, is it possible to find the

corresponding member of the domain? On the graph this would mean starting
from y = 9 on the vertical axis, drawing a line horizontally to the point P on the
curve and then drawing a vertical line down to the x-axis. The point where the
line meets the axis gives the value of x which is required. In this particular
example it is fairly easy to solve the problem algebraically. The value of x
required is found by solving the equation
ax +1=9
4x? =8
x°
= 64
x=4

Indeed it is quite simple to generalise this. Starting with the given value from the
range of function f, we first subtract 1, then we multiply by 8 and finally we find
the cube root. The whole operation is called the inverse of function f and it is
written f '. Following the usual convention of writing x for a typical member of
the domain of function f ', we can write our inverse function as follows:

f(x) = J{8(x — )}
Thus
f~1(9)
= 1{8(9 — 1)} = (8 x 8) = /64=4
There is however one problem; when we draw the horizontal line from the
given number to the graph of y = f(x), this line must meet the curve once only.
Otherwise there will be more than one possible answer and we are not allowed
44 Pure Mathematics 1 2.16

to use the word function to describe such a situation. For example, f(x) = x7 is a
perfectly acceptable function, but it maps both +5 and —5 onto the same
image, namely 25. There is no objection to this, we simply agree to call it a
many-to-one function. However if we attempt to find f-1(25), there are two
possible answers, namely +5 and —5. So f(x) does not have an inverse function.
This difficulty can be by-passed if we agree in advance to limit the domain of
f(x) = x? to the non-negative real numbers; in that case we shall not be applying
it to —5 and the difficulty of having two possible answers will not arise.
To sum up then, we can only have an inverse function if the original function
is a one-to-one function. (However the fact that an inverse function exists does
not necessarily mean we shall be able to write down the rule which gives the
inverse.)
In general, if (a, b) is a point on the graph of y = f(x), then (b, a) will be a point
on the graph of y =f '(x), and consequently the graph of y=f~ *(x) will be the
reflection of the graph of y = f(x) in the line y = x (see Fig. 2.19).

Figure 2.19

Here are some examples of some common functions and their inverses:
(a) fx)=x+a t's x a,
(b) f(x) =kx P(x} xk
() f&)=x*, (20) fi@=/x,
(d) f(x)=a—x f* (x)= aw,
(e) f(x) = If 4 (x) = 1/x.
Functions, like (d) and (e), which are the same as their inverses are called self-
inverse functions.
Ifa function fis applied to a number a, and then f~! is applied, the final result
 Functions 45
will be the original number a. For example using function (c) above, f(3) = 9 and
f~'(9) = 3. (This can be clearly observed on a pocket calculator. First key in any
number a, then press a function button, say x”, and then the button of the
inverse function af Xs and the original number a should be displayed. Although
the following functions are as yet unknown to you, you can observe the same
phenomenon by pressing the buttons representing the following pairs of
functions and their inverses: log x, 10*; In x, e*.)
We have already seen that fg(x) is the composite function, in which the
function g is applied first and then function f is applied to the result. The inverse
of this composite function is g 'f ‘(x). (This is rather like packing and
unpacking a parcel. Suppose you wrap the parcel in paper and then tie it up with
string. When the parcel is unpacked, first the string must be untied and, after
that, the paper removed.)

Example 13 Given that f(x)=10x and g(x)=x +3, find fg(x) and (fg)~ '(x).
Verify that if b = fg(a), then (fg) ‘(b) =a.
g(x) =x+3
fg(x) = 10x (x + 3)
The inverses of g and f are g ‘(x)=x—3 and f '(x)=x/10. Hence
(fg) "(x)=
8 TF)

= = ae

In the general case, we are given b = fg(a),

. b= 10(a + 3)
and hence,

(a) *(0) =“ _ 5
=at+3—3
=a
In some cases the inverse function can be found by regarding y = f(x) as an
equation in which y is known, and solving the equation for the unknown x. For
instance, if
bee
Tax D

then
y(3x + 2)=5x+7
 2.16
46 Pure Mathematics I
3xy+2y=5x+7
3X aXe LY,
x(3y —5)=7—2y

‘eh 7 —2y
3y —5

So the inverse of f(x) =(5x + 7)/(3x + 2) is g(y)=(7 — 2yWGBy — 5). However,

since we need to emphasise that g is the inverse of f and since the letter x is
normally used to represent the independent variable, we express this result as
1— 2%
fix) =
3x —5

A result such as this can be checked by verifying that f~ '(f(x)) = x. In this case,
7 — 2(5x + 7)/(3x + 2)
f*(f)) = 3(5x--+ T)/Gx
+ 2)—5
_ 13x +2) — (5x +7)
~ 3(5x\+7) — 5(3x.+ 2)
_ 21x + 14— 10x —14
15x20 — 152-10

Exercise 2d
1 Given that f(x) =5x + 1, find the values of
(a) f7i36), (bo) f*[14), fe) 0), (df).
2 Given that g(t) = 1/(t — 5), (t #5), find the values of
(a) 7), (be 'Q2, ©xs"(-1), g(a).
3 Find the inverses of the following functions:
(a) f(x) = 12 —}x, (b) f(x) =4(x — 3),
(c) f(x) =(2x + 1)/5, (d) f(x) =(7 — 3x)/10.
4 Find the inverses of the following functions:
(a) f:x ++ 3(x— 32), (b) f:
x + 180(x
— 2),
(c): feet 2rx5 (d) f: x b+ S(x + 7)/3 — 9.
5 Find the inverses of the following functions:
(a) Fitrev?+5, (20), (b) Fit 5/t, (20),
(c) F: the (t— 5), (d) Fitrh Y(t +1).
6 Find the inverses of the following functions:

u
(a) tinh wide
pines (x 4 3),
4 1
Mote,
(b) & Xho Spay (x #
a
—4),
 Functions 47
3
(c) oad ceed (x # 4), (d) gx, (x # —1).

7 Show that the function f(x) = 1/(1 — x), (x 4 1), is the inverse of the function
8(x) = (x — 1)/x, (x #0).
Show that the function H(x) = x/(x — 1) is a self-inverse function.
io)
9 Sketch the graph of the function y = f(x), where f(x) =x?+1 and, on the
same diagram, sketch the graph of the inverse function yeaat (x),
10 Fig. 2.20 shows the graph of a function y = f(x). Copy the diagram carefully,
using tracing paper if necessary, and on the same diagram, sketch the graph
of the inverse function.

Figure 2.20

Investigating limits, using a calculator

2.17 In this section we shall investigate the limits of some functions using a
calculator. It is important to understand that our investigations will only tell us
the value of the function at the points we examine. To prove that the limits are
what we think they are, we must turn to algebra, which we shall do in the next
section. Nevertheless, the calculator can give us some very strong clues to the
behaviour of certain functions.
The phrase ‘x tends to zero’, which is written ‘x +0’, means that x can be
made as small as we please. If any prearranged small number is chosen, then it
must be possible to make x smaller than that number.
48 Pure Mathematics 1 ZAG

= x/sin x, as
Example 14 Investigate the function f(x) x +0, using your cal-
culator in degree mode.

(Notice that this function does not exist at x =0, since when x =0, the
function would give 0/0.)

x 1.0 0.5 0.1 0.01

f(x) 51.299 zal 57.296 57.296

This function seems pretty determined to approach 57.296 (to five significant
figures) as x tends to zero.

When we say ‘x tends to a’, where a is a fixed real number, we mean that x can
be made as close to a as we please; or, to put it another way, |x — a|—0. In the
following example, x tends to 2.
3
Example 15 Investigate the function f(x) = ea ,as x2.

(First it should be noticed that f(x) does not exist when x = 2; with this value
of x the function gives 0/0.)
Set out below are two tables; the first shows the values of f(x) when x
approaches 2 from below, and the second shows the values of f(x) when x
approaches 2 from above.

x ee 1.99 1.999 1.9999

f(x) 11.41 11.940 11.994 11.999

x 2k 2.01 2.001 2.0001

f(x) 12.61 12.060 12.006 12.000

This suggests that f(x) approaches 12, as x tends to 2.

A function f(x) is said to tend to a limit L, if |f(x) — L| +0, as x >a. The same
number L must be reached whether x approaches the fixed number a from above
or below. The function itself may, in some cases, be undefined at x =a. (In
Example 15, above, we say that the limit of f(x) is 12, as x > 2.)
The phrase ‘x tends to infinity’, means that x gets bigger and bigger, without
any limit on its size. If we choose a large number N, then it must be possible for x
to exceed N. (Infinity itself is not a real number; see §2.5.) Thus we can say that
1/n tends to zero as n tends to infinity. In other words 1/n gets smaller and
smaller as n gets bigger and bigger. If we choose a very small number, say 10 ©,
and ask whether we can make 1/n smaller than this number, the answer is ‘yes’;
all we have to do is to make n bigger than 10*°. In writing, this statement is
abbreviated to ‘1/n—0, as n> 00’.
 Functions 49

Example 16 Investigate the function f(x) = = , AS X— OO.

== BS

The table below shows some values of f(x) for some increasingly large values
of x. (The values of f(x) are given to five significant figures.)

X 10 100 1000 10.000

f(x) 1.8182 1.9802 1.9980 1.9998

From this table it seems reasonable to suppose that f(x)2, as x > oo.

Example 17 = Investigate f(n) =(1 + 1/n)", as n> ow.

The table below shows the values of f(n), for some increasingly large values of
n. (The values of f(n) have been corrected to four significant figures.)

n qr “5 10 100 1000 1.000.000

fie ee 22,488 2.594 2.705 sei 2.718
The table suggests that the limit of this function is 2.718. (It is difficult to
investigate the limit of this function rigorously, but it can be shown that it is a
number called e. We will meet e again in Book 2; like n, it plays a very important
role in higher mathematics.)

In Qu. 8-12, use your calculator to investigate each function, as x tends to the
number stated.

Qu. 8 aoe = een 4

Oe x2.
x—4 ieee
? x

Qu. 10 (1+2), x0.

Qu. 11 ae x —0, using your calculator in radian mode.

1 —cos x : , :
Qu. 12 ——,—., x0, using your calculator in radian mode.
ce

Finding limits algebraically

2.18 Some of the functions which you have investigated in the preceding
sections can be examined more rigorously using algebra.
In Example 16, above, if we divide the numerator and the denominator by x,
the function can be written

od Fete rs
 2.18
50 Pure Mathematics 1

If now we let x > 00, the term 1/x will tend to zero and we can see that f(x) will
tend to 2. Notice that, since x is positive, the denominator will always be slightly
bigger than 1, so f(x) will always be slightly less than 2. We say that f(x) tends to
2 from below. On the other hand, when x > — oo, the denominator will be
slightly less than 1 and so f(x) will approach 2 from above.
In Example 15, put x = 2 +h, where h is small (in due course, we shall let h
tend to zero).
x3 =(2+h)>=8
+412h + 6h? +h?
hence

c= Qh
6r Fhe
Ya h
=12+6h+h? (h #0)
Although we must not put h equal to zero, we can let h tend to zero, that is, we
can let it get smaller and smaller. As it does so, the terms 6h and h? tend to zero
and we see that the function tends to 12. This confirms the result of our
investigation by calculator.
If f(x) tends to L as x tends to a, we frequently say that the limit of f(x), as x
tends to a, is L. This is usually abbreviated to
lim: £0) =2L
eel |§

Thus the outcome of Example 15 could be written

alee eae
Ker 2 P, Ts 2 -,

Continuity
2.19 Looking back at Examples 7 and 8 (§2.13), the reader will notice that there
is an important difference between them. The graph of Example 8 could, at least
in our imagination, be drawn with a single sweep of the pencil, whereas in
Example 7 the pencil must be lifted off the page at each integer point of the
domain. We say that the function in Example 8 is continuous, but the function in
Example 7 is discontinuous at 1, 2, 3, ....
Fig. 2.21 shows sketches of the graphs of y= x?, y=1/x and y= 1/x?.
f(x) = x? is plainly a continuous function, but the other two are discontinuous
at x =0 (they are, of course, both undefined at this point).
The function given by
f(x)=+1, whenx>0
f(x)=—1, whenx <0
is defined at every point of R, but it is discontinuous at x =0. A sketch of its
graph is shown in Fig. 2.22.
In all these cases the break in the graph has been pretty obvious, but a
 Functions 51

Figure 2.21

Figure 2.22

discontinuity can be more subtle than this. Consider for example the function
x?—4
F(x) = x—2
(x # 2)
For all values of x, except x=2, this function is equal to (x+2), and
consequently its graph is the straight line y = x + 2, with a ‘hole’ in it at x =2
(Fig. 2.23).
_ It is perfectly legitimate to say that lim F(x) = 4, but we must not actually put
Ca A
x equal to 2. At the moment the graph is undefined at this point. Now, if we wish,
we can ‘plug the gap’ by defining F(2) as 4. In doing so we shall have made F(x)
continuous at x = 2. But, if we wish to be difficult, we could choose to define F(2)
as something else, say F(2) = 0; in this case F(x) is discontinuous at x = 2.
Notice that in the case of f(x) = 1/x and f(x) = 1/x, we can decide to define
Sy Pure Mathematics 1 2.19

Figure 2.23

the function at x = 0, if we wish, but there is no number which we could assign to

it which would make these functions continuous at x = 0.
We can express this more formally by saying that, if
lim f(x) # f(a)
xa

then f(x) is discontinuous at x =a. But if

lim f(x) = f(a)
x~a

then the function is continuous at x = a. A function which is continuous at every

point in its domain is called a continuous function.

Exercise 2e
1 Find the limits of the following expressions as x > 00:
5x +1 x+1 x7 +1 5
(a) 10+ 2x’ (b) de ©) coats (¢) 1+x
2 Find the limits of the following expressions as x > 5:
x? —4x —5 XP ne 25 x3 — 125 x?
— 25
sO —————_,
peereee3 Oak
b) ———_,, (c) a
ine (d) ——,..
cae
3 The following functions are not defined at x = 0. Define them, if possible, so
that each function is continuous at x = 0.
x +x
(a) f(x) = ° (b).f(x)=x?
>, x

|x| 1 (d) f(x) = 10+ 6/x

(c) f(x) = sD Sabie .
 Functions 53
4 Which ofthe following functions are continuous at x = 0? Sketch the graph in
each case.
(a) f(x) =x, whenx>0, (b) f(x)=x, whenx>0,
=0, whenx <0. = 1, \ilarernss <0)
(c) f(x)=x+1, whenx>0, (d) f(x) =2*, when x >0,
= (0, when x < 0. jl, aliases (0)
x +x? =9x —9
5 The function f(x) = :2 a does not exist for two members of R.
x* —9
Find these two members of R and define f(x) at each of these points, so that it
becomes a continuous function.

Exercise 2f (Miscellaneous)
1 The domain of the function f(x) is {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. Find the range if
(a) f(x) =5x7+3, — (b) f(x) =x/(x + 1).
2 Given that F(t) = 30/(t + 2), find
(a) Gye (DEF (5) Sec) FEA) (dy) F(= 2.5).
3 Given that g(x) =5+x/2, find the values of
(@) 26, &)2'0, Weg "(-1, @ eC.
4 The domain of the function h(t) = |t|— t is Z. Describe its range. Describe in
words the set of numbers {a: h(a) =0}.
5 The domain of the functions f(x) = 5x, g(x)= x”, and h(x) = x + 1, is R. Write
down as simply as possible, the composite functions
(a) fgh(x), — (b)_hgf(x).
6 The domain of the functions f(x) = x/5 and g(x) = 7 — x is R. Write down, as
simply as possible,
Cite 1b) 6 (x) (ete), (d) (fe).
| The domain of the function f(x) = 1/(1 + x*) is R. Explain why the denomi-
nator is never zero. Find the range of the function. Sketch the graph of
y ={(x).
8 Given that f(x) =x + 2-—15/x and that g(x) = 1/x, (x #0), write down the
composite function gf(x), in its simplest form, stating clearly any restrictions
on the domain which are necessary.
9 State, with reasons, whether the following functions are one-to-one or many-
to-one:
(a) f:+> 10x + 2, xeER,
(b) g:+> 1/(x + 4), xER, x4 —4,
(c) hie x?+1, xeER.
Find the composite function fgh(x) in its simplest possible form. Is R a
suitable domain for fgh(x)? Find the range of the function fgh(x) and sketch
the graph of y = fgh(x).
10 Show that the function g(x) = (2x — 1)/(x — 3) can be expressed in the form
a
AE A ogee i

where a and bare real numbers and x # 3. Hence, or otherwise find lim g(x).
x7 0
54 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 2f

Show, also, that the graph of g(x) can be obtained from the graph of
y =a/x, by suitably chosen translations parallel to the axes. Sketch the graph
of y = g(x), showing clearly how it can be obtained by translating the graph
of p= aj
11 Functions f and g, whose domain is the set of real numbers, are defined as
follows:
fax 42 gxrex—3
Find (a) gf(2), (b) (fg) *(—6). (O & C: SMP)
12 (a) Sketch the graph of the function f: x > || + 2|—|x| , where x is real.
State the range of f.
(b) The function g is defined by g: x +> 4/(1 + x”). Give a suitable domain for
x so that g is a one-to-one function and state the range of g for this
domain. Define an inverse function g ‘ stating its domain and the
corresponding range. (C)
13 The real function f, defined for all x € R, is said to be multiplicative if, for all
xeER, yeR,

f(xy) = f(x)f(y)
Prove that if f is a multiplicative function then
(a) either (0) =0 or (x)=
(b) either f(1) = 1 or f(x) =0,
(c) f(x") = {f(x)}" for all positive integers n.
Give an example of a non-constant multiplicative function. (C)
14 Functions f, g and h, with domains and co-domains
R* = {x: x real, x > 0}
are defined as follows:
1
fi xte3x?, gxr h: x (1 + x)/x.
JV +xy
Prove that the composite function L defined on R* by L = hgf is given by
L:xt>1+./(1+3x?) (L)
Chapter 3

The gradient of a curve”

The gradient of a curve
3.1 So far we have only discussed the gradient of a straight line. A man walking
up the ramp AB (Fig. 3.1) is climbing a gradient of 4.

2m

A
7m

Figure 3.1

Figure 3.2

Let us now consider a man walking up the slope represented by the curve
when he
CPD (Fig. 3.2). Between C and D the gradient is steadily increasing. If,
remained
had reached the point P, the gradient had stopped increasing, and had
by the pupils themselves.
* Note. Most of the questions in the text in this chapter should be worked

55
56 Pure Mathematics 1 eis|

constant from then on, he would have climbed up the slope represented by the
straight line PT, the tangent to the curve at P. Thus in walking up the slope CD,
when the man is at the point P (and only at that instant) he is climbing a gradient
represented by the gradient of PT.

Definition

The gradient of a curve at any point is the gradient of the tangent to the curve at
that point.

The gradient at a point

3.2 If we wish to find approximately the gradient of a curve at a certain point,
we could draw the curve, draw the tangent at that point by eye, and measure its
gradient. But to develop our study of curves and their equations, it is important
that we should discover a method of calculating exactly the gradient of a curve
at any point; to do this we shall think of a tangent to a curve in the following
way.

Figure 3.3

First we start with two distinct points on a curve, P and Q (Fig. 3.3), and the
chord PQ is drawn and produced in both directions. Now consider RPQS asa
straight rod hinged at P, which is rotated clockwise about P to take up
successive positions shown by PQ,, PQ,, PQ3, etc. Notice that the points at
which it cuts the curve, Q,, Q,, Q3, are successively nearer the fixed point P. The
 The gradient of a curve 57
nearer this second point of intersection approaches P, the nearer does the
gradient of the chord approach the gradient of the tangent NPT. By taking Q
sufficiently close to P, we can make the gradient of the chord PQ as near as we
please to the gradient of the tangent at P.
To see precisely how this happens, place the edge of a ruler along RPQS and
then rotate it clockwise about P. You will see the second point of intersection
approach P along the curve, until it actually coincides with P when the ruler lies
along the tangent NPT. Using an arrow to denote ‘tends to’ or ‘approaches’ we
may write:

as QP along the curve,

the gradient of the chord PQ the gradient of the tangent at P,
the tangent at P is called the limit of the chord PQ (or more exactly of the
secant RPQS), and
the gradient of the curve at P is the limit of the gradient of the chord PQ.
Qu.1 A regular polygon of n sides is inscribed in a circle. What is the limit of
the polygon as n> 00?
Qu.2 OP is a radius of a circle centre O. A straight line PQR cuts the
circumference at Q. What is the limit of the angle QPR as Q approaches P along
the circumference?
Qu.3 Pisa point on the straight line y =4x. Q is the foot of the perpendicular
from P to the x-axis. As P approaches O, the origin, what happens to PQ and
QO? What can you say about the value of PQ/QO?

The gradient of y = x’ at (2, 4)

3.3. We shall now use this idea of a tangent being the limit of a chord, to find
the gradient of the curve y = x” at a particular point, namely (2, 4).
P is the point (2, 4) on the curve y = x” (Fig. 3.4). Q is another point on the
curve, which we take first as (3, 9). Then, as the chord PQ rotates clockwise
about P, Q moves along the curve to Q,, and then nearer and nearer to P. By
studying the behaviour of the gradient of PQ as this is happening we hope to be
able to deduce the gradient of the tangent at P.

RQ
The gradient of PQ = aw
 333
58 Pure Mathematics 1

y=x
(Not to scale)

Figure 3.4

If Q now moves to the position Q,, whose coordinates are (24, 64),

N,Q; = N,R,
the gradient of PQ, = ON,
vex OM

onBi| -
| )

a
N Nie
No
n|NIH
BI

We now let Q approach yet closer to P along the curve, and the table
opposite gives the gradient of the chord PQ as it approaches the gradient of the
tangent at P.
Comparing the first and last columns of this table, we see that for each
position of Q, the gradient of PQ exceeds 4 by the same amount as the
x-coordinate of Q exceeds 2. The actual equality is not important; what is
important is that these values we have taken so far suggest that by taking Q
sufficiently near P (i.e. by taking the x-coordinate of Q sufficiently near 2) we can
make the gradient of PQ as near 4 as we please (see §2.17). This suggests that the
limit of the gradient of PQ is 4, and that the gradient of the tangent at P is 4.

Qu.4 Draw a figure similar to Fig. 3.4, taking P as the point (1, 1). Taking the
x-coordinate of Q successively as 2, 14, 1.1, 1.01, make out a table similar to the
one opposite. What appears to be the limit of the gradient of PQ in this case?
Qu.5 Adda last line to your table for Qu. 4 by taking the x-coordinate of Qto
 The gradient of a curve 39
be 1 +h. What happens to Q as h-0? What happens to the gradient of PQ as
h-0? Deduce the gradient of y = x? at (1, 1).
Qu.6 Add a last line to the table in the book, taking the x-coordinate of Q as
(2 +h). Deduce the gradient of y = x? at (2, 4).

RQ
ON N Q PR RQ PR
—

(x-coord. (y-coord. (ON — 2) (NQ — 4) Gradient of PQ

of Q) of Q)
3 9 1 5 5
251 64
1 1
3} 24
1 27
hy. a 45
1

ps | 4.41 0.1 0.41 _ =4)

0.0401
2.01 4.0401 0.01 0.0401 31s Da 4.01

0.004 001
2.001 4.004 001 0.001 0.004 001 SmTiseeon 4.001

The gradient function of y = x?

3.4 We now use the method suggested in Qu. 5 to find the gradient of y = x? at
any point.
P is the point (a, a”), and Q is another point on the curve whose x-coordinate
is a+h (Fig. 3.5).

Figure 3.5
60 Pure Mathematics 1 3.4

RQ =NQ-—NR
=(a+h)? —a?
= 2ah +h?
and PR =h
The gradient of the chord PQ is

RQ 2ah+h?
PR aoibh
=2a+h

As we let the chord rotate clockwise about P, Q approaches P along the curve,
and the gradient of the chord PQ = the gradient of the tangent at P, and h—0.
But as h-0, the gradient of the chord PQ, (2a + h)— 2a.
It follows that the gradient of the tangent at P is 2a.
Thus the gradient of y = x? at (a, a”) is 2a, and since a is the x-coordinate of
the point (a, a”), the gradient of y = x? at (x, x”) is 2x.
Just as x? is the expression in which we substitute a value of x to find the
corresponding y-coordinate and plot a point on the curve y= x’, so we now
have another expression, 2x, in which we can substitute the value of x to find the
gradient at that point.
2x is called the gradient function of the curve y = x’.

Example 1 Find the coordinates of the points on the curve y = x*, given by x =4
and — 10, and find the gradient of the curve at these points.

y=x?
Whenx=4, y=4?=16.
The gradient function = 2x
.. the gradient =8, when x=4
.. the point is (4, 16), and the gradient is 8.
When x= —10, y=x?= +100.
The gradient function = 2x = — 20

., the point is (— 10, 100), and the gradient is — 20.

Qu.7 Calculate the gradients of the tangents to y = x? at the points given by

x= —14,—1, +4, +2.
Qu.8 Use the method of §3.4 to find the gradient functions of the following
curves, making a sketch in each case, and compare each result with the gradient
function of y = x?: (a) y= 3x?, (b) y = 5x2, (c) y=4x?, (d) y=cx?, where c is a
constant, (e) y = x? + 3, (f) y=x? +k, where k is a constant.

Clearly we need an abbreviation for the statement ‘the gradient function of

 The gradient of a curve 61
y =x? is 2x’. A convenient way of writing this is
‘if y= x7
grad y= 2x’
The process of finding the gradient function of a curve is known as
differentiation, and it is useful if we understand ‘grad’ also to be an instruction to
differentiate. Thus,

grad (x7) = 2x

The differentiation of x?
3.5 P is any point (a, a*) on the curve y = x°. Q is another point on the curve
with x-coordinate (a + h) (Fig. 3.6).

Figure 3.6

RQ=NQ—NR
=(a+h)> —a°
=a> + 3a*h + 3ah? +h? -—a?
= 3a7*h + 3ah* +h?
PR. =h

di
The gradient of fPQ=
PQ= oes
PR

3a7h + 3ah? +h?

h
= 3a? + 3ah +h?
 Pure Mathematics 1 3.5
62

As Q approaches P along the curve, h 0, and the terms 3ah and h? each tend
to zero; therefore the gradient of PQ 3a’.
It follows that the gradient of y = x° at (a, a) is 3a’, or
Stade = Ne
Qu.9 Use the method of §3.5 to find grad x*.
(Hint: (a + h)* = a* + 4ath + 6a7h? + 4ah* + h*.]
Qu.10 Differentiate 2x* by the same method.

Summary of results
3.6 We have now confirmed the following:
STAG kl
grad ’x” = "Sx"
grad x* = 4x?
The form of these results suggests that the rule for differentiating a power of x
is multiply by the index, and reduce the index by 1; this means that grad x° would
be 5x*, grad x® would be 6x°, and so on.
At this stage we must dispense with a formal proof of the validity of this
process in general, and we shall assume that
grad x”=nx" '
when neZ-*.
It is now time to link up these ideas with our earlier work on a straight line,
and to extend them further.

y=c
Straight lines of this form, such as y= 4 and y = —2, are parallel to the x-axis,
and have zero gradient. It follows that grad 4=0 and grad —2 =0. Thus, if we
differentiate a constant we get 0.
[Note that this does agree with the general result, grad x” =nx"~1. Since
x° = 1 (see §9.4), we may write grad 4=grad 4x°=0 x 4x"! =0.]

yo=kx, y=kx"
We know that the straight line y = mx + c has gradient m, e.g. y = x has gradient
1, and y = 3x has gradient 3. Thus
grad x = 1
[Again, this agrees with the general result, since grad x! = 1 x x9 = 1.] Also,

grad 3x= 3% grad x =3 x1 =3

and as Qu. 8 showed,

grad 3x* =3 x grad x? =3 x 2x = 6x

 The gradient of a curve 63
This illustrates the general property that if a function has a constant factor,
that constant remains unchanged as a factor of the gradient function (Fig. 3.7).

Figure 3.7

Qu. 11 Differentiate:
(a) 4x 18 (b) Ox* <bi(e) atten (d) x4", doac(e)aKx"*+:

The differentiation of a polynomial

3.7 So far we have differentiated functions of one term only. What happens if
there are two or more terms?

y=mxte

The straight lines y = 3x, y=3x +4, and y= 3x —2 all have gradient 3. Thus

grad 3x =3
grad (3x + 4) =3
grad (3x — 2) =3

The above lines are parallel, and as we discovered in §1.7, the effect of giving the
different values c = 0, +4 and —2, is to raise or lower the line, but not to alter its
gradient.
Clearly the same applies to the curves y= x7, y=x?+4 and y=x’?—2
(Fig. 3.8). At the point on each curve for which x = a, the tangents are parallel,
each having gradient 2a.

TA 9p, 3
grad (x? + 4) = 2x
grad (x? — 2) = 2x
 1 3.7
64 Pure Mathematics

Figure 3.8

In the above cases where the function consists of two terms, we should get the
same result by differentiating each term separately. Thus,
grad (x? + 4) = grad x* + grad 4
=2x+0
= 2X

This leads us to investigate whether this method is valid in general.

y=x?+3x-2
To find the gradient function of this curve, let P be any point (a, a? + 3a — 2) on
it. Q is another point on the curve with x-coordinate (a + h) (Fig. 3.9).
RQ=NQ-—NR
= {(a +h) + 3(a +h)
—2}—{a? +3a—2}
=a? + 2ah +h? + 3a+3h—2—a?—3a+2
= 2ah + h? + 3h
PR=h

RQ
The gradient of Poe= PR

_ 2ah+h? +3h
h
=2a+h+3
 The gradient of a curve 65

y=x?+3x-2

Figure 3.9

As Q approaches P along the curve, h-0 and the gradient of PQ 2a + 3.

It follows that the gradient of y = x? + 3x —2 at (a, a” + 3a — 2) is 2a + 3, or
grad (x? + 3x —2)=2x
+3
Now, if we try differentiating each term separately,
grad (x* + 3x — 2) = grad x? + grad 3x + grad — 2
=2x+3+0
=2x+3

This illustrates the general property that the gradient function of the sum of a
number of terms is obtained by differentiating each term separately.
Qu. 12 Differentiate:
(a) x2 ++2x?+3x,- (b) 4x*—3x?+5, (©) ax?+bx+e.

A special method of dealing with products and quotients will be met later, but
for the present we must reduce a function in this form to the sum of a number of
terms before differentiating. (The reader may check that to differentiate each
factor separately in the following examples does not lead to the correct result.)
grad {x?(2x + 3)} = grad (2x? + 3x”) = 6x? + 6x
5) 2
grad jae = grad (x* + 4x) =2x+4
x
Qu. 13 Differentiate:
5x3 + 3x?
(a) x(4x- 2), (b) (x +3)(@-4, (6) ~——
66 Pure Mathematics 1 3.8

Differentiation and the function notation

3.8 In the preceding sections we have considered a variety of functions and we
have found their corresponding gradient functions. The gradient function is
often called the derived function, or derivative.
If we have a given function f(x) it is very convenient to have a standard
notation for its corresponding gradient function; the normal way of doing this is
to write f’(x). Thus if f(x)=x?+5x*+3x—7 then we write its derivative
f’(x) = 3x? + 10x + 3. Alternatively
feo x ext oT
fx 3x--- 10xs- 3
The process of finding the derived functions in the case of f(x) = x? and f(x) = x°,
has been written out in full in §3.4 and §3.5 respectively. The general case is set
out below.
Fig. 3.10 shows the graph of a general function y =f(x); M and N are the
points (a, 0) and (a + h, 0) respectively. P and Q are the points on the curve given
by x=a and x=a+h. So MP=f(a) and NQ=f(a+h).

Figure 3.10

RQ=NQ—NR
= NQ-—MP
= f(a + h) — f(a)
The gradient of PQ

me
“PR
_ f(a+h)—f(a)
7 h
Hence the gradient of the tangent at P = lim [f(a + h) — f(a)]/h, and hence
the
h>0
 The gradient of a curve 67
derived function f’(x) is given by

fey lime -=1G) (1)

h>0

In saying this, we are assuming that this limit exists and that it is the same
whether h tends to zero from above or from below (see §2.17).
If you are ever required to differentiate a given function from first principles,
you should start the proof by quoting the formula marked (1).

Example 2 Find, from first principles, the derivative of the function f(t) = kt*,
where k is a constant.
f h) —f
f(t) =lim fet haf)
h->0

f(t +h) =k(t + h)*

= k(t* + 4t3h + 6t7h? + 4th? + h*)
"f(t +h) — f(t) = ket + 4kt3h + 6kt2h2 + 4kth3 + kht — ke4
= 4kt7h + 6kt7h? + 4kth? + kh*

a = 4kt? + 6kt7h + 4kth? + kh?

and hence

f’(t)=lim (4kt3 + 6kt2h + 4kth? + kh?)

h>0

= 4kt?

Example 3 Find from first principles, f'(x) when f(x) = |x|.

. f(x+h)—fx
f'(x) = lim plas):S114)
(2)
h>0

acaba = |X|
= lim ———__—_
h>0

Now if x and x+h are both positive, then |x+h|=x+h and |x|=x.
Consequently in this case
, +h—x
f(x) = lim ee
h-0

== lim (7)
Nah-O h

But, if x and x +h are both negative, |x + h| = —(x +h) and |x| = —x. In this
case
 Pure Mathematics 1 3.8
68

But |h|/A = +1 if h>0, or —1 if h<0. Consequently, the limit as h0 from

above is +1, but it is —1 when h tends to 0 from below. Hence f’(0) cannot be
found. This may seem rather strange, but it makes sense if we consider the graph
of y =|x|4(Fig, 3.04)
It is clear from the graph that when x > 0, the gradient is + 1, while if x < 0 the
gradient is — 1. At x = 0, however, the graph comes to a point and its gradient
here does not exist.

Figure 3.11

Exercise 3a
Write down the gradient functions of the following curves:
Ppax., 2625" be ae
4 y=5x+3. 5 y=3., 6 y= 5x?te
 The gradient of a curve 69
Write down the derived function f’(x), for each of the following functions:
TAC = Sx 9x FP + 10, 8 f(x) =2x* +4x3 —1x?4 2.
9 f(x) =ax* + bx? + cx. 10: f(x) = 2x(Gx? —4).
10x° + 3x4
11 f(x)(x) = —_.—..
2

Differentiate the following functions:

12 —x. 13 +10. 14 4x? — 3x 42.
15 4ax? —2bx +. 16 2(x? + x). 17 3x0 1).
18 4(x?
—3x +6). 19 (x + 1)(x —2).
Find the derivatives of the following functions:

(x + 3)(2x + 1)
20 f: xb 3(x + 1)(x — 1). 74 U4a bs z .

9x3 — x2 4 2
i en igeeiinatsal OE ie anced
3x 2x?

Find the y-coordinate, and the gradient, at the points on the following curves
corresponding to the given values of x:
24 y=x?—2x4+1,x=2. 25 y=x?4+x4+1,x%=0.
26 y=x? —2x,x = —1. 27 y=(x + 2)(x —4), x =3.
28 y=3x?—2x7,x=-—2. 29 y=(4x—5)’,x =f.

Find the coordinates of the points on the following curves at which the gradient
has the given values:
30 y=x’;8. Sioy = x12:
32 y=x(2 —x);2. 33 y=x? —3x4+1;0.
34 y=x?—2x+7;1. 35 y=x>— 6x? +4; —12.
36 y=x*—2x°41;0. 37 y= x?—x3;
—1.
38 y=x(x — 3)’;0.

Tangents and normals

3.9 Definition
A normal to a curve at a point is the straight line through the point at right angles
to the tangent at the point (Fig. 3.12).

We are now able to find the equations of tangents and normals.

Example 4 Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = x3 at the point (2, 8).

y=x°
”. grad y = 3x?
 3.9
70 Pure Mathematics 1

Figure 3.12

When x = 2,

grad y= 12
Thus the gradient of the tangent at (2, 8) is + 12. Its equation is
y—8
=12
x—2

‘y—8 =12x—24
.. the equation of the tangent is 12x — y— 16=0.

We can generalise Example 4 as follows.

Example 5 Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y=f(x) at the point
(a, b).
Putting x =a in the equation gives
b= f(a)
The gradient at the given point is obtained by differentiating and putting x = a.
Hence the gradient required is f’(a).
The equation of the tangent has the form
y—b
=m
x—a
where m is the gradient. Hence the equation of the tangent is

y —f(a) =f'(a)(x — a)

Example 6 Find the equation of the normal to the curve y =(x? + x + 1)(x— 3)
at the point where it cuts the x-axis.
y=(x?+x+4 1)(x—3)
 The gradient of a curve 71
When y=0,

(x?
++x + 1)(x —3)=0
But x? +x+1=0 has no real roots,
7 X= +3
.. the curve cuts the x-axis at (3, 0)
Weerxe
22x 2x — 3
gtad. Wehr Ao)
When x = 3,

grad y=27—12—-2=13
The gradient of the tangent at (3,0) is +13, therefore the gradient of the
normal at (3, 0) is — 7s (see §1.5) and its equation is
y SO: 1
oie Biwi aes 13

J“. y= -x+3

.. the equation of the normal is x + 13y —3=0.

Exercise 3b
1 Find the equations of the tangents to the following curves at the points
corresponding to the given values of x:
(a) y=x’, x=2;
(b) y=3x?4+2, x=4;
(c) y=3x?—x+1, x=0;
(d) y=3—4x—2x?, x=1;
(ce) y=9x=—x3,x= —3.
2 Find the equations of the normals to the curves in No. | at the given points.
3 Find the equation of the tangent and the normal to the curve y = x(x — 3) at
the point where it cuts the x-axis. Sketch the curve.
4 Repeat No. 3 for the curve y = x(x — 4)”.
5 Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = 3x* — 4x” + 2x — 10 at the
point of intersection with the y-axis.
6 Repeat No. 5 for the curve y = x* — 4x + 3.
7 Find the values of x for which the gradient function of the curve
y = 2x3 + 3x? — 12x +3
is zero. Hence find the equations of the tangents to the curve which are
_ parallel to the x-axis.
8 Repeat No. 7 for the curve
y = 2x3 — 9x? + 10.
72 Pure Mathematics 1 Exec

Exercise 3c (Miscellaneous)
1 Find the gradient of the curve y = 9x — x? at the point where x = 1. Find the
equation of the tangent to the curve at this point. Where does this tangent
meet the line y= x?
Find the equation of the tangent at the point (2, 4) to the curve y = 2x.
Also find the coordinates of the point where the tangent meets the curve
again.
Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y= x3 — 9x? + 20x — 8 at the
point (1, 4). At what points of the curve is the tangent parallel to the line
4x+y—3=0?
Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y=x* +4x7 + 1 at the point
(—1,4). Find the coordinates of another point on the curve where the
tangent is parallel to that at the point (— 1; 4).
Find the points of intersection with the x-axis of the curve y = ray ee 1 OeSe SS
and find the equation of the tangent to the curve at each of these points.
Find the equations of the normals to the parabola 4y =x? at the points
(—2, 1) and (— 4, 4). Show that the point ofintersection of these two normals
lies on the parabola.
Find the equation of the tangent at the point (1, — 1) to the curve
y=2—4x?+x?
What are the coordinates of the point where the tangent meets the curve
’ again? Find the equation of the tangent at this point.
Find the coordinates of the point P on the curve 8y = 4 — x* at which the
gradient is 4. Write down the equation of the tangent to the curve at P. Find
also the equation of the tangent to the curve whose gradient is —4, and the
coordinates of its point of intersection with the tangent at P.
Find the equations of the tangents to the curve y = x* — 6x? + 12x + 2 which
are parallel to the line y = 3x.
10 Find the coordinates of the points of intersection of the line x — 3y = 0 with
the curve y = x(1 — x”). If these points are in order P, O, Q, prove that the
tangents to the curve at P and Q are parallel, and that the tangent at O is
perpendicular to them.
11 Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the parabola x? = 4y at the
point (6, 9). Also find the distance between the points where the tangent and
normal meet the y-axis.
12 The curve y= (x —2)(x—3)(x—4) cuts the x-axis at the points P(2, 0),
Q(3, 0), R(4, 0). Prove that the tangents at P and R are parallel. At what point
does the normal to the curve at Q cut the y-axis?
13 Find the equation of the tangent at the point P(3, 9) to the curve
Yiss x L6x? + 15x98
If O is the origin, and N is the foot of the perpendicular from P to the x-axis,
prove that the tangent at P passes through the mid-point of ON. Find the
coordinates of another point on the curve, the tangent at which is parallel to
the tangent at the point (3, 9).
 The gradient of a curve Te)
14 A tangent to the parabola x? = 16y is perpendicular to the line
x—2y—3=0

Find the equation of this tangent and the coordinates of its point of contact.
15 Find the equation of the tangent to y=x? at the point (1, 1) and of the
tangent to y=x° at the point (2, 4). Show that these tangents are parallel,
and find the distance between them.
16 The point (h, k) lies on the curve y = 2x” + 18. Find the gradient at this point
and the equation of the tangent there. Hence find the equations of the two
tangents to the curve which pass through the origin.
17 For the curve y = x” +3 show that y = 2ax — a? + 3 is the equation of the
tangent at the point whose x-coordinate is a. Hence find the coordinates of
the two points on the curve, the tangents at which pass through the point
(2, 6).
18 Functions f and g are given by
f:xto3x+4 and gixt»x?
(a) Find the functions f’ and g’.
(b) Calculate the values of f’(2) and g’(10).
(c) If h= gf, find h(x) and h’(x).
(d) Verify that h’(2) = f’(2)g’(10). (O & C: SMP)
Chapter 4

Velocity and acceleration

Gradient and velocity
4.1. The reader will have met ‘travel graphs’ in his study of mathematics. One
such graph is shown in Fig. 4.1, representing a man walking to see a friend who
lives 5km away, staying 2 hours, and then returning home. On his outward
journey represented by OA, he travels 5 km in 2 hours, and his velocity, +km/h,
is represented by DA/OD, the gradient of OA.
Whilst with his friend his velocity is zero; this is represented by the gradient of
AB.
On his return journey, the gradient of BC gives his velocity as — 3 km/h. The
negative sign denotes that he is now travelling in the opposite direction; he is
decreasing the distance from home.
This type of graph in which the distance, s, is plotted against the time, f, is
called a space-time graph.

home
from
distance
km
in

time after noon in hours

Figure 4.1

74
 Velocity and acceleration 75
Variable velocity
4.2 When velocity is variable, as in a car journey, we may be concerned with
the average velocity, which we need to define.

Definition
_, total distance travelled increase in s
Average velocity is : or = —
total time taken increase in t

When the speed of a car changes, the speedometer moves, indicating the speed
at any instant. We must now deal with the idea of the velocity at an instant.
Suppose that a car, starting from rest, increases its velocity steadily up to
80 km/h. Then the space-time graph is similar to the curve OPQ in Fig. 4.2. The
point P we shall take to correspond to the instant at which the speedometer
needle reaches the 60 km/h mark. If from that instant onward the velocity had
instead been kept constant at 60 km/h, then the space-time graph would have
consisted of the curve OP and the straight line PT of gradient 60.

Figure 4.2

It would appear that PT is the tangent at P to the original space-time curve

OPQ (like cotton under tension leading off a reel), and in that case its gradient
would be the same as the gradient of the curve OPQ at P. This suggests that,
when the velocity is variable, we mean, by the velocity at an instant, the velocity
represented by the gradient of the space-time curve at the corresponding point.
However, we must proceed to find a precise definition.

Velocity at an instant
4.3 Weconsider a stone falling from rest, its velocity steadily increasing. It can
be verified by experiment that under certain conditions, it will be s m below its
 43
76 Pure Mathematics 1
Ce .
s = 4.9t°.
starting point t seconds after the start, where s 1s given by the formula
stone at
From this we may make a table of values giving the position of the
different times.*

Value of t 0 0.5 1.0 15 2:0 25 3.0

Value of s 0 1.2 49 11.0 19.6 30.6 44.1

Part of the space-time graph is given in Fig. 4.3.

in
distance
metres

O 1 2 t
time in seconds

Figure 4.3

From t = 1 to t= 2, the average velocity is represented by the gradient of the

chord PQ.
RQ 19.6—4.9
= = 14.
PR 2—1 ;
.. the average velocity is 14.7 m/s.
Qu. 1 How far does the stone move in the interval t = 1 to t = 1.5? What is the
average velocity during this interval?
Qu.2 Repeat Qu. 1 for the intervals (a) t=1 to t=1.1, and (b) t=1 to
t=1+h.
The smaller we make the time interval (letting QP along the curve), the
nearer the average velocity (the gradient of PQ) approaches the velocity given by
the gradient of the curve at P.
Now we have seen that the gradient of the curve at P is the limit of the
gradient of PQ as QP (§3.2); this leads to the following definition.

*Throughout §4.3, including Qu. 1 to 5, we work to one decimal place.

 Velocity and acceleration VA
Definition

The velocity at an instant is the limit of the average velocity for an interval
following that instant, as the interval tends to zero.

Qu.3 From your answer to Qu. 2 (b) determine the actual velocity at the
instant when t = 1.
Qu.4 Calculate the distance moved, and the average velocity during the
following intervals:
(ajp*t= 2 tot = 3° (Dy b= 210 =O5:
(Cite 10 C= 2 1e (Ov e 4 }p
210 f=
Deduce the velocity when t = 2.

The definition given above identifies the velocity at an instant with the
gradient of the space-time graph for the corresponding value of t. If we are given
s in terms of twe can therefore find an expression for the velocity of the stone at
any instant by differentiation, that is, if s = f(t), then the velocity v is given by
v=f'(t)
In the case we considered above, f(t) = 4.9t* and so the velocity, v m/s, is given
by
p=f(t)=9.8t
Thus whent=0, v=0,
whent=1, v=9.8,
when £="2" th= 19.6, / ite:

Qu.5_ A stone is thrown vertically downwards from the top of a cliff, and the
depth below the top, s m, after ts, is given by the formula s = 2t + 4.97.
(a) Where is the stone after 1, 2, 3, 4s?
(b) What is its velocity at these times?
(c) What is its average velocity during the 3rd second (from t = 2 to t = 3)?

The symbols 6s and dt

4.4 The idea of gradient helped us to arrive at the definition of velocity at an
instant. It is instructive to take the definition as our starting point; and now,
without reference to graphical ideas, we shall again demonstrate that velocity is
found by differentiating the expression for s in terms of t. To do this it is
convenient to introduce some new symbols, which will be of great use from now
onwards.
Again we deal with the stone which falls s metres from rest in t seconds.
Suppose that it falls a further small distance 6s metres in the additional small
interval of time dt seconds.
[The symbol ot, read as ‘delta ?’, is used to denote a small increase, or
increment, in time. Note that dt is a single symbol; it does not mean 6 multiplied
by t. Similarly ds is the corresponding increment in distance. ]
78 Pure Mathematics I 4.4

The average velocity for the time interval 6¢ (i.e. from t to t + ot) is 6s/dt m/s,
and we now obtain an expression for this in terms of t.
Since the stone falls (s + 6s) metres in (t + dt) seconds

s+6s=4.9(t + 6t)?
Le. s+6s=4.9t7 + 9.8t x 6t+ 4.9 x (6t)?
But s = 4.91?
and subtracting,
So 9.8t x 6t+ 4.9 x (6t)?
To find the average velocity between time t and time (t + dt) we divide each
side by ot, giving

oe =98t+4.9 x ot
ot

As ot 0 the R.H.S.—> 9.8¢.

By the definition of velocity at an instant, the velocity, v m/s, at time t, is the
limit of 6s/dt as dt 0, hence
v=9.8t

The fact that this process is identical with that of finding the gradient function
of s=4.9t? is readily seen from Fig. 4.4.

(t + dt)

Figure 4.4

Exercise 4a
1 A stone is thrown vertically upwards at 35 m/s. It is sm above the point of
projection ts later, where s = 35t — 4.912.
 Velocity and acceleration 79
(a) What is the distance moved, and the average velocity during the 3rd
second (from t = 2 to t=3)?
(b) Find the average velocities for the intervals t = 2 tot = 2.5,t=2tot= ps
t=2tot=2+h.
(c) Deduce the actual velocity at the end of the 2nd second.
A stone is thrown vertically upwards at 24.5 m/s from a point on the level with
but just beyond a cliff ledge. Its height above the ledge t s later is 4.9¢(5 — t) m.
If its velocity is v m/s, differentiate to find v in terms of t.
(a) When is the stone at the ledge level?
(b) Find its height and velocity after 1, 2, 3, and 6s.
(c) What meaning is attached to a negative value of s? A negative value of v?
(d) When is the stone momentarily at rest? What is its greatest height?
(ce) Find the total distance moved during the 3rd second.
A particle moves along a straight line so that it is s m from a fixed point O on
the line t s after a given instant, where s = 3t + t*. After (t + dt) sit is(s + 6s) m
from O. Find the average velocity during the time interval t to (t + dt) as was
done in §4.4, and deduce an expression for the velocity v m/s, at time t. Check
by differentiation.
(a) Where is the particle and what is its velocity at the instant from which time
is measured (i.e. when t = 0)?
(b) When is the particle at O?
(c) When is the particle momentarily at rest? Where is it then?
(d) What is the velocity the first time the particle is at O?
A particle moves along a straight line OA in such a way that it is sm from O
t s after the instant from which time is measured, where s = 6t — t?. A is to be
taken as being on the positive side of O.
(a) Where is the particle when t = 0, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7? What is the meaning of a
negative value of s?
(b) Differentiate the given expression to find the velocity, v m/s, in terms of t.
Find the value of v when t = 0, 2, 4, 6. What is the meaning of a negative
value of v?
(c) When and where does the particle change its direction of motion?
A slow train which stops at every station passes a certain signal box at noon.
Its motion between the two adjacent stations is such that it is s km past the
signal box t min past noon, where s =4t + $t* —347t*. Find
(a) the time of departure from the first station, and the time of arrival at the
second,
(b) the distance of each station from the signal box,
(c) the average velocity between the stations,
(d) the velocity with which the train passes the signal box.
a Repeat No. 5 in the case where s = 7;t(36 — 3t — 2t”).
A stone is thrown vertically downwards at 19.6 m/s from the top of a cliff
24.5 m high. It is sm below the top after ¢ s, where s = 19.6 + 4.9t?. Calculate
the velocity with which it strikes the beach below.
 1 4.5
80 Pure Mathematics

Constant acceleration
from
4.5 Earlier in this chapter we used the formula s = 4.9t? for a stone falling
is 9.8, 19.6, 29.4,
rest. On differentiation v = grad s = 9.8t. The stone’s velocity
39.2 ... m/s at the end of successive seconds, and it is steadily increasing by
9.8 m/s in each second. This rate at which the stone’s velocity increases is called
its acceleration. This particular formula is based on the assumption that gravity
is producing a constant acceleration of 9.8m per second per second, written
usually as 9.8 m/s? or 9.8ms_ 7”.

VA v= 9.8t

m/s
in
velocity

time in seconds

Figure 4.5

Fig. 4.5 shows the corresponding velocity-time graph. The equation v = 9.8t
(being of the form y= mx) represents graphically a straight line through the
origin of gradient 9.8. In this case then, the acceleration is represented by the
gradient of the velocity-time graph.
Qu.6 A stone is thrown vertically downwards with a velocity of 10 m/s, and
gravity produces on it an acceleration of 9.8 m/s?.
(a) What is the velocity after 1, 2, 3, ts?
(b) Sketch the velocity-time graph.
If a particle has an initial velocity u m/s and a constant acceleration a m/s?,
then its velocity after ts is (u+ at) m/s and the equation v = u + at (being of the
form y = mx +c) represents a straight line of gradient a.
Thus when acceleration is constant, it is represented by the gradient of the
straight-line velocity-time graph.

Exercise 4b

In this exercise, acceleration is constant.

1 At the start and end of a two-second interval, a particle’s velocity is observed

to be 5, 10 m/s. What is its acceleration?
2 A body starts with velocity 15 m/s, and at the end of the 11th second its
velocity is 48 m/s. What is its acceleration?
 Velocity and acceleration 81
3 Express an acceleration of 5 m/s? in (a) km/h per s, (b) km/h?.
4 Acar accelerates from 5 km/h to 41 km/h in 10s. Express this acceleration in
(a) km/h per s, (b) m/s?, (c) km/h?.
5 A car can accelerate at 4 m/s”. How long will it take to reach 90 km/h from
rest?
6 Sketch the velocity-time curve for a cyclist who, starting from rest, reaches
3 m/s in 5, travels at that speed for 20s, and then comes to rest in a further
2s. What is his acceleration when braking? What is the gradient of the
corresponding part of the graph?
7 An express train reducing its velocity to 40 km/h, has to apply the brakes for
50 s. If the retardation produced is 0.5 m/s’, find its initial velocity in km/h.

Variable acceleration
4.6 A car starts from rest and moves a distance sm in t seconds, where
s=¢t>+4t?. If its velocity after ts is v m/s, then v= grad s=41? +141. The
following table gives some corresponding values of v and t:

The increases in velocity during the first four seconds are 1 m/s, 2 m/s, 3 m/s,
4 m/s respectively. Since the rate of increase of the velocity is not constant in this
case, we shall first investigate the average rate of increase over a given time
interval.

Definition
_, increase in v
Average acceleration is ——————.
increase in t

: 3-0 A ;
Thus from t = 0 to t = 2, the average acceleration = ——— = 15 m/s* and from
2}
: 0-3 :
t=2 to t=4, the average acceleration = Wiis 35 m/s*.

Clearly the acceleration itself is increasing with the time, and the next step is
to define what is meant by the acceleration at an instant.

Definition

The acceleration at an instant is the limit of the average acceleration for an interval
following that instant, as the interval tends to zero.
Using the notation of §4.4, if 6v is the small increase in velocity which occurs in
time ot, then the average acceleration for that interval is dv/ét, and the
acceleration at time t is the limit of this as dt 0.
Reference to the velocity-time graph given in Fig. 4.6 shows that the average
 Pure Mathematics 1 4.6
82
of
acceleration 6v/6t is the gradient of the chord PQ, and the limit is the gradient
the graph at P.

Figure 4.6

Thus an expression for the acceleration at time t may be found by

differentiating the expression for v, that is, if v = g(t), then a the acceleration is
given by a= g’(t).
Notice that if we start with the distance given by s = f(t), then we differentiate
once to obtain the velocity v and we differentiate again to find the acceleration a.
We are already familiar with the symbol f’(t) for the derivative of f(t); when this
in turn is differentiated we write f’(t). Thus we can sum up the preceding
statement as follows:
5 ={(f)
v =f'(t)
a=it)

Example 1 A car starts from rest and moves a distance sm in ts, where
s=§t? +40. What is the initial acceleration, and the acceleration at the end of
the 2nd second?

When t = 0, a= and when t=2, a= 23.

Hence the required accelerations are + m/s*, and 24 m/s?.

Before reading Example 2 the reader should refer once again to the definitions
of average velocity and average acceleration. In particular it should be noted that
 Velocity and acceleration 83
(a) average velocity is not the same as the average of the initial and final
velocities (unless the acceleration is constant); and (b) average acceleration is not
necessarily the same as the average of the initial and final accelerations.

Example 2 A particle moves along a straight line in such a way that its distance
from afixed point O on the line after ts is sm, where s = t*. Find (a) its velocity
after 3s, and after 4s, (b) its average velocity during the 4th second, (c) its
acceleration after 2s, and after 4s, and (d) its average acceleration fromt=2
tot=4.

s=f(t)=1t
n= f(t) —4t?
a= (th=21-
(a) When t = 3, v =4 x 3° = 18 m/s and when t = 4, v =2 x 43 = 422 m/s.
Hence after 3 s and 4 s, the velocity is 18 m/s and 424 m/s respectively.
(b) When t = 3, s= "= 135m and when t =4, s = 23° = 422 m.
’. the average velocity during the 4th second is

(c) When t =2,.0=2.x 27.— 8.1n/s? and.when-t = 4,.a =2, x 4% = 32 m/s?.

(d) When t = 2, vy=4 x 2? = 54 m/s and when t =4, v =4 x 43 = 422 m/s.
The change in velocity = 374 m/s.
*. the average acceleration from t = 2 to t= 4 1s
1
“3 m/s? = 183 m/s?

Exercise 4c
1 A stone is thrown vertically upwards, and after ts its height is hm, where
h = 10.5t — 4.9t”. Determine, with particular attention to the signs, the height,
velocity and acceleration of the stone (a) when t= 1, (b) when t=2, and
(c) when t = 3. Also state clearly in each case whether the stone is going up or
down, and whether its speed is increasing or decreasing.
2 A stone is thrown downwards from the top of a cliff, and after ts it is sm
below the top, where s = 20t + 4.9t?. Find how far it has fallen, its velocity,
and its acceleration at the end of the first second.
3 A ball is thrown vertically upwards and its height after ts is sm where
s = 25.2t —4.9t?. Find
(a) its height and velocity after 3 s,
(b) when it is momentarily at rest,
(c) the greatest height reached,
84 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 4c

(d) the distance moved in the 3rd second,

(ec) the acceleration when t = 25. .
4 A particle moves ina straight line so that after ¢ sit is sm from a fixed point O
on the line, where s = t* + 3t”. Find
(a) the acceleration when t = 1, t =2, anda 55
(b) the average acceleration between t = 1 and t =3.
5 At the instant from which time is measured a particle is passing through O
and travelling towards A, along the straight line OA. It is sm from O after ts
where s = t(t — 2)’.
(a) When is it again at O?
(b) When and where is it momentarily at rest?
(c) What is the particle’s greatest displacement from O, and how far does it
move, during the first 2 s?
(d) What is the average velocity during the 3rd second?
(e) At the end of the Ist second where is the particle, which way is it going,
and is its speed increasing or decreasing?
6 Repeat No. 5(e) for the instant when t= — 1.
7 A particle moves along a straight line so that after ts, its distance from O a
fixed point on the line is sm where s = t? — 3t? + 2t.
(a) When is the particle at O?
(b) What is its velocity and acceleration at these times?
(c) What is its average velocity during the Ist second?
(d) What is its average acceleration between t = 0 and t = 2?

Exercise 4d (Miscellaneous)
1 The distance of a moving point from a fixed point in its straight line of motion
is sm, at a time rs after the start. If s =+45t?, find the distances travelled from
rest by the end of the Ist, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and Sth seconds.
Draw a graph plotting distance against time, taking 2 cm to represent both
1m and 1s. Draw a tangent to your graph at the point where t = 3.5 and
measure its slope; deduce the velocity of the moving point when t = 3.5.
2 A point moves along a straight line so that, at the end of t s, its distance from a
fixed point on the line is t* — 2t* + t m. Find the velocity and acceleration at
the end of 3s.
3 A particle moves in a straight line and its distance (s m) from the point at
which it is situated at zero time is given in terms of the time (t s) by the formula
s=45t + 11t? —t°. Find the velocity and acceleration after 3 s, and prove that
the particle will come to rest after 9s. (C)
4 A particle moves along the x-axis in such a way that its distance x cm from the
origin after ¢ s is given by the formula x = 27t — 2t?. What are its velocity and
acceleration after 6.75 s? How long does it take for the velocity to be reduced
from 15 cm/s to 9 cm/s, and how far does the particle travel meanwhile?
5 A point moves along a straight line OX so that its distance x cm from the
point O at time ts is given by the formula x = t3 — 6t? + 9t. Find
(a) at what times and in what positions the point will have zero velocity,
 Velocity and acceleration 85
(b) its acceleration at those instants,
(c) its velocity when its acceleration is zero.
6 A particle moves in a straight line so that its distance x cm from a fixed
point
O on the line is given by x = 9t? — 2t3 where t is the time in seconds measured
from O. Find the speed of the particle when t = 3. Also find the distance from
O of the particle when t = 4, and show that it is then moving towards O.
7 A particle moves along the x-axis in such a way that its distance x cm from the
origin after ts is given by the formula x = 7t + 12t?. What distance does it
travel in the nth second? What are its velocity and acceleration at the end of
the nth second?
Chapter 5

Maxima and minima

The symbols 5x, é6y and dy

dx
5.1 In Chapter 4 we met the symbols ds and 6t, and to extend the scope of
differentiation it is convenient to denote small increases in x and y as 6x and dy
in the same way. If P is the point (x, y) on a curve, and Q is another point, and if
the increase in x in moving from P to Q is 6x, then the corresponding increase in
y is dy; thus Q is the point (x + dx, y + dy) (Fig. 5.1).

(x + Ox, y + dy) fe)

Figure 5.1

; roe:
The gradient of the chord PQ is a. and the gradient of the curve at P is the

See
limit of ox? as 6x > 0. Up to now we have denoted this limit as ‘grad y’ to keep in

mind the fundamental idea of gradient in relation to differentiation. We will

in future adopt the usual practice of writing this limit as na the symbol iS
x x

86
 Maxima and minima 87
i ; . d
being an instruction to differentiate.* Thus, if y = x?, - = 2x; or we may write
x
qu) = 2x: The gradient function will also be referred to in future as the

derived function, or derivative (see §3.8).

eed
Qu.1 Find eA when
dx

(a) y=x?-—4x, = (b) y

(d) y=x(x—2), (€) y=
onde. She: Be
The notation Es is often called ‘Leibnitz notation’ after Gottfried Leibnitz

(1646-1716), who invented it.

Greatest and least values

5.2 Fig. 5.2 represents the path of a stone thrown from O, reaching its greatest
height AB, and striking the ground at C. Between O and A, when the stone is
climbing, the gradient is positive but steadily decreases to zero at A. Past A the
stone is descending, and the path has a negative gradient.

O B C

Figure 5.2

The curve y = x? of which we made much use earlier on, is called a parabola.
A more general equation of this type of curve is of the form y = ax? + bx +¢.
When ais positive, we get a curve like a valley, such as DEF in Fig. 5.3, on which
y has a least value (GE); when a is negative, we get a curve like a mountain top,
such as OAC in Fig. 5.3, on which y has a greatest value (BA).
If we allow our eye to travel along each curve in Fig. 5.3 from left to right (the

d seks : fa '
*Note. This notation me serves to indicate that we are differentiating with respect to x. Thus
Me
ay?” =
eA 3y", and ——(2t*)
( ) = 4t.
88 Pure Mathematics 1 Se

y.

Figure 5.3

direction in which x increases), we notice that in passing through A, where y has

a greatest value, the gradient is zero and is changing sign from positive to
negative; on the other hand in passing through E, where y has a least value, the
gradient is zero and is changing sign from negative to positive. This distinction
enables us to investigate the highest or lowest point on a parabola without going
to the length of plotting the curve in detail.

Example 1 Find the greatest or least value of y on the curve y = 4x — x. Sketch

the curve.

y=4x—x?
dy
—=4—2
dx -

= 2(2 — x)

The gradient is zero when

2(2 — x) =0
ae)
and y=4x2-27=4
We must now investigate the sign of the gradient on either side of the point
(2, 4) to discover whether it is a highest (Fig. 5.4) or lowest (Fig. 5.5) point on the
curve. We look back to the gradient in the form 2(2 — x).

Figure 5.4 Figure 5.5

 Maxima and minima 89

Just to the left of (2, 4), x is just less than 2, and = is positive.
3

Just to the right of (2, 4), x is just greater than 2, and 2gis negative.
x
Thus Fig. 5.4 gives the shape of the curve at (2, 4), and the greatest value of
yis +4.
To make a rough sketch of the curve, we find where it cuts the axes.

yo dx — x2
When x = 0,

yes
... the curve passes through (0, 0).
When y=0,
4x —x?=0
x(4—x)=0
x=Oor4
.. the curve passes through (0, 0) and (4, 0).
From this information we can make the sketch (Fig. 5.6).

Figure 5.6

Qu.2 Find the coordinates of the points on the following curves where the
gradient is zero:
(a) y=4x — 2x?, (b) y=3x? + 2x—S, (c). y = 4x? — 6x + 2.
At this stage the reader must be clear about the meaning of ‘greater than’ and
‘less than’ in respect of negative numbers. For example, — 3.1 is less than — 3,
and —2.9 is greater than — 3. Bastion
In Qu. 3 and Example 2, we use the notation f’(x) for the derived function; it is
d 2
a useful alternative to the = notation and the reader should be prepared to use
x
it.
90 Pure Mathematics 1 2

Qu.3 Find the values of x for which the following derived functions are zero,
and determine whether the corresponding graphs have a highest or a lowest
point for these values of x:
(a) f(x) =5==3x, (b) cf(X) 6x 7,
(co) f(x) =2x 4 3, (d) f'(x) = —4—5x.

The investigation of the sign of the gradient may be conveniently laid out in
the way shown in the following example.

Example 2. Find the greatest or least value of the function f(x) = x? + 4x + 3 and
the value of x for which it occurs.
f(x) =x?+4x
+3
f’(x) =2x+4
= 2(x + 2)
The gradient is zero when f’(x) = 0, ic. when x = —2 and
{(=2)=(=2?
(So s=S1
Value of x Li —2 R [L for ‘left’, R for ‘right’]
Sign of f’(x) _ 0 +

i
na
When x = —2, x* + 4x +3 has the least value — 1.

This method can be used to solve some practical problems, as in the following
example.

Example 3 1000 m offencing is to be used to make a rectangular enclosure. Find

the greatest possible area, and the corresponding dimensions.
If the length is x m, the width will be (500 — x) m, and the area, A m7”, is given
by
A = x(500 — x)
or, A=500x.— x?

[This problem could now be solved by drawing accurately the graph of area
plotted against length (Fig. 5.7), and reading off the greatest area (NM) and the
corresponding length (ON). In practice it is, of course, much quicker to continue,
along the lines of Example 2, by finding the greatest value of 500x — x2, without
plotting a graph.]

dA
= 500 — 2x
dx

= 2(250
— x)
 Maxima and minima 91

in
m-
area

Jha

N
length in m

Figure 5.7

which is zero when

t= VS)
and A = 250(500 — 250) = 62 500

Value of x

dA
Sign of
dx

The greatest area is 62 500 m7, when the length is 250 m, and the width is
250 m.

Exercise 5a

1 Find dy when
dx
(a) y=3x?—2x
+5, (b) y=5x?7+4x—-6, (c) y=2x(1—x),
(d)e y= (x41) (3x — 2), (e) y= 3(2x — 1) (4x + 3).
2 Find the coordinates of the points on the following curves where the gradient
is Zero:
(a) y=x?+5x—-2, (b) y=5 + 9x — 7x?,
(c) y=x(3x — 2), (d) y=(2+ x) (3 — 4x).
3 Find the values of x for which the following derived functions are zero, and
determine whether the corresponding graphs have a highest or a lowest
point for these values of x:
(a),.f"(x) = 2x. —5, (b) f(x) =4x + 3,
(c) f(x)=4-4x, d@) f'(X) = —5—5x.
92 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 5a

4 Find the greatest or least values of the following functions:

(a) x? =x—2, (b) x(4—x),
(0) 816 422% = (d) (2x + 3)(x — 2).
5 Sketch the graphs of the functions in No. 4.
6 A ball is thrown vertically upwards from ground level and its height after t s
is (15.4¢ — 4.9t?) m. Find the greatest height it reaches, and the time it takes
to get there.
7 A farmer has 100 m of metal railing with which to form two adjacent sides of
a rectangular enclosure, the other two sides being two existing walls of the
yard, meeting at right angles. What dimensions will give him the maximum
possible area?
8 A stone is thrown into a mud bank and penetrates (1200t — 36 00017) cm in
ts after impact. Calculate the maximum depth of penetration.
9 A rectangular sheep pen is to be made out of 1000 m of fencing, using an
existing straight hedge for one of the sides. Find the maximum area possible,
and the dimensions necessary to achieve this.
10 An aeroplane flying level at 250 m above the ground suddenly swoops down
to drop supplies, and then regains its former altitude. It is h m above the
ground ts after beginning its dive, where h = 8t? — 80t + 250. Find its least
altitude during this operation, and the interval of time during which it was
losing height.
11 Fig. 5.8 represents the end view of the outer cover of amatch box, AB and EF
being gummed together, and assumed to be the same length. If the total
length of edge (ABCDEF) is 12 cm, calculate the lengths of AB and BC
which will give the maximum possible cross-section area.

A B

E F

D Cc
Figure 5.8

To differentiate the function f(x) = x-!

5.3. 9th §3.. we reached the conclusion that if f(x) =x", where ne Z*, then
f(x)=nx"~', although we only proved that this was so fon n= kh 26 and 4.
In
this section we shall prove that it is also true when n= —1, that is,
we shall
 Maxima and minima 93
prove that if f(x) = 1/x =x~', then f’(x) = —x~? = 1/x?. We start by quoting the
expression for f(x) in §3.8,

f'(x) = lim (x + h)—f(x)

h—>0 h

Now, in this case,

f(x + h)— f(x) = a

a xt+th x

ae Gar)
(x + h)x

OF els
x(x
+ h)
Hence

fixer) f(x) =]
h x(x +h)
and thus

—1
Cod = iin {$=
9) Poe XOE4)
1
~ x2
SS

We have proved that if f(x) = x~', then f’(x) = — x? and this verifies that the
general result, namely that if f(x) = x", then f’(x) = nx" 1, is true when n= — 1.
We shall now assume that it is true for ne Z, that is, when n is a positive or
negative integer, or zero.*
Qu. 4 Write down the derivative of

pion —4

ean 3
call

neh pee2 riage ie1 pin O Mer1

tied py | ell

5 +4 3x —4
(f) 2x? —3x+4+—, (g) ane aa

Maxima and minima

5.4 In §5.2 we were dealing with a type of curve whose gradient was zero only
at one point. With a more complicated curve (Fig. 5.9) the gradient may be zero

* Note. n=0 is a special case. The rule suggests that the gradient of y = x° is zero. Now x° = 1, (see
§9.4) so the graph of y=x® is a straight line parallel to the x-axis, ie. its gradient is zero.
Consequently the result predicted by the rule is correct.
 5.4
94 Pure Mathematics 1

Figure 5.9

at a number of points, and the possible shapes fall into three categories. In this
case, moving along the curve from left to right, that is with x increasing,
(a) at A and D, the gradient is changing from negative to positive, and these are
called minimum points; FA and HD are minimum yalues of y (or minima),
(b) at B and E, the gradient is changing from positive to negative, and these are
called maximum points; GB and JE are maximum values of y (or maxima).

The reader will note that the words maximum and minimum are used in the
sense of greatest and least only in the immediate vicinity of the point; this local
meaning is brought out clearly in this curve, since a maximum value, JE, is in
fact less than a minimum value, FA, and for this reason the expressions local
maximum and Jocal minimum are often used.

(c) At C the gradient is zero, but is not changing sign; this is a point of inflexion,
which may be likened to the point on an S-bend at which a road stops
turning left and begins to turn right, or vice versa. The gradient of a curve at
a point of inflexion need not be zero (the reader should be able to spot four
more in Fig. 5.9); however at this stage we are concerned only with searching
for maxima and minima, and we need to bear in mind points of inflexion
only as a third possibility at points where the gradient is zero.
At any point where the gradient of a curve is zero, y is said to have a stationary
value. Any maximum or minimum point is called a turning point, and y is said to
have a turning value there.
Qu.5 Copy Figs. 5.10—5.12, and on each draw the tangents at all points where
the gradient is zero, and mark in the sign of the gradient for each segment of the
curve. State whether the points marked are maxima, minima, or points of
inflexion.
 Maxima and minima 95

Figure 5.10 Figure 5.11

Figure 5.12

Consider the functions f(x) =x? and g(x) = x*; sketches of their graphs are
shown in Fig. 5.13.

Figure 5.13

The derived functions are f’(x) = 3x? and g’(x) =4x° and, in both cases, the
derivative is zero when x = 0; this is confirmed by the graphs which both have
zero gradient at the origin. Notice, however, that f’(x) = 3x? is never negative,
which is in accordance with the observation that the graph of y=x° (see
Fig. 5.13) always slopes upwards to the right, and has a point of inflexion at
(0, 0). On the other hand, g’(x) is negative for x < 0 and positive for x > 0. This
also is in accordance with the graph of y=x* (see Fig. 5.13) which slopes
downwards on the left and upwards on the right, and has a local minimum at
(0, 0).
96 Pure Mathematics 1 5.4

Example 4 Investigate the stationary values of the function nt A

Let y=xt—4

a = 4x3 — 12x?
x
= 4x?(x — 3)
which is zero when x =0 or +3.
When x = 0, y =0, and when x = 3, y= —27. Thus the stationary values of
the function occur at (0, 0) and at (+ 3, —27).
[We now find the shape ofthe curve at these points by investigating the sign of
the gradient just to the left and just to the right of each. Looking back to the
d : an
factorised form of = we see that 4x? is positive for all values of x other than
es
zero, SO we are concerned with the sign of the factor x — 3 only.
When _ x isjust less than 0, x — 3 is negative,
and when x is just greater than 0, x — 3 is negative.
When x is just less than + 3, x — 3 is negative,
and when x is just greater than +3, x —3 is positive.
These signs are entered in the table.]

Value of x

The stationary values of x* — 4x3 are 0 and — 27; (0, 0) is a point of inflexion;
(3, —27) is a minimum point.

The following example further illustrates the advisability of arranging the

gradient function in a convenient factorised form, and brings out an important
point in the investigation of the sign of the gradient for negative values of x.

Example 5 Find the turning values of y on the graph y = f(x), where

f(x) = 5 + 24x — 9x? — 2x3
and distinguish between them.

*Note. The wording of this example illustrates that questions will often not speci
pecify the symbol for
the dependent variable. The solution to such a question should normally start with a hte
like
Let y= x" — 4x°’, as in this example, or, alternatively, ‘Let igi.
 Maxima and minima 97
f(x) = 5+ 24x — 9x? — 2x3
f"(x) = 24— 18x — 6x? = — 6(x? + 3x — 4)
— 6(x + 4) (x — 1)

which is zero when x = —4 or 1.

When-x = —=4,

y=5+24x (—4)—9 x (— 4)? —2 x (— 4)? = — 107

and when x = 1,

y=5+24-—9-2=18

Thus the stationary values of y occur at (—4, — 107) and (1, 18).
[In completing the gradient table we must remember the negative factor — 6,
and find the sign of each factor (x + 4) and (x — 1); we shall then see if there are
one, two or three negative factors, and so determine the sign of f’(x).
Let us pay particular attention to the point (—4, — 107), and the sign of the
factor (x + 4). To the left, when x is just less than —4 (e.g. —4.1), (x + 4) is
negative, (x — 1) is also negative, thus f’(x) has three negative factors and is
negative. To the right, when x is just greater than — 4 (e.g. — 3.9), (x + 4) is now
positive, (x — 1) is still negative, thus f’(x) has two negative factors, and is
positive.|

Value of x

Sign of f(x)

The turning values of yare — 107 and 18; — 107 is a minimum value; 18 is a
maximum value.

Exercise 5b
1 Write down the values of x for which the following derived functions are
zero, and prepare in each case a gradient table as in the foregoing examples,
showing whether the corresponding points on the graphs are maxima,
minima or points of inflexion:
(af (e) = 3x", (b) f’(x) = —4x?,
() f(x)=(%—2(x—-3), @ fR)=%+3)%—5),
(ce) f(x=(x+1(—%+6, €) f%)=—@%—1)e—3),
(g) f'(x)= —x?+x+ 12, (h) f(x)= —x?—5x +6,
(i) f(x) =15—2x—x ?, (j) f(x) = 5x* — 27x?,
(k) f'(x) = 1 —4/x?.
2 Find any maximum or minimum values of the following functions:
(a) f(x) = 4x — 3x°, (b) f(x) = 2x3 — 3x? — 12x —7,
(©) f(x) = x*(x — 4), (d) f(x) =x + I/x,
(e) f(x) = x(2x — 3)(x — 4).
98 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 5b
a
3 Find the turning points on the following curves, and state whether y has
maximum or minimum value at each:
(a) y=x(x?— 12), (b) y=x? —5x?+3x42,
(c) y=x?(3 — x), (d) y=4x? + 1/x,
(e) y= x(x — 8)(x — 15).
Investigate the stationary values of y on the following curves:
(a) y=x*, (b). y=3=k?,
(c) y=x3(2—x), (d) y= 3x4 + 16x? + 24x? + 3.
eS) Fig. 5.14 represents a rectangular sheet of metal 8 cm by 5 cm. Equal squares
of side x cm are removed from each corner, and the edges are then turned up
to make an open box of volume V cm>. Show that V= 40x — 26x? + 4x°.
Hence find the maximum possible volume, and the corresponding value of x.

Figure 5.14

Repeat No. 5 when the dimensions of the sheet of metal are 8 cm by 3 cm,
showing that in this case V = 24x — 22x? + 4x?.
The size of a parcel despatched through the post used to be limited by the
fact that the sum of its length and girth (perimeter of cross-section) must not
exceed 6 feet. What was the volume of the largest parcel of square cross-
section which was acceptable for posting? (Let the cross-section be a square
of side x feet.)
Repeat No. 7 for a parcel of circular cross-section, leaving m in your answer.
oe
@ A chemical factory wishes to make a cylindrical container, of thin metal, to
hold 10 cm?, using the least possible area of metal. If the outside surface is
S cm’, and the radius is r cm, show that S = 2nr? + 20/r and hence find the
required radius and height for the container. (Leave x in your answer.)
10 Repeat No. 9 showing that whatever may be the given volume, the area of
metal will always be least when the height is twice the radius.
11 64 cm? of butter is to be made into a slab of square cross-section. Calculate
the required length if the total surface area is to be as small as possible.
12 An open cardboard box with a square base is required to hold 108 cm?.
What should be the dimensions if the area of cardboard used is as small as
possible?

Curve sketching
5.5 We have seen in §5.4 how maxima and minima problems may be solved
without direct use of the relevant graph. Frequently however the determination
 Maxima and minima 99
of maximum and minimum points is a valuable aid in sketching a curve. (See
§2.12 for a note on the difference between sketching and plotting a curve.)

Example 6 Sketch the curve y = 4x? — 3x‘.

(a) To find where the curve meets the x-axis, put y = 0, then
4x3 —3x*+=0
samen(d & 3x) 20
Therefore the curve meets the x-axis at the points (0, 0) and (4, 0).
(b) To find where the curve meets the y-axis, put x = 0. The curve meets the
y-axis at the origin.
(c) To find stationary points:
pa 4 = 3x*
d
;* = 12x? — 12x3
= 9%7 (Px)
which is zero when x = 0 or 1.
Therefore (0, 0) and (1, 1) are stationary points.

Cmiekalel. |ale(sk
Gis ledSailieycot)
oO!lilo

infl. max.

Hence (0, 0) is a point of inflexion and (1, 1) is a maximum.

These results may now be used to sketch the curve, as in Fig. 5.15.

uy

Figure 5.15
100 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 5c

Exercise 5c

Find where the following curves meet the axes. Find, also, the coordinates of
their stationary points and use these results to sketch the curves.
1 y=3x? —x7. 2 y=x? = 6x’. 3 y=x?—2x7 4x.
4 y=(x+4+ 1)°(2—~). 5 y=x (x 2)". 6 y=x*— 8x?.
7 y=x*— 10x? +9. S$ y= x4 4-32x, 9 y=4x> —5x*.
10 y =3x> — 5x°. 11 y=2x> + 5x’.

Another useful approach to curve sketching is shown in the next example.

Example 7 Sketch the curve y =(x + 1)(x — 1)(2— x).

(a) To find where the curve meets the x-axis, put y= 0, then

(x+ 1)(x— 1)(2—x)

=0
Therefore the curve meets the x-axis at (— 1, 0), (1, 0), (2, 0).

(b) To find where the curve meets the y-axis, put x = 0. Thus the curve meets
the y-axis at (0, — 2).
(c) To examine the behaviour of the curve ‘at infinity’, expand the R.H.S. of
the equation:

y=(x7—1)2—x)=—x°42x7+4+x-—2
Now, if x is large, the sign of y will be determined by the term of highest degree,
—x3. (If x= 100, say, y= —1000 000 + 20 000 + 100 —2; or if x = — 100,
y = 1 000 000 + 20 000 — 100 — 2. In either case the term in x? predominates.)
If x is large and positive, y is large and negative, and if x is large and negative,
y is large and positive. Thus the behaviour of the curve as x > +00 and
x— — o is illustrated by Fig. 5.16.
The curve is then sketched, as in Fig. 5.17.

yy

Figure 5.16 Figure 5.17

 Maxima and minima 101

Distance, velocity and acceleration graphs

5.6 Useful physical interpretations of the graphical ideas discussed in §5.4 are
obtained from the space-time, velocity-time, and acceleration-time graphs for
the motion of a particle, if we plot one above the other as in the following
example.

Example 8 O is a point ona straight line. A particle moves along the line so that
it is sm from O, t s after a certain instant, where s = t(t — 2)*. Describe the motion
before and after t =0.
The space-time graph has the equation s = t(t — 2)”. By the methods of§5.5 we
may determine that the graph has a max. point (4, 34), a min. point (2, 0), and
passes through (0, 0). We thus arrive at the upper sketch in Fig. 5.18.
The equation may be written s = t° — 4t? + 4¢.
as
Oa dt ke=3 3t? — 8t + 4 = (3t — 2)(t — 2)

Hence the velocity-time graph has the equation v = (3t — 2)(t — 2). This graph
has a min. point (14, —14), and passes through (4, 0), (2, 0), and (0, 4); it is the
middle sketch in Fig. 5.18.

m/s

m/s?

Figure 5.18
102 Pure Mathematics 1 : 56

d oy.
Differentiating once again, = = 6t — 8, and so the acceleration-time graph has

the equation a = 6t — 8, and is the bottom sketch in Fig, 5.18:

fds.
Notice that the local max. and min. values of s occur when o(i=)is Zero,

well Y
and that the local min. value of v occurs when a(ie=)iS zero.

It is easy to visualise the motion of the particle as being along the Os axis of
the space-time graph, its distance from O at any instant being given by the
height of the graph for the corresponding value of t. Before t = 0, the particle is
approaching O from the negative side; at t=O, it is passing through O with
velocity 4 m/s, and acceleration — 8 m/s’, hence its speed is decreasing. It comes
momentarily to rest 32 m from O (on the positive side) when t = 3; it returns to
O, where it is momentarily at rest when t = 2, and thereafter it moves away from
O in the positive direction.

Some further points regarding the sign and direction of the velocity and
acceleration deserve emphasis. Consider the three graphs between t=0 and
t= 14; throughout this interval the acceleration is negative, and the velocity
decreases from +4 m/s to — 14 m/s. The effect of the negative acceleration is to
decrease the speed when the velocity is positive (t = 0 to t =4), and to increase
the speed when the velocity is negative(t = 4 to t = 14). The reader should note
the distinction between the speed and the velocity, the speed being the numerical
value of the velocity, irrespective of direction.

Qu.6 In Example 8, give the signs of the velocity, and acceleration, and state if
the speed is increasing or decreasing, when (a) t = 15, (b) t= 3, (c) t= 14.

Exercise 5d
1 Make a rough sketch of each of the following curves by finding the points of
intersection with the axes, and by investigating the behaviour of y as x > + co
and as x» — oo. (Do not find maximum and minimum points).
(a) y=(x+2)(x-3), — (d) y=(5+-x)(1 —,
(Cc) y=x(x+)(x+2), @) y=(2+x)(1+x)(3 —»),
(e:) y=Q—1N&-3, f) y=(x+4)°(x—3),
() yo mx)’, (h) y=x7(5 — x),
(i) i (x ai 2) (j) = (x a 5)ie
(k) y= —x(x—4)*.
2 A particle moves along a straight line OB so that ts after passing O it is sm
from O, where s = t(2t — 3)(t — 4). Deduce expressions for the velocity and
acceleration in terms of t, and sketch the space-, velocity-, and acceleration-
time graphs as in Fig. 5.18. Briefly describe the motion, and when t =2 find
(a) where the particle is,
(b) if it is going towards or away from B,
 Maxima and minima 103
(c) its speed,
(d) if its speed is increasing or decreasing,
(e) the rate of change of the speed.
Oo Answer the questions in No. 2 for the instant when t = 1.
With the data of No. 2, when is the particle moving at its greatest speed away
from B, and where is it then?
A particle is moving along a straight line OA in such a way that ts after
passing through O for the first time it is sm from O where

s= —t(t
— 8)(t —15)

A is taken to be on the positive side of O. Deduce expressions for the velocity

and acceleration in terms of t, and sketch the three graphs as in Fig. 5.18.
Briefly describe the motion.
(a) Describe in detail the motion and position of the particle when t = 10.
(b) When is it moving towards A?
(c) When is it travelling at its greatest speed towards A?
A car in a traffic jam starts from rest with constant acceleration 2 m/s”, and
when its velocity reaches 6 m/s it remains constant at that figure for 4 s, and it
is then reduced to zero in 6s at a constant retardation. Sketch the space-,
velocity-, and acceleration-time graphs for this motion.

Exercise 5e (Miscellaneous)
1 Find the coordinates of the points on the following curves at which y is a
local maximum or a local minimum:
(a) y=x?—6x? +9x4+2, —§ (b) y=2x3—
3x? — 12x+8,
(c) y=x?
— 3x, (d) y=4x?
— 3x? — 6x +4,
(ec) y=x?(x* — 8), (f) y=2(x4+ 1)(x—-1)? +1.
Find the turning points of the graph y = 2x? + 3x* — 12x + 7, distinguishing
between maximum and minimum values. Show that the graph passes
through (1, 0) and one other point on the x-axis. Draw a rough sketch of the
curve.
If y= x* — 2x? + 1, find the values ofx for which y is a minimum and draw a
rough sketch of the curve.
The equation ofa curve is y = x* — x* — 1. Has ya maximum or a minimum
value (a) when x =, (b) when x = 0?
Prove that there are two points on the curve y = 2x? — x* at which y has a
maximum value, and one point at which y has a minimum value. Give the
equations of the tangents to the curve at these three points.
6 A point P whose x-coordinate is a is taken on the line y = 3x —7. If Q is the
point (4, 1) show that PQ? = 10a* — S6a + 80. Find the value of a which will
make this expression a minimum. Hence show that the coordinates of N, the
foot of the perpendicular from Q to the line, are (24, 12). Find the equation
of QN.
The tangent to the curve of y=ax*+bx+c at the point where x =2 is
 1 Ex Se
104 Pure Mathematics

parallel to the line y = 4x. Given that y has a minimum value of —3 where
x = 1 find the values of a, b and c.
Find the equation of the tangent to the curve xy = 4 at the point P whose
coordinates are (2t, 2/t). If O is the origin and the tangent at P meets the
x-axis at A and the y-axis at B, prove
(a) that P is the mid-point of AB,
(b) that the area of the triangle OAB is the same for all positions of P.
Find the equations of the normals to the curve xy = 4 which are parallel to
the line 4x — y—2=0.
10 A solid rectangular block has a square base. Find its maximum volume if the
sum of the height and any one side of the base is 12 cm.
A man wishes to fence in a rectangular enclosure of area 128 m?. One side of
the enclosure is formed by part of a brick wall already in position. What is
the least possible length of fencing required for the other three sides?
12 The angle C of triangle ABC is always a right angle.
(a) If the sum of CA and CB is 6 cm, find the maximum area of the triangle.
(b) If, on the other hand, the hypotenuse AB is kept equal to 4 cm, and the
sides CA, CB allowed. to vary, find the maximum area of the triangle.
13 A piece of wire of length / is cut into two parts of lengths x and / — x. The
former is bent into the shape of a square, and the latter into a rectangle of
which the base is double the height. Find an expression for the sum of the
areas of these two figures. Prove that the only value ofx for which this sum is
a maximum or a minimum is x = 8/1/17, and find which it is.
14 A farmer has a certain length of fencing and uses it all to fence in two square
sheep-folds. Prove that the sum of the areas of the two folds is least when
their sides are equal.
15 Prove that, if the sum of the radii of two circles remains constant, the sum of
the areas of the circles is least when the circles are equal.
16 An open tank is to be constructed with a horizontal square base and four
vertical rectangular sides. It is to have a capacity of 32 m*. Find the least area
of sheet metal of which it can be made.
17 A sealed cylindrical jam tin is of height h cm and radius r cm. The area of its
total outer surface is A cm? and its volume is V cm®. Find an expression for
A in terms of r and h. Taking A = 24n, find
(a) an expression for hin terms ofr, and hence an expression for V in terms of r;
(b) the value of r which will make V a maximum.
18 (a) A variable rectangle has a constant perimeter of 20 cm. Find the lengths
of the sides when the area is a maximum.
(b) A variable rectangle has a constant area 36 cm?. Find the lengths of the
sides when the perimeter is a minimum.
19 A cylinder is such that the sum of its height and the circumference of its base
is 5m. Express the volume (V m°) in terms of the radius of the base (r m).
What is the greatest volume of the cylinder?
20 An open tank is to be constructed with a square base and vertical sides so as
to contain 500 m°? of water. What must be the dimensions if the area of sheet
metal used in its construction is to be a minimum?
 Maxima and minima 105
21 The length of a rectangular block is twice the width, and the total surface
area is 108 cm?. Show that, if the width of the block is x cm, the volume is
$x(27
— x”) cm?. Find the dimensions of the block when its volume is a
maximum.
22 A circular cylinder open at the top is to be made so as to have a volume of
1 m°*. Ifr m is the radius ofthe base, prove that the total outside surface area
is (tr? + 2/r) m*. Hence prove that this surface area is a minimum when the
height equals the radius of the base.
23 A match box consists of an outer cover, open at both ends, into which slides
a rectangular box without a top. The length of the box is one and a half times
its breadth, the thickness of the material is negligible, and the volume of the
box is 25 cm?. If the breadth ofthe box is x cm, find, in terms of x, the area of
material used. Hence show that, if the least area of material is to be used to
make the box, the length should be 3.7 cm approximately.
24 Two opposite ends of a closed rectangular tank are squares of side x m and
the total area of sheet metal forming the tank is S m?. Show that the volume
of the tank is }x(S — 2x”) m?. If the value of S is 2400, find the value of x for
which the volume is a maximum.
25 The point P(x, y) lies on the curve y = x’; the point A has coordinates (0, 1).
Express AP? in terms of x. Hence find the positions of P for which AP? is
least, and verify that for each of these positions the line AP is perpendicular
to the tangent to the curve at P.
Chapter 6

Integration
The reverse of differentiation — geometrical
interpretation
6.1 Suppose that instead of an equation of a curve, we take as our starting
point a gradient function. For example, what is represented geometrically by the
suid
equation ee 49
dx
The constant gradient 4 indicates a straight line; y =4x is the equation of the
straight line of this gradient through the origin, and, on differentiation, it leads

to re= 4. But y = 4x is not the only possibility; any straight line of gradient 4
K
may be written as y=4x +c, where c is a constant, and this is the most general
: <ap aig
equation which gives an 4.
dx
Sum’
Thus the equation re= 4 represents the same as the equation y=4x+c,
namely all straight lines of gradient 4 (Fig. 6.1).

Figure 6.1

106
 Integration 107

dy
Let us take another example, ay = 2x. We know that y = x? is a curve with
be
)
this gradient function; but the most general equation leading to = = 2%, On
Bs
differentiation is y = x* +c, where c is a constant.
needy’
Thus the equation ss 2x represents the same as the equation y = x? +c,

namely the family of curves ‘parallel’ to y = x? (see Fig. 3.8).

We have found that
dy
aeeriss then y=43x+¢e

if—=2x, then y=x*+c

x
This process of finding the expression for y in terms of x when given the
gradient function — in other words, the reverse of differentiation — is called
integration.

x? +c is called the integral of 2x with respect to x.

The constant c, which, unless further data is given, cannot be determined, is
called the arbitrary constant of integration.
We know that when we differentiate a power of x, the index is reduced by 1,
d 7 ,
since —(x")=nx"~'. In this reverse process of integration we must therefore
C3
increase the index by 1, thus

dy i
ie
if — = xe y = 5) ape
—

and

dy
Li
i —=5
yuowry
2 =5
x 3 +¢
——

The reader should check these by differentiating, and it will then be clear why
the denominators 2 and 3 arise. The rule for integrating a power of x is seen to be
‘increase the index-by 1, and divide by the new index’.

Qu.1 Integrate with respect to x:

(a) 2, (b) m, (c) 3x”, (d) 3x,
(ce) 3x*, (3 2x, | (eg) x—x’, (h) ax+b.

Just as we have assumed that the rule for differentiating x” is valid for n € Z, i.e.
when n is any integer, positive or negative, so we shall make a similar1
assumption about the rule for integrating x", with the notable exception of x“.
108 Pure Mathematics 1 6.1

In other words, for all positive and negative integral values of n, other than — 1,
n+1

The reader should check this last result by differentiating, and in fact should
make a habit of doing this always. It is important to remember that the arbitrary
constant is an essential part of each integral.
Qu. 2 Integrate with respect to x:
I . 2 1
(a) x3” (b) x - (c) x2 (d) xn

Qu.3 Why is the rule for integrating not valid when n= — 1?

dy
Reverting to our earlier examples, = = 4 and Fe= 2x are called differential
x x
equations, and y=4x +c and y= x? +c respectively are the general solutions.
the G ;
We saw that the differential equation =4 represents all straight lines of
x
gradient 4; to be able to find the equation of a particular straight line of gradient
4, we must find the appropriate value of c in the general solution y = 4x +c, and
to do this we need to know one point through which the line passes. The reader
should now read again the alternative solution of Example 9 in §1.9; it will be
seen that the process of finding the equation of a straight line of given gradient
passing through a given point may be thought of as finding a particular solution
of a differential equation.
d , ;
Qu. 4 = 4, Find y in terms of x, given that y = 10 when x = — 2. What does

the solution represent graphically?

Exercise 6a
1 Integrate:

(a) with respect to x: 3, 4x7, x? + 3x; (2x403)3, dir5, oie

3

(b) with respect tot: at, $t°, (t+ 1)(t—2), et, + 3+ 2t;

(c) with respect to y: —ay~ 2 Kk

y2 >
(y*+2)(y? —3)
Wweas y2t ohn ¢r
 Integration 109
2 Solve the following differential equations:
dy ds
(a) —=3
dx OXod (b) —=
7 = 317,3

dx 1 1
o) —-
(c) Gai=u+at, (d) ==
a ~
(1+2)(1 == )

d p22 3724 dA 1x71 = 2x2

fey dteg ss t th oils Ty dxiba div7 ee)
3 What is the gradient function of a straight line passing through (—4, 5) and
(2, 6)? Find its equation.
4 A curve passes through the point (3, — 1) and its gradient function is 2x + 5.
Find its equation.
5 A curve passes through the point (2, 0) and its gradient function is 3x? — 1/x?.
Find its equation.
6 The gradient of a curve at the point (x, y) is 3x? — 8x + 3. If it passes through
the origin, find the other points of intersection with the x-axis.
7 The gradient of a curve at the point (x, y) is 8x — 3x”, and it passes through
the origin. Find where it cuts the x-axis, and find the equation of the tangent
parallel to the x-axis.
ome!
8 Find s in terms of t in = 3t — 8/t?, given that s= 14 when t=1.

dA
9 Find A in terms of x if. = (3x + 1)(x? — 1)/x°. What is the value of Awhen
x
y= 20ifA=0 when'x= 1?

Velocity and acceleration

6.2 In Chapter 4 we used the formula s = 4.9t? for a stone falling from rest, and
it was explained that this is based on the assumption that the acceleration of the
stone is 9.8 metres per second per second, or 9.8 m/s*. We are now in a position
to see how the formula is deduced from this assumption by the process of
integration.
If the acceleration is given by

dv
— = 9.8
dt

then

v=98t+c

Now if the stone falls from rest at the instant from which we measure the time,
v =0 when t =0, and substituting these values in the last equation we get c = 0.
fe 9 8t
110 Pure Mathematics I 6.2

This may be written

ds
Sa Oy
dt
from which
s=4.9t7 +k
If smeasures the distance below the initial position of the stone, s = 0 when t = 0,
and substituting these values in the last equation, we get k = 0.
“8 =49t?
Qu.5 A stone is thrown vertically downwards from the top of a cliff at 15 m/s.
Assuming that its acceleration due to gravity is 9.81 m/s, find expressions for its
pital
velocity and position ts later, by solving the differential equation Lhe 9.81.

It again needs emphasising that displacement (s), velocity and acceleration in

a straight line are positive in one direction, negative in the other, and it is
important to decide at the outset which is to be taken as the positive direction.
The reader should take upwards as positive in Qu. 6.
Qu.6 A stone is thrown vertically upwards from the edge of a cliff at 19.6 m/s.
Assuming that gravity produces a downwards acceleration of 9.8 m/s”, deduce
the velocity and position of the stone after 1, 3 and 5 s. Explain the sign of each
answer, taking upwards as positive.

Example 1 Fig. 6.2 represents part of a conveyor belt, the dots being small
articles on it at 1 m spacing. Initially the belt is at rest with the article R 7 m short
of O, a fixed mark on a wall. The belt is accelerated from rest so that its velocity is
0.1t m/s, ts after starting. Find (a) the position of R when t= 10, and (b) the
distance moved by R between t =3 and t=5.

O
y ————>
Ras A Sa Do Dad dS nk Sh
R

Figure 6.2

(a) If the distance from O at time fs is s m (positive to the right of O, negative

to the left), then it is true of each article that its velocity, = = 0.1t, and also, by
t
integration, that
s=0.05t?7 +¢
However, this last equation does not give us the distance of any particular
article from O, until we have discovered the appropriate value of c. Since when
t= 0,s =c, the arbitrary constant of integration in this case represents the initial
position of an article.
 Integration 111
In the case of R, when t = 0,
s=-—7

Substituting in the last equation, —7=0+c,

.c=—7
Therefore the distance of R from O at time ts is sm where
s=0.05t? —7
When t = 10,

s=0.05 x 100—7= —2
.. Ris 2m short of O at this instant.
(b) The distance moved by each article in any given interval is the same,
therefore we are not concerned with any particular numerical value‘for the
constant of integration, and we shall leave c in our working.
d
As before, since s = Ont!

s=0.05t? +c
When t = 3,

s=0.05 x 37 +¢
When t =S,

s=0.05 x 57 +c
The distance moved between t = 3 and t =5 is
(0.05 x 57 +c)
—(0.05 x 37 +c) m
= 0.05 x 25+c—0.05 x9—cm
= 0.8m

(b) (Alternative layout) The following square bracket notation is an instruc-

tion to substitute and subtract, and shortens the working.

ds
—=(0.1t
dt

“6 =0.05t?7 +c
The distance moved between t = 3 and t=S is
5
ost + c|m = (0.05 x 25 +c) — (0.05 x
| 9+ c)m
3

= 1.25+c—045—cm

=0.8m
 Pure Mathematics 1 62
112

Qu.7 Evaluate:
5 4

(a) fac |: (b) [arr k |:

2 1

+1 —2
(c) fer] e yh [eae ae] :
= =3

Qu.8 A particle moves in a straight line with velocity 2t? m/s, t s after the start.
Find the distance moved in the 3rd second.
Qu.9 With the data of Example 1, answer the following questions.
(a) Find the position of R when t = 20.
(b) Find the position when t = 10 of the article initially at O.
(c) An article N is 2.2 m past O when t = 2; find its position when t = 10.
(d) An article T is 99.95 m short of O when t = 1; find its initial position.

Exercise 6b
1 A stone is thrown vertically downwards at 20 m/s from the top of a cliff.
Assuming that gravity produces on it an acceleration of 9.81 m/s”, deduce,
: nity d , ;
from the differential equation = = 9.81, expressions for its velocity and

position ts later.
2 A stone is thrown vertically upwards from ground level at 12 m/s, at a point
immediately above a well. Taking the downwards direction as positive,
: 7 ." a ;
deduce, from the differential equation ae 9.8, expressions for the stone’s

velocity and position ts later. Find the velocity and position after 1, 2, 3 s,
explaining the sign of each answer.
3 Find the displacement (s) in terms of time (t) from the following data:
ds_
(a) ae 3, s=3 when t=0,

(b) v=4t—1, s=0O when t=2,

(c) v>=(Bt—1)(t+2), s=1 whent=2,
2
(d) agi aa Bars s=4 when t=1.

4 Evaluate:

(a) x + c|‘ (b) Ej + st]:

1 2

(c) le— a] ye td) [2°—t?— ‘| t

5 Find s in terms of t, and the distance moved in the stated interval (the units
 Integration 113
being metres and seconds), given that

ay rattelaye 4
vee 20
=Otot=2, 2
(b) v=t?—3, t=2tots3,
(c) vn=(t—1)(t—2), t=—1tot=0,

(d) D=t+3o oy, b= LO.t0ut.= 20.

If a particle moves in a straight line so that its acceleration in terms of the

time is At (A being a constant), deduce expressions for the velocity and
displacement at time t.
Deduce expressions for v and s from the following data, determining the
constants of integration whenever possible:
(a) a= 3t, s=0 and v =3 when t =0,
(b) a=2+t, s= —3 and v=0 when t=O,
(c) a=10—t, v=2 when t=1, s=0 when t =0,
(d) a=4t, v=5 when t =0,
(e) a=t*, s=10 when t = 1.
A system of particles moves along a straight line OA so that t s after a certain
instant their velocity is v m/s where v = 3t.
(a) One of the particles is at O when t = 0. Find its position when t = 3.
(b) A second particle is 4m past O when t = 1. Find its position when t = 0.
(c) A third particle is 10 m short of O when t = 2. Find its position when
t= 4,
(d) Find the distance moved by the particles during the 3rd second.
A particle moves along a straight line OA with velocity (6 — 2t) m/s. When
t= 1 the particle is at O.
(a) Find an expression for its distance from O in terms of t, and deduce the
net change in position which takes place between t = 0 and t=S.
(b) By finding the time at which it is momentarily at rest, calculate the actual
distance through which it moves during the same interval.
(c) Sketch the space-time and velocity-time graphs from t= 0 to t= 6.
10 A stone is thrown vertically upwards from ground level with a velocity of
12.6 m/s. If the acceleration due to gravity is 9.8 m/s*, deduce, from the
dv f c 4 : :
differential equation Fa 9.8, expressions for its velocity and its height t s

later. Find
(a) the time to the highest point,
(b) the greatest height reached,
(c) the distance moved through by the stone during each of the first two
seconds of motion.
11 A train runs non-stop between two stations P and Q, and its velocity t hours
after leaving P is 60¢ — 30t? km/h. Find
(a) ‘the distance between P and Q,
 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 6b
114

(b) the average velocity for the journey,

(c) the maximum velocity attained.
12 A stopping train travels between two adjacent stations so that its velocity is
v km/min, t min after leaving the first, where v = $t(1 —t). Find
(a) the average velocity for the journey in km/h,
(b) the maximum velocity in km/h.
13 The formula connecting the velocity and time for the motion of a particle is
v=1+4t+ 6t2. Find the average velocity and the average acceleration for
the interval t=1 to t =3, the units being metres and seconds.
14 A racing car starts from rest and its acceleration after t's is (k — 41) m/s? until
it reaches a velocity of 60 m/s at the end of 1 min. Find the value of k, and the
distance travelled in this first minute.
15 A particle starting from rest at O moves along a straight line OA so that its
acceleration after ts is (24t — 12t?) m/s.
(a) Find when it again returns to O and its velocity then.
(b) Find its maximum displacement from O during this interval.
(c) What is its maximum velocity and its greatest speed during this interval?
16 P and R are two adjacent railway stations, and Q is a signal box on the line
between them. A train which stops at P and R has a velocity of (3 +4t —4t7)
km/min at t min past noon, and it passes Q at noon. Find
(a) the times of departure from P and arrival at R,
(b) an expression for the distance of the train from P in terms of t,
(c) the average velocity between P and R, in km/h,
(d) the maximum velocity attained, in km/h.

The area under a curve

6.3 Another important aspect of integration is that it enables us to calculate
exactly the areas enclosed by curves.
Let us consider the area enclosed by the axes, the line x = 3, and part of the
curve y = 3x* + 2. This is the area TUVO in Fig. 6.3.
P is the point (x, y) on the curve, PM is its y-coordinate, and the area TPMO
we shall call A. Now if we move P along the curve, A increases or decreases as x
increases or decreases; clearly the size of A depends upon the value of x, i.e. Aisa
function of x, and our present aim is to find an expression for A in terms of x.
With the usual notation Q is the point (x + dx, y + dy) adjacent to P, and QN
is its y-coordinate. If we move the right-hand boundary of A from PM to QN,
we increase x by dx, and the resulting increase in A, the shaded area PQNM, we
call 6A. In other words 6A is the increment in A corresponding to the increment
ox in x. It can be seen from Fig. 6.3 that 5A lies between the areas of the two
rectangles PRNM, y 6x, and SQNM, (y + 6y)dx. This may be written*
y 0x <dA <(y
+ dy)dx

*This statement is called an inequality. < means ‘is less than’; > means ‘is greater than’. The reader
should note in passing that an inequality is reversed by changing the sign of each term. Thus
1<2<3, but —1>—2> —3; this explains the reference to dx being positive.
 Integration 115

Figure 6.3

and dividing by 6x, which is positive,

OA
Faecal) 2.0)
OA...
Now as 6x > 0, dy0, and so (y + dy) y. Thus we find that 8 lies between
6
y and something which we can make as near to y as we please, by making 6x
: ye a ne
sufficiently small. Therefore the limit of 3x 8) and writing the limit of 3x 28
x %
Ane BC

ple
dx ale
dA
Oa
<P = DS 3x7 Gr 42

and by integration,
A=x3+2x+c
If we were to bring in the right-hand boundary of the area A from PM to TO,
we should reduce A to zero; that is to say, when x = 0, A = 0. Substituting these
values in the last equation we find that c = 0.
* A=x? +2x
and we have achieved our immediate aim of expressing A in terms of x; now to
find the area TUVO. In this case, the right-hand boundary of A has been pushed
out from PM to UV, and x is increased to 3.
 1 6.3
116 Pure Mathematics

When x = 3,
A=3° 42x d= 33
“, the area TUVO = 33.

Example 2 Find the area enclosed by the x-axis, the curve y = 3x? + 2 and the
straight lines x =3 and x =S.

The required area is UWZV in Fig. 6.4, and it may be found as the difference
between the areas TWZO and TUVO. Using A as above,

dA
—=y=3x*42
te y Se

Ae
x 4 2X

Figure 6.4

(We have shown above that the constant of integration is zero.)

When. xe),

A=53+2x5=135 (Area TWZO)

and when x = 3,

A=3?+2x3=33 (Area TUVO)

.. the area UWZV = 135 — 33 = 102.

Qu. 10 Find the area enclosed by the x-axis, the curve y = 3x? +2, and the
following straight lines:
| (a) the y-axis and x = 4, (b))-x'= fand x= 2
(c)"x= = 1 and x =3; (d) x= —3 and x= —2.,
 Integration Mie)
In all the working so far in this chapter we have used the symbol A to denote
an area having the y-axis as its left-hand boundary. Suppose that instead we
had, in Fig. 6.3, defined a similar area A’ having the line x = 1 as its left-hand
boundary. By the same process of reasoning we should arrive at the result
dA’
—
a y =y=3x*4+2
x Se

Ame
Xt Dx ie
But A’=0 when x = 1, and substituting these values we get k = — 3.
, A= x? $2x—3
Now A’ is measured to the right from the line KL (x = 1) in Fig. 6.4, and
Example 2 might just as well be done using A’ instead of A, finding the area
UWZYN as the difference between the areas KWZL and KUVL. Thus, when
eas

A= 5? +2%5—3=135—3
and when x =3,

A= 374426323
= 33 —3
.. the area UWZV = (135 — 3) — (33 — 3) = 102.

In each solution we have determined the constant of integration; using A, it is

zero, and using A’, it is — 3. But as is clear from the second solution, the constant
drops out on subtraction. We could in fact have measured A from any
convenient left-hand boundary, and found the area UWZV by subtraction,
without evaluating the constant of integration.
_ dA
We shall from now onwards assume the relationship ie y to calculate areas
x
of this nature, and the square bracket notation introduced in §6.2 may now be
put to further use, as is illustrated in the next example.

Example 3. Find the area enclosed by the x-axis, x =1, x =3 and the graph
y =x°. (Fig. 6.5).

ee
dx y

A=tixt+c
3
The required area = ES + c|;
1

The area evaluated in Example 3 is called the area under the curve y = x° from
Ceiotoix a3:
 6.3
118 Pure Mathematics 1

Figure 6.5

1 and 3 are called, respectively, the Jower and upper limits of integration.
The integral 4x* + c, involving the arbitrary constant of integration, is called
an indefinite integral.
When however limits are given, and the integral may be evaluated, e.g.
3
E + c|, it is called a definite integral. Since the constant of integration drops
1
out in a definite integral, it is not necessary to write it in the bracket.
Qu. 11 Evaluate the following definite integrals:

(a) Ea + 2x] (b) Ep- 2x2 ;

1/2 = 1
0 =

(c) E = | : (d) Ea + ax 5
=2 42
0 1 +

(e) [xt 292 49? eat) [eax |

-2 x” J4+1/2
Qu. 12 Find the area under y = 5x from x = 0 to x = 10 by integration. Check
by another method.
Qu. 13 Find the area under
(a) -y=x? from x=O0tox=3, (b) y=2x241 from x=2 tox=5S.
Two further examples will illustrate the advisability of making a rough sketch
in this work if the reader is in doubt as to the shape and position of any curve;
they also bring out two important points.

Example 4 Find the area under the curve y = x*(x — 2) (a) from x =0 to x = 2,
and (b) from x =2 tox =8.
Consideration of the sign of the highest degree term, and the points of
intersection with the x-axis, enables an adequate sketch to be made (Fig. 6.6).
 Integration 119

Figure 6.6

“ A=4xt—3x4+¢
(a) The required area

=|45*-30"|
2

= (4x 24-3 x 2°)—(0)

(b) The required area
8/3

IPR ea ieci(,| 2
=(fx 3-35) - (G29)
= (0)—(— 14)
=+14

Part (a) of this example illustrates that the area under a curve is negative below
8/3
the x-axis. The reader should verify that E —2x° is zero, and now that we
0

have the convention about the sign of an area, we see that this is because it
represents the sum of the two areas we have evaluated, numerically equal but of
opposite sign.
The reader should now appreciate that a sketch of the relevant curve may help
to avoid misleading results arising from perfectly correct calculation.
120 Pure Mathematics 1 6.3

Qu. 14 Confirm that the total area enclosed by y = x?(x — 2), the #-axis, x= 1
and x =3 is 43.
3
What is the value of E -3x°| ?
1

Qu.15 Sketch the curve y= x(x —1)(x—2). Find the total area enclosed
between this curve and the x-axis.

Example 5 (a) Find the area under y =1/x* from x =1 to x =2. (b) Can any
meaning be attached to the phrase ‘the area under y=1/x? from x = —1 to
x= 4-27

dA 1 ctf
(a) ae

Figure 6.7

; 1
(b) Fig. 6.7 is a sketch of y= =e and we see that if we try to find the area
under the graph from x = — 1 to x = 2, between these limits is the value x = 0 for
 Integration 121
which y has no value, and the curve consists of two separate branches. It
is
‘ , 4
possible to go through the motions of evaluating |- | but the result, — 15,
ot: |
is meaningless. If we break up the area into two parts and integrate from — 1 to0
; 1
and from 0 to 2, in each case we get the meaningless term 0° (See 97535

The second part of Example 5 illustrates that in order that we may calculate
the area under a curve, the curve must have no breaks between the limits of x
involved, i.e. the function must be continuous (see §2.19) for all values of x
between these limits.

Exercise 6c
1 Evaluate:
x4 2 +1
(a) | ; (b) [a ax] j
1/2 Lag]
=f =8)
(c) ES “3 +45 en (d) E -5|
2 Find the area enclosed by x + 4y—20=0 and the axes, by integration.
Check by another method.
3 Find the areas enclosed by the x-axis, and the following curves and straight
lines:
(ajlgpee 3x2; ese" L pes;
(boy =x7442, x= = 2yx=5,
(ce) p=x7(x— 1)(x—2), x= —2, x= —1,
(d) pe oie, Ke 1) = 6:
4 Find the area under y = 4x? 4+ 8x? from x = —2 to x=0.
5 Sketch the curve y= x* — 5x + 6 and find the area cut off below the x-axis.
6 Sketch the curve y= x(x + 1)(2—x), and find the area of each of the two
segments cut off by the x-axis.
7 Sketch the following curves and find the areas enclosed by them, and by the
x-axis, and the given straight lines:
(a) y=x(4—x),x=5S, (b) y= —x3,x=—2,
(c)sy=x? e+ 1) yx = 2, (d)-y = 1/x?—
1, x =2.
8 Find the area of the segment cut off from y = x? — 4x + 6 by the line y = 3.
9 Repeat No. 8 for the curve y= 7—x—x?, and y=S. 40%
10 Find the points of intersection of the following curves and straight lines, and
find the area of the segment cut off from each curve by the corresponding
straight line:
(a) y = $x’, y=2x,
(b) y= 3x?, 3x + y—6=0,
(c) y=(x +1)(x—2), x-—y+1=0.
11 Find the areas enclosed by the following curves and straight lines:
(a) y=4x°, the y-axis, and y = 32,
122 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 6c

(b) y=x?—1, the axes and y= 26,

(c) y=1/x?-1, y= —1, x =f and x =2. visae
12 Find the area enclosed by the curves y = 2x? and y = 12x* —x°.

Exercise 6d (Miscellaneous)
1 re = (3x — 2)/x? find y in terms of x, if y=1 when x =1.
x
2 If f'(x) = 2x — 1/x? and if f(1) = 1, find f(x).
3 The curve y=6—x-—x* cuts the x-axis in two points A and B. By
integration find the area enclosed by the x-axis and that portion of the curve
which lies between A and B.
Sketch the curve y=x*?—x—2 from x=—2 to x=3. Find the area
bounded by the curve and the x-axis.
Sketch roughly the curve y = x7(3 — x) between x = — 1 and x = 4. Calculate
the area bounded by the curve and the x-axis.
For the curve y= 12x —x°, find the area bounded by the curve and the
positive x-axis.
The velocity v of a point moving along a straight line is given in terms of the
time t by the formula v = 2t? — 9t + 10, the point being at the origin when
t = 0. Find expressions in terms oft for the distance from the origin, and the
acceleration. Show that the point is at rest twice, and find its distances from
the origin at those instants.
The velocity v of a point moving along a straight line is connected with the
time t by the formula v = t? — 3t + 2, the units being metres and seconds. If
the distance of the point from the origin is 5m when t = 1, find its position
and acceleration when t = 2.
A particle moves in a straight line with a velocity of v m/s after ts, where
v = 3t? + 2t. Find the acceleration at the end of 2 s, and the distance it travels
in the 4th second.
10 Find the equation of the curve which passes through the point (— 1, 0) and
whose gradient at any point (x, y) is 3x? — 6x + 4. Find the area enclosed by
the curve, the axis of x and the ordinates x = 1 and x =2.
11 Draw in the same figure, for values of x from 0 to 6, a sketch of the curve
y = 6x — x? and the line y = 2x. Calculate the area enclosed by them.
12 The parabola y = 6x — x* meets the x-axis at O and A. The tangents at O
and A meet at T. Show that the curve divides the area of the triangle OAT
into two parts in the ratio 2:1.
13 The curve y = x(x — 1)* touches the x-axis at the point A. B is the point (2, 2)
on the curve and N is the foot of the perpendicular from B to the x-axis.
Prove that the tangent at B divides the area between the arc AB, BN, and AN
in the ratio 11:24.
14 The point P moves in a straight line with an acceleration of (2t — 4) m/s?
after ts. When t =0, P is at O and its velocity is 3 m/s. Find
(a) the velocity of P after ts,
(b) the value of t when P starts to return to O,
 Integration 123
(c) the distance of P from O at this moment.
15 A train starts from rest and its acceleration t s after the start is
0.1(20— t) m/s. What is its speed after 20s? Acceleration ceases at this
instant and the train proceeds at this uniform speed. What is the total
distance covered 30s after the start from rest, to the nearest metre?
16 A particle moves in a straight line with velocity (7t — t — 6) m/s at the end of
ts. What is its acceleration when t=2 and when t= 4? When t=3 the
particle is at A; when t = 5 the particle is at B. Find the length of AB. For
what values of t is the particle momentarily at rest? ;
17 A particle, starting from rest, moves along a straight line with a velocity of
(8t — t?) m/s at the end of ts. Find its velocity when its acceleration vanishes
and the distance travelled up to that time. What distance will have been
travelled when the velocity vanishes instantaneously?
18 The velocity of a train starting from rest is proportional to t*, where t is the
time which has elapsed since it started. If the distance it has covered at the
end of 6s is 18 m, find the velocity and the acceleration at that instant.
19 A car starts from rest with an acceleration proportional to the time. It travels
9 m in the first 3 s. Calculate its velocity and acceleration at the end of this
time. Also find the distance travelled up to the instant when the velocity and
acceleration are numerically equal.
20 A particle starts from rest and moves in a straight line. Its speed for the first
3s is proportional to (6t—t?), where t is the time in seconds from the
commencement of motion, and thereafter it travels with uniform speed at the
rate it had acquired at the end of the 3rd second. Prove that the distance
travelled in the first 3 s is two-thirds of the distance travelled in the next 3 s.
Chapter 7

Further differentiation
To differentiate the function f(x) = x" (n € Q)
7.1 In this chapter we shall use fractional and negative indices, and any reader
not prepared for this should first read §9.2-§9.4. We are already familiar with the
rule that the derivative of x” is nx” ', but so far we have used it only when n has
been a positive or negative integer or zero, i.e. for ne Z. We now need to extend
this rule. First we shall prove its validity for the special case n =4.
Fig. 7.1 shows the graphs of the function f(x)=x'/? =,/x and its inverse
function f- (x) = x?, x > 0. We saw in Chapter 2 that the graph of the inverse
function is the reflection of the graph of y =f(x) in the line y=x. The point
Q(b, a) on the graph y= x? is the reflection of the point P(a, b) on the graph
y=x'/?, Notice, in particular, that the tangent at P to y= x'/? is inclined at an
angle « to the x-axis, whereas the tangent at Q to y = x’ is inclined at an angle a
to the y-axis. Thus, in Fig. 7.1 (ii), « is equal to (90° — B). Also notice that, since
P(a, b) is on y=./x, and Q(b, a) is on y=x?, a=b?, or Ja=b.

(i) (ii)
Figure 7.1

The gradient of y =./x at P, f’(a), is equal to tan «, but at the moment we do

not know how to find f’(x). However if we consider the graph of y = x”, we know

124
 Further differentiation 125
that tan f is given by the derivative of y= x? when x = b, and this we can find.
In
fact the derivative is 2x and hence
tan B =2b
But tan a = tan (90° — f) = 1/(2b), (see Fig. 7.2), therefore

1 1 ee 2
BOT 3 Ja
=7a

Figure 7.2

So we have proved that, for the function f(x) = x'/, the derivative

asx?
and this is in accordance with the general rule we have previously been using for
differentiating x”. From now on we shall assume that
if f(x) =x", f(x) = nx" ' when ne Q,
i.e. when n is any rational number. It is important that the reader should bear in
mind that, although this assumption is indeed valid, we have on each occasion
so far justified the use of a general rule for differentiation simply by demonstrat-
ing its truth for particular values of n. At a more advanced level of study a proof
can be provided.

i erentiate
E xamplelel Diff (a) —,
: hale Gut = (b)
ib) ——.
ee

2 i ~ I —
(a) Let MpngeuTets (b) Let aE: = X
 1 Tall
126 Pure Mathematics

3
Example 2 Integrate oa

dy 3
It ee
x ap x SK

x7 344

= 3—__—__+
eS Be
= 37x?
+¢
oe 4 1 4 2 1
Qu.f Differentiate: (a) x ° , (b) 2x°~, (c) oe (d) ~ (e) 52) (f) 3x

1 3
(8) rane
—ja>yy5) ree:
Sa

“(i x73, () 2x73,

Integrate:-()x 77 (mae 4.0 4 tm) 353°5.) ae
52? Wl)sa: Sy
1 —2
Qu.2. Differentiate: (a) x!/,.(b) 2x~‘/*, (c) ./x, (d) ~/x, () Ax? (f)
yr OTe
1
Integratet:(i)ix 7 4(j), 2x87 1k) ef py xy (i)
ik n) Vx

The chain rule

7.2 The process of differentiating a function has already been dealt with in this
book and the reader faced with a simple expression will differentiate it term by
term after expansion and know he is quite in order. If

y=(x + 3)? =x? +'6x+9

then

BY 9, 6 Lax 43)
dx

Quite obviously this expansion process leads to laborious multiplication

when something like (x + 3)’ is met. The more venturesome reader might hazard
a guess that 7(x + 3)° would be its derivative — and he would be right merely
because x + 3 has the same derivative as x. Guessing is rather apt to grow
indiscriminate, however, and is entirely untrustworthy!

The derivative of (3x + 2)* is not 4(3x + 2).

The derivative of (x? + 3x)’ is not 7(x? + 3x)°.
 Further differentiation 127

Qu. 3
; dy
In each part ofthis question, find - by removing the brackets and then
x
differentiating. Factorise each answer and try to guess its relationship to the
original expression.
(a) y=(x+ 4)’, (b) y=(*42)°, (Clay oxrt-1)2,
(d) y=(5—2x)?, (ec) y=(*+4)%, (Py ye Oc me
(2) w= + x”), (h) y=(2+4 1/x)?, (i) ey — x3),
G) y=(x—7)’.
Suppose y is a function of t, and ¢ is itself afunction of x. If dy, dt, and dx are
corresponding small increments in the variables y, t, and x, then
oy _ oy ot
Be ete .
When oy, ot, and 6x tend to zero,

dy dy oy ge . Cian Ob
ox iat Pa ot de ime Tbe

and equation (1) becomes

dy dy de
dx dt dx

This important result is known as the chain rule. It will affect almost every
exercise in differentiation which the reader will meet from here onwards, so it is
most important to master it. The following examples are intended to give the
reader some practice in its use.

Example 3 Differentiate (3x + 2)*.

Let y =(3x + 2)* and t= 3x +2, then y=t*.
dt dy
—= — = 4t3
yas a dt
But, by the chain rule,
dy dy dt
dae dt © dx
=dy =4t? x3
dx

- {(3x + 2)*} = 12x + 2)°

Example 4 _ Differentiate (x? + 3x)’.

Let y =(x? + 3x)’ and t =x? + 3x, then y= re
128 Pure Mathematics 1 ie

dt dy
eo 2x + 3 a

z ay = 7t°(2x + 3)
ax

i = {(x? + 3x)7} = 7(2x + 3)(x? + 3x)®

In the very simple instance of Example 3 a similar method will apply for
integration, i.e. | (3x + 2)* dx does equal $(3x + 2)° x 4, but this is a special case.
A corresponding division rule in integration does not apply. The integration of
these awkward composite functions is dealt with in Book 2.
It is not necessary to show the actual substitution, as has been done in the
examples above, but it is advisable, until practice has made perfect this art of
substitution. The bracket is really treated as a single term — the t of our formula
— and then the reader must remember to ‘multiply by the derivative of the
bracket’. Differentiation of reciprocals and roots of functions is pure chain rule
technique.
In the function notation, the chain rule becomes (fg)’(x) = f’(g(x)) x g’(x), but
this lacks the elegant simplicity of the statement
dy pe oe dt
dx dt ore?

(This may be remembered as ‘differentiate y with respect to t and then multiply

kes
Y ax o3

Example 5 Differentiate ;

d
aie —1x(1+./x)"?x fatty

‘gavas st
ali =) ~ 2./x(1 + ./x)?
Example 6 Differentiate ,/(1 + x).
pea ea eee
d
a = = $(1+x7)-"2 x 2x

d he x
dy vl +x = Tae
 Further differentiation 129
Exercise 7a
1 Differentiate:
(a) (2x + 3)?, (b) 2(3x + 4)*, (che(Qx -+.5)- +
iy (3x = 1)7”, (eG 2x), 34x) 3.
2 Integrate:
(a) (3x + 2)°, (b) (2x + 3), (c) (3x —4)~2, (d) (2x + 3)'/?.
io) Differentiate:

1
(a) (
(3x + 2)’ | (2~3)7 (c) Bx + 1) (¢)(2x — 1)?3°
Integrate:

1 b 1 1
(a) Qx 32’
Si (CEE CE
Nn Differentiate:
(a) (3x? + 5)3, (b) (3x* + 5x)?, (c) (7x7 — 4)'”°,
(d) (6x? — 4x)2, (e) (3x? — 5x)~ 2/3,
Differentiate:
3 a
Cte) 8? Gx?
1 3
1
1 ets 5) (e) (x? — 11/8

—l Differentiate:

(a) (3,/x — 2x)’,

(c)) (1 S72), -
Differentiate:

1
(a) (x2 7 7x)? |

4
(c) IG):
 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 7a
130

0 |(e-3). iis
10 Differentiate:

(3) wll-8)
Rates of change
7.3 Thechain rule can be used to investigate related rates of change. Suppose a
spherical balloon is inflated at the rate of 2cm* every second. What is the rate of
growth of the radius?
The solution of this type of problem has obvious calculus possibilities because

. is the rate of change of y with respect to x, and with the formula of the
%
preceding section we have a ready means of connecting rates of change of
dependent variables.
If the radius of the balloon is r, then the volume, V = $zr°.
eee dV
The fact we are given is that ara. the rate of change of the volume with respect

to time, t, is 2 cm?/s, but, by the chain rule,

dV dV bsdr Pe dV
dt dr dt dr
which leads to

i.e. the rate of change of the radius is 1/(2mr*) cm/s. Any reader will surely at
some time have blown up a balloon and noticed that the radius grows much
more quickly at the beginning than near the end — sudden though the latter
may sometimes be! The rate of change of the radius at any particular time could
be calculated when the value of r is known. In the problem chosen, the radius
after ts could be calculated from $nr? = 2t. The arithmetic is harder than the
calculus.

Example 7 A container in the shape of a right circular cone of height 10 cm and

base radius 1 cm is catching the drips from a tap leaking at the rate of 0.1 cm?/s.
Find the rate at which the surface area of water is increasing when the water is half-
way up the cone.

Suppose the height of the water at any time is h cm, and that the radius of the
surface of water at that time is r cm (Fig. 7.3).
 Further differentiation 131
1

Figure 7.3

By similar triangles,
pet
bol ohO
r=j7oh

The surface area of water, A =nr* = 1h*/100 and we wish to find —— when

h= 5S. By the chain rule,

dd dA dh _ 2h | dh
dit Wirdhi indtt
4 100ws dt (1)

The volume of water, V = 42r7h = th?/300, and using the chain rule again,
dV _dV dh _3nh? dh
disg@edh wedi” 300°" "di
dV
But we are given that — =0.1,
dt

_ dh AV 300
Hadith
91, 100_ 10
anh sen aah? Th?
0
From (1) and (2)
dA 2nh : aS
dt 100° mh? 5h
and, when h = 5,

dA 331
—— = — = (),04
di so25 ah

“, when the water is half-way up, the rate of change of the surface area is equal
to 0.04 cm?/s.
132 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 7b

Exercise 7b
1 The side of a cube is increasing at the rate of 6 cm/s. Find the rate of increase
of the volume when the length of a side is 9 cm.
2 The area of surface of a sphere is 4nr*, r being the radius. Find the rate of
change of the area in square cm per second when r= 2 cm, given that the
radius increases at the rate of 1 cm/s.
The volume of a cube is increasing at the rate of 2 cm*/s. Find the rate of
change of the side of the base when its length is 3 cm.
The area of a circle is increasing at the rate of 3 cm7/s. Find the rate of
change of the circumference when the radius is 2 cm.
At a given instant the radii of two concentric circles are 8 cm and 12 cm. The
radius of the outer circle increases at the rate of 1 cm/s and that of the inner
at 2cm/s. Find the rate of change of the area enclosed between the two
circles.
If y =(x? — 3x)°, find - when x = 2, given = 2.
A hollow right circular cone is held vertex downwards beneath a tap leaking
at the rate of 2 cm?/s. Find the rate of rise of water level when the depth is
6 cm given that the height of the cone is 18 cm and its radius 12 cm.
An ink blot on a piece of paper spreads at the rate of}cm’/s. Find the rate of
increase of the radius of the circular blot when the radius is 5 cm.
A hemispherical bowl is being filled with water at a uniform rate. When the
height of the water is hcm the volume is n(rh? — 4h*) cm?, r cm being the
radius of the hemisphere. Find the rate at which the water level is rising when
it is half way to the top, given that r= 6 and that the bowl fills in 1 min.
10 An inverted right circular cone of vertical angle 120° is collecting water from
a tap at a steady rate of 18 cm?/min. Find
(a) the depth of the water after 12 min,
(b) the rate of increase of the depth at this instant.
11 From the formula v = ,/(60s + 25) the velocity, v, of a body can be calculated
when its distance, s, from the origin is known. Find the acceleration when
v= 10:
dx ;
12 If y =(x —1/x)?, find ay Sas i
on when x = 2, given <7
13 A rectangle is twice as long as it is broad. Find the rate of change of the
perimeter when the breadth of the rectangle is 1 m and its area is changing at
the rate of 18 cm?/s, assuming the expansion uniform.
14 A horse-trough has triangular cross-section of height 25 cm and base 30 cm,
and is 2 m long. A horse is drinking steadily, and when the water level is 5 cm
below the top it is being lowered at the rate of 1 cm/min. Find the rate of
consumption in litres per minute.

Products and quotients

7.4 The reader is now able to differentiate quite elaborate functions, but no
method has been suggested for a product such as f(x) =(x + 1)"(x —3)*. We
 Further differentiation 133
could multiply out the brackets and differentiate each term separately, but this
would be extremely laborious. Although it is possible to differentiate each of the
factors, we have, as yet, no method for tackling the product as it stands. (We
must not simply write down the product of the two derivatives. A reader
tempted to do so should consider the product f(x) = x3 x x*, which is equal to x’
and hence its derivative is f(x) = 7x°: but this is plainly not the same as the
product of the two derivatives 3x? and 4x°.)
A further brief return to fundamental ideas will produce a formula to help us
with functions of this kind.
Let y be the product of two functions u and v of a variable x. Then y = uv and

y + oy =(u + du)(v + ov)

where a small increment 6x in x produces increments du in u, dv in v and dy in y.

y + oy = uv + vdu + udv + dudv

and since y = uv,
oy = vdu + udv + dudv
Dividing by 6x,

As 6x 0, du, dv and dy also approach 0,

oy dy ou du dv dv
bx dx aed neds

This formula must be remembered, and this is perhaps most easily done in
words,
‘To differentiate the product of two factors, differentiate the first factor,
leaving the second one alone and then differentiate the second, leaving the
first one alone,’
and it is necessary to remember also that, should one of the factors in the
product be a composite function, its derivative must be found as carefully as
those in §7.2 before insertion in this product formula.
Qu.4 Use this method to differentiate the following functions:
(a) (x + 1)(x + 2), (b) (x? + 1)x?,
(c) (x —2)?(x* — 2), (d) (x + 1)?(x + 2). a
Check your results by multiplying out and then differentiating.
The most common mistakes made in this type of question are due to careless
algebra and so particular attention should be paid to details of simplification.
 Pure Mathematics 1 TA
134

Example8 Differentiate — 3)(x

the expression y =(x? +1)? and simplify the
result.
Let u =(x? — 3) and let v=(x + 1)’, then
du dv
—
ay = 2x and —=2
ee {Xe-tcd)1

_ dy
Faprnlers ot,2 x 2x + (x*2 — 3) x 2(x + 1)
x
= 2(x + 1) {x(x + 1) + (x? — 3)}
= 2(x+ 1) {2x?+x—3}
= 2(x+ 1)(2x+ 3)(x— 1)

Example 9 Differentiate (x? + 1)°(x? + 1).

If u=(x? + 1)? and v=(x> +4 1), then let y = wv.
d d
Sox 3(x? + 1)? x 2x and cae 2(x? + 1) x 3x?
dx dx

dy
Aas = (x? + 1)? x 6x(x? + 1)? + (x? + 1)? x 6x?(x? + 1)

= 6x(x* + 1)(x? + 1)?{(x3 + 1) + x(x? + 1)}

d
f raed + 1)?(x? + 1)7} = 6x(x3 + 1) (x? + 1)?(2x3 + x + 1)

Example 10 Find the x-coordinates of the stationary points of the curve

y=(x? —1),/(1 +x).
y = (x? — 1)(x + 1)?
d
a :F=(x + 1)'? x 2x + (x? — 1) x (x 4+:1)7
12
_ Ax +1) x 2x + (x? — 1)
A(X yl”
_&+)04G%4+xS))
2x 1)"
_ (Sx= 1)(x +1)
oo Ox 4a 12
= 3(5x — 1)(% + 1)?
.. for stationary points x =4 or — 1.
 Further differentiation 135
There is a formula for quotients corresponding to that for products and it is
proved in a similar way.
If y=u/v then
yu a dy
dy dx ads
dx y?
If the reader wishes to ignore this formula and to deal with the quotient u/v as
the product uv * he is at liberty to do so — it is merely a matter of preference.

Example 11
Pecan)
Differentiate Teme

Let y = (x — 3)?/(x + 2)? and let u =(x — 3)? and v =(x + 2), then y=u/v.
du dv
ee 2(x — 3) and ices 2(x + 2)

Poy ee) eee(x =3)? X A(x2)

“dx (x + 2)*
ae) eae) — (8)
a (x + 2)*
_ Ax dec5
~~ (x+2)°
“ad ae 10(x
— 3)
eerie |, +2)

%
Example 12 Differentiate ae

Let y=x/,/(1 + x’) and let u= x and v= /(1 + x?), then y = u/v.
du 1 d dv | DX
dx eas ei + x’)
net ed Xt cor Nouerasss
nig. hastibere Ja+x)
heclacsin (ex?)
hetix? e064
ea tl 4ax7)307
adj x eresas

Qu.5 Prove the formula for quotients by the du, dv method.

 Pure Mathematics 1 7.4
136

Qu.6 Differentiate:
o4

(a) (x? + 1)(x + 3)? as a product, (b) : as a quotient.

(x+ 3/7
Simplify the results and compare them.

* Simplification was an essential part of answering the question in Example 11

and, since the gradient of a function is often needed for a specific purpose, the
reader should get into the habit of factorising and simplifying as far as possible.
It will be necessary, in any case, in order to check the answers with those at the
back of the book!

Exercise 7c

Differentiate with respect to x the following functions:

1 x2(x +13 2 x(x? + 14. 3 (x+ 1)°(x?— 1).

ma Staite Ik Aleae
7 (1+x?)2(1 — x2). 8 (1 -7,). 9 (1—x2)*(1 — x9).

10 (x —1),/(x?+1). 11 x?,/(1 + x?). 12 eine

13 oo 14 aay 15 J(x +2),/(x

+3).
x 1—/x 1+x
16 —~—_..
Ji +1) SR aS /(F2).

19 J/(x+IVJ(x+2)%. 20 jf

Implicit functions
75 HP to the present we have dealt only with explicit functions of x, e.g.
y=x° —5x+4/x. Here y is given as an expression in x. If, however, y is given
implicitly by an equation such as x = y*— y—1, we cannot express y in terms
of x.
Consider an easier case. If x = y?, y = x!/?,

dx Ix? ~ 2y
if peas t aoe.

tae seein the algebra involved in differentiating a quotient is given in Exercise 9d, No. 5, and in the
ppendix. vont
 Further differentiation 137
dx baa
But — = 2y, so in this case,
dy
dy es dx
ive dody
(Strictly speaking, the equation x = y*, does not define y as a function of x, since,
for each positive value of x, there are two values of y, namely the positive and
negative square roots of x.)
Now consider the general case.
oy _ ; Ox
6x | dy

where 6x and dy are the increments in x and y respectively.

oy dy Ox. sax
Now as 6x, dy0, —-——, and =
pm stake oy. dy
dy 1 dx
“* dx _— dy .

When it is impracticable to express either variable explicitly in terms of the

other, we can still differentiate both sides with respect to x, as in Example 13
below. A term like y” can be differentiated by first differentiating with respect to
d
y then, as the chain rule demands, multiplying by = Thus

£dx”y=~ dy
nddx =n
3 dx
Similarly, if we have a term of the form x™y", then we use the product rule and
obtain

a yy=x ein + gh )
d min m d n n d m

eee
d + mx Yyr

Example 13 Find the gradient of the curve

x? + 2xy—2y?+x=2
at the point (—4, 1).
To find the gradient, differentiate with respect to x.
mney
—_
Data out yO
=) + pla—o 0x) Ee52) + a(x)FW = 7d 2)
= —(2

dy
; 2x+(2y4206BEAN dy
) fyBatok foe()
138 Pure Mathematics 1 >)

~ ——(2x
— 4y) = —1 —2x—2y
x

i ee hag an cmarpetSyeeh
dx
Cy ta
(re
”. the gradient at (—4, 1) is — 7.

Qu.7 Differentiate with respect to x:

(a) x, (b) y, yin Gha?.x ot(marae CP i918 Be) my
Qu.8
d
Find = if x? + y?— 6xy + 3x—2y +5=0.
&

Parameters
7.6 Sometimes both x and y are given as functions of another variable, a
parameter. In such cases the gradient is given in terms of the variable parameter.

d
Example 14 [fx =t*?+1t?, y=t*+t find oe in terms of t.
x
dx dy
—a = 3? + 2t —=
. 2t+1

dysutdne odt dt dx
N = eae Sy
emer ho8 |S.

dtterciee ut
a 2t+ 1
“dx Gtl3teh.2)
Qu.9 Show that the above parametric representation is of the curve
e dy ,
y? =x? 4 xy. Find oe for this curve and show that it agrees with the above

result.

3
Example 15 Find the gradient of the curve x= —, y=
ari
point (3, 3).
dx (14+t)x1l—tx1_ 1
dt (1 +t)? ete
 Further differentiation 139
Sn Peo 0 rs hs 307.45 219
dt (+t) (1+ 4)?
dy
= 307 + Ot?2t
ee

.. the gradient at (4, 4) is 5.

Exercise 7d
1 Find the gradient of the ellipse 2x* + 3y* = 14 at the points where x = 1.
2 Find the x-coordinates of the stationary points of the curve represented by
the equation x? — y? — 4x? + 3y=11x4+4.
Find the gradient of the ellipse x? — 3yx + 2y? — 2x = 4 at the point (1, — 1).
Find the gradient of the tangent at the point (2, 3) to the hyperbola xy = 6.
d dy
B&W
nn (a) If x=—n-, y= find «Y in terms of t. (b) If.y= x°/2 find —,:
dx dx
Is there any connection between these two results?
6 At what points are the tangents to the circle x* + y* — 6y — 8x = 0 parallel to
the y-axis?

7 Find _ when (a) x*y* = 8, (b) xy(x — y) =4.

8 Find a in terms of t, when

x ‘

(aie = at*;-y = 2at:

(b) x=(t+ 1), y=(t?— 1).
dy.
v=) If x =t/(1 —t) and y=t?/(1 —t) find = in terms of t.

10 Find 2 in terms of x, y when x* + y* — 2xy + 3y — 2x =7.

x
dy.
11 If x =2t/(t +2), y = 3t/(t +3), find icin terms of t.
=

12 Find 2 in terms of x, y when 3(x — y)? = 2xy +1.

x

Small changes ‘
7.7. We have seen that, as 6x > 0, > ba Therefore, if dx is small,
LX. dx

oy _dy
pxeh dx

dy

Three applications of this formula follow in Examples 16-18.

140 Pure Mathematics 1 Tha

Example 16 The side ofa square is 5 cm. Find the increase in the area of the
square when the side expands 0.01 cm.

Let the area of the square be A cm? when the side is x cm. Then A = x*. Now
dA dA
0A ano and Aus 2%

0A 2x0%

When x = 5 and 6x = 0.01,

OAS 00b=041

”. the increase in area x 0.1 cm?.

In this case the increase in area can be found accurately very easily:
6A = 5.01? — 5 = 0.1001
The reader is strongly advised to use the calculus method, for the moment, even
if he sees a quicker way, since it is an important introduction to certain topics
which he may meet later.
Note that the error by the calculus method is, in this case, (0.01)? = (6x).

Example 17 A 2% error is made in measuring the radius of a sphere. Find the

percentage error in surface area.
Let the surface area be S and the radius be r, then

S =4nr? “gy = Sar

~. OS & 8nror

But the error in r is 2%, therefore dr = 725 x r.

2r =:16 mr?
-, OS &8 — = —_
ewitoe 100
ft ee 4
we ne EG
.. the error in the surface area = 4%.

Example 18 =Find an approximation for af9.01,

dy 1
et. y= = ./x,'so ——_
Let PN =~

Oy : xd
; ene 5
 Further differentiation 141
When x = 9, and 6x = 0.01,

dy = x 0.01 ~ 0.001 67
”. x/9.01 & 3.001 67.

Exercise 7e
1 The surface area of a sphere is 4nr?. If the radius of the sphere is increased
from 10cm to 10.1 cm, what is the approximate increase in surface area?
2 An error of 3% is made in measuring the radius of the sphere. Find the
percentage error in volume.
Find (a) ¥/8.01, (b) ,/25.1 by the method of Example 18.
If] cm is the length of apendulum and t s the time of one complete swing, it is
known that / = kt’. If the length of the pendulum is increased by x%, x being
small, find the corresponding percentage increase in time of swing.
If the pressure and volume of a gas are p and v then _Boyle’s law states
pv = constant (k). If dp and dv denote corresponding small changes in p and v
Op. Ov
express — in terms of —.
p v
An error of 25% is made in the measurement of the area of a circle. What
percentage error results in (a) the radius, (b) the circumference?
The height of a cylinder is 10 cm and its radius is 4 cm. Find the approximate
increase in volume when the radius increases to 4.02 cm.
One side of a rectangle is three times the other. If the perimeter increases by
2% what is the percentage increase in area?
The radius of a closed cylinder is equal to its height. Find the percentage
increase in total surface area corresponding to unit percentage increase in
height.
Find (a) ,/627, (b) </ 1005, by the method of Example 18.
The volume of a sphere increases by 2%. Find the corresponding percentage
increase in surface area.
As x increases, prove that the area of a circle of radius x and the area of a
square of side x increase by the same percentage, provided that the increase
in x is small.

Second derivative
7.8 We know that velocity, v, is the rate of change of displacement, s, with
ds ie
respect to time, t, and may be denoted by an Acceleration is the rate of change
' dv
of velocity with respect to time, and we have up to now denoted this by aa but

<0) may also be written as 3($). and thus acceleration is seen to be the
t dt \ dt
second derivative of s with respect to f¢.
142 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 7f

The second derivative arises in a wide variety of contexts as well as in

kinematics, of course, and we need a less cumbersome notation.
d2

* (x2):
is written as nl
ay

which is spoken ‘d two y by d x squared’.

ps
Acceleration, = may be written in yet another way by using the fact that

dv _ dv ds Ef
dt ~ ds “at ds

thus we have arrived at the following alternative notations,

dv
the last form, vp
—ds’, being applicable when velocity or acceleration is a function of

s rather than of t.

Remember that if y = f(x), —

dye.
5 is written as f(x), and —~
eyiee
as f”(x).
dx?
Qu.10
dy . dy
(a) If y=x?—1/x?, snd ® a dey.
(b) Given that v = 3(4 — s*)'/*, show that a= — 9s.
(c) If f(x) = x/(x — 1), find f’(x) and f”(x).
2
dy. ; ;
If a is found in terms of a parameter t, requires differentiation with
dx?
respect to x, so
d’y _ d /dy 2 dt d/dy\ dx
dx? dt\ dx dx dt\dx/) ° dt
dy dy.
Qu.11 If x= a(t? — 1), y = 2a(t
+ 1), find |»and 5 ‘ in terms of t.

Exercise 7f (Miscellaneous)
These questions are in two stages. The first 25 are set in the order of the sections in
this chapter in order to give the reader further practice in the fundamentals. The
later questions are ‘mixed’ and also include ones involving a knowledge of other
sections of this book.

1 Differentiate:

1
Ca) ame ye(Dw **, (6) htt UR Gat a),
 Further differentiation 143
2 Integrate:
Calais spulb)ioDRZ. tonle)ax Aad. o(d) and.
3 Differentiate:

ays (Vx, OS, OTe Oa

4 Differentiate:

© xem
3
wor,
2 1

ozs OF Oss),
In Nos. 5-12 differentiate with respect to x and simplify.

513} a+3)», & (b) (/Rx> 3)... ©) (/xt+ 1). @ (5o =)

OS
1
a rer aNOk sme CR emer
7 (a) x?(x— 1)°, (b) (x + 1)?7(x— 1)°/, (c) (x — 2)'/?(x? + 3).
8 (a) /{(x+I(x—2}, — (b) (1-221 2, ©) -xY(x?— 1).
X NG
ee ey
as JV(x-)

SG, (x — 1)?
10 (a) (x + 2)?’ (b) (x? =

vw (Co ff
1)

Doar Lt (x + 2)°

2 (a) [3 (b) sate

tot

d when x? + 2xy + y? =3.

13 Find -
14 Find ~ when x? — 3xy + y* —2y
+ 4x =0.
Be
ay: n
15 Find — when 3x* — 4xy =7.
dx
dy.
16 If x =2t/(1 +17), y=(1— t?)/(1 + t?) find = in terms of t.
dy.
17 If x=1//(1 +0), y =t//(1 + 1?) find = in terms of t.
d
18 Ifx=t/(1—0, y=(1 —2t)/(1 — 8) find 2
19 When measuring the area of a circle, 2% error is made. Find the percentage
error in the radius.
20 When measuring the dimensions of cubical box 1% error was made — all
144 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 7f

measurements being too large. Find the percentage error in volume.

21 The circumference of a circle is measured with a piece of string which
stretches 1%. What is the percentage error in the area of the circle?
22 Calculate (a) 3/65, (b) ,/37, without using tables or a calculator.
d2
23 If y= 4x7 — 6x? — 9x + 1, find 2 and hence find the values ofa when the

gradient is zero.
d2

24 If x =at?, y = 2at, find = and a6 in terms of t.

25 If f(x) = 8x3 — 11x? — 30x + 9 for what values of x is f'(x) = 0?

26 Find the equation of the tangent to the curve x — y” = 9 at the point (5, 4).
27 Prove from first principles that the derivative of 1/x? is —2/x°.
d a
28 If y = x2/\/(x + 1), find e and ae

29 Find what values of x give stationary values of the function (2x — 3)?(x — 2)°.
30 Differentiate with respect to x (a) sec 2x, (b) sin? x, (c) x cos x, (d) tan® x,
(e) sin \/x. dy
31 A curve is represented parametrically by x =(t? — 1)*, y=t?. Find a2 and
d2
i in terms of t.

32 The volume of a sphere is increased by 3%. Find the percentage increase in

the radius.
33 A curve called the Witch of Agnesi has for its equation y = J (3/x — 1). Find
its gradient when x =}.
34 Show that of all rectangles with given perimeter the square has maximum
area.
35 Find the equation of the tangent to the parabola y? = 4x which is parallel to
the line y = 3x — 4. What are the coordinates of the point of contact?
Find also the equation of the normal at this point.
36 The distance, s, of a particle from a point after time t is given by the formula
s*=a+tbt?.
Find the velocity and acceleration in terms of s, t, a, b.
37 Find the equation of the tangent and normal to the curve x =a cos*t,
y=a sin? t, at the point whose parameter is ¢.
38 If R = ar” and an error of x% is made in measuring r, prove that an error of
nx% will result in R.
39 Find the maximum and minimum values of x?,/(2—x).
40 Find the equation of the tangent and normal to the cycloid
x = a(26 + sin 26), y =a(1 —cos 26)
at the point whose parameter is 0.
41 If the radius of a spherical soap bubble increases from 1 cm to 1.02 cm, find
the approximate increase in volume.
 Further differentiation 145
42 If the velocity v is given by the formula v = u/(1 + ks) where u is the initial
velocity, s is the distance and k is a constant prove that the acceleration
varies as v°,
43 Differentiate:
(a) sin? (3x? + 4), (b) tan ./(x + 1),
sin x tan x
(c) 1+cos x’ @ |
d d2
44 If x? + 3xy — y? =3, find ~ and ee at the point (1, 1).
dx dx
45 Differentiate ./(x* + 1) with respect to x.
Why does the substitution x = tan @ in this function and its derivative not
give you the derivative of sec 0?
46 Draw a sketch ofthe graph of y = x'/? to illustrate that this function is odd and
continuous. Draw also a sketch of the graph ofits gradient function showing
that this is even and discontinuous.
47 Given that f(x) =x —1+1/(x + 1), x real, x 4 —1, find the values of x for
which f’(x) = 0.
Sketch the graph of f, showing the coordinates of the turning points and
indicating clearly the form of the graph when |x| becomes large. (JMB)
48 (a) Show that, when k is constant, the curve

Vi 3x* — 8x? — 6x? + 24x +k

has a stationary point when x = | and find the values of x at the other
two stationary points on the curve. Find the values of k for which the
curve: touches the x-axis.
(b) A spherical balloon is being inflated at a constant rate. Show that the rate
of increase of the surface area is inversely proportional to the radius.
(L)
49 The functions f and g with domains {x: x real, x #0} are defined as follows:
6
f:xrH1l+x-—-, gx
x %
Find a and b so that the composite function h = gf is defined on the set

{x:x real, x #0, x'#a,x#b}

Verify that

h = I ee +. 1Bee
PEs x=?
and show that if h’(x) is the derived function of h, then h(x) < 0 at all points
in the domain of h. '
Sketch the graph of h, marking all the asymptote s and showing how the
graph approaches the asymptotes. (L)
146 Pure Mathematics 1 | Ex dt

50 Prove that the curve with the equation i <b

meprieas ie
7 xd),4g)
d ? : ;
has two points at which 7 =0. Find the coordinates of these points and
determine the nature of each point.
Sketch the curve. (C)

ext ot
vert) 2vountiaas t
ve i ib bag ova at eedt tad ,
itiadt asriaeth
icy dbih a= 5

3 EBSmMpty Ss hwo bio WISER sdi.z snd? oS > a

ie P ‘ Bi as) i ’ Sy ain ae ‘ 4 Sa a
Pet ive k , tT — mory : ti To rn stovrte i wire abi ey

d! inelanhe ai A nottw
’ : ri
tad word 1s) He -
a
sl
4
=
:

ty. edt “yd Fier ae as me al

F ts this IHeTeSSS ID, 7
vite Si f4u-4 jo astiav ont ball bak l =< assw inioo YAO bse « oof
ons shanties ta? Wl Se tev -Gets baat Siw St Wer Sinieay Vena he owe»
' } “ pita-x ott) we bate pein
brett alt wade Jae neaiinor Ye ivan aA 343
” lia od! o) tsaulrmquig qisevel ei sein sank
oFf re the
eee rep nee
ial Sines 2%

ro de em
“
Le
Chapter 8

Further integration
Some standard curves
8.1 In §5.5 we dealt with some simple aids to curve sketching. By this stage, the
reader should be thoroughly familiar with some standard curves which will be
frequently occurring in the work which follows.

yy,
eH

\
cae)
x
oO

12%
a y
\
Ao

SF:
(6 a”, x *
5

O k x

Vv
wad
Y
4

Figure 8.1

Fig. 8.1 shows some variations on the curve y = x”, which is a parabola. The
line about which the curve is symmetrical is called the axis, and it cuts the curve
at the vertex. Thus for the curve y= x? +c, the axis is the y-axis, and the vertex

147
148 Pure Mathematics 1 8.1

is (0,c). Any equation of the form y=ax? + bx +6, where 4, b, and te-'are
constants (a not being zero), represents a parabola with the axis parallel to the
y-axis (see Chapter 10).

(ii)
Figure 8.2

Typical shapes of curves for which y is given as a cubic function of x are shown
in Fig. 8.2. (i) represents y =(x + 3)(x + 1)(x — 2), the x* term in the expansion
being positive; (ii) represents y=(3+x)(1+x)(2—x), the x* term in the
expansion being negative (see §5.5, Example 7).

(i) (ii)
Figure 8.3

Fig. 8.3 shows (i) y = x(x — 2), and (ii) y= —(x + 1)3, illustrating that when
the function of x has a squared factor, the curve touches the x-axis; and with a
cubed factor, the curve touches and crosses the x-axis.
Fig. 8.4 illustrates how a sketch of the curve y = x? + 1/x may be built up by
adding the y-coordinates of the two known curves y = x? and y = 1/x.

The integration of x" (n € Q)

8.2 In Chapter 7 the differentiation of x" was assumed to include cases where n
is a fraction, and so we can now integrate powers of x with fractional indices.
 Further integration 149

Figure 8.4

Thus, if

dy 1/2
dx vx a

then
aid
I= 3 +c¢=4x374¢

Exercise 8a
1 Sketch the following curves:
(a) y=4x?, (b) y= —x7 +9, (c) y-1=x?,
(d)x=-—y?, (e) x—y?+4=0, (f) 2x+y?+16=0.
2 Sketch the following curves showing where each meets the x-axis:
(a) y=(x—1)(%—2)(x—3), — (b) y= (1 — x) (%— 2) (x — 3),
(c) y=(x+ 1I)(x—-2), (d) y=x7(3
— x),
(e) y=(x+2)(1—x)’, Gey =x°;
(g) x=y’, (h) x+y? =0,
(i) x=y(y—3).
3 Sketch the following curves:
1 1 1
(a) y= —x’4, (b) y=, (c) pees (d) y=x?+—,
1 1 1
(e) imined Sa (f) ie Pats (g) Yn hil
 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 8a
150

4 Integrate with respect to x:

(ajexe™ (BMG 8 (ey atari
1
(d) KIX, (e) Baa (f) BP

Cave gee (h) = (Gi) xt,

Cee ee (ih Ci xr: (i) oe

1 x 3x
(m) x*"*, (n) ae (0) Jx >

(p) Jats a) (/x+26/x—3, ) fe +2)

(s) x./(x?
—3).
5 Evaluate the following:
9 5
4

(a) po » b) [02 2x17 ~ , 4

©) [ae+47? | 0
1

Area as the limit of a sum

8.3. We have already discussed the use of integration in finding the area under a
curve (§6.3). The word integration implies the putting together of parts to make
up a whole, and this fundamental aspect of the process is brought out in the
following alternative approach to the area under a curve.
Suppose that we wish to find the area under the curve in Fig. 8.5 from x = 0 to
x = 3. We divide this area into three equal strips by the lines x = 1 and x =2.

Figure 8.5
 Further integration 151
The required area TUVO lies between the sum ofthe areas ofthe three shaded
‘inside’ rectangles, and the sum of the three ‘outside’ rectangles bounded at the
top by the broken lines; for example, the middle strip PBDM lies between the
areas PCDM and ABDM.
We shall for the time being confine our attention to the ‘inside’ rectangles; the
sum of these falls short of the required area by the sum of PBC and the two
corresponding areas. We now divide TUVO into 12 strips (for clarity only 4 of
these are shown in Fig. 8.5). The sum of the 12 ‘inside’ rectangles is clearly a
better approximation to the area under the curve, since an error such as PBC
has been reduced to a much smaller error represented by the 4 black roughly
triangular areas. Thus by taking a sufficient number of strips (in other words, by
making the width of each strip sufficiently small) we can make the sum of the
areas of the ‘inside’ rectangles as near as we please to the area under the curve.

M ox N

Figure 8.6

If we were.to divide the area TUVO into a very large number of strips, then a
typical one would be PQNM (Fig. 8.6), where P(x, y) and Q(x + 6x, y + dy) are
two points on the curve. A typical ‘inside’ rectangle is PRNM, of area yox, and
the process of increasing the number of strips is the same as letting 6x +0. The
required area TUVO is found by adding all the ‘inside’ rectangular areas yox
between x = 0 and x = 3, and then finding the limit of this sum as 6x > 0. Using
the symbol ¥° to denote ‘the sum of” (see §13.8),
x=3
as 6x > 0, y ydx— the area TUVO
x=0
x=3
*Hence area TUVO = the limit, as 6x0, of )) yox.
x=0

Example 1 Calculate the area under y=x + 1 from x =0 to x = 10.

Divide the area into n strips of equal width parallel to Oy (Fig. 8.7); the width
of each strip will be 10/n. To find the sum of the areas of the inner shaded
rectangles we must first calculate their heights.

* For simplicity we have confined our attention to the en Fig. 8.6 also shows a typical

‘outside’ rectangle SQNM of area (y + dy)dx; as 6x > 0, 2, y + dy)dx tends to the same limit.
 8.3
152 Pure Mathematics 1

yf

Figure 8.7

For the three smallest,

when x = 0, y=x+1=1
10 10
when x = —, y=—+1
n n
10 20
when x =2 x —, y=—+1
n n
and for the largest,
10 10
when
x = 10—-—, y= 11——
n n
The sum of the areas of the inner rectangles is

ge)
10
n
10/10
n\n
10/20
n\n
re Cr) 10
n
10
n

Tyee
10
n
10
n
tie(Bart-+(u-2)
20
n
10
n

The dots have been used to signify the terms corresponding to all the
intermediate rectangles; we know that there are as many terms in the curly
brackets as there are strips, namely n, and they form an arithmetic progression
(see §13.2) with common difference 10/n. We can now sum the terms in the
brackets using the formula

Me (a +1) (See §13.4)

 Further integration 153

As n- oo, the limit of the sum is 60,

.. the area under y=>x+1 from x =0 to x = 10 is 60.

Qu.1 Calculate the sum of the areas of the n ‘outside’ rectangles in Example 1,
and find the limit of this sum as n> oo.

Example 2 Calculate the area under the curve y= x’, from x =0 to x =a.

Figure 8.8

Here again we divide the interval 0 < x <a, inton equal sub-intervals, each of
length a/n (Fig. 8.8). To find the area inside the shaded region, we must first
calculate the heights of the (n — 1) rectangles. Since the equation of the curve is
y =x?, these heights are

onli) (=)>
(n—1)a\?
n
 Pure Mathematics 1 8.3
154

of each rectangle is a/n, the sum of the areas of the

and, since the width
rectangles is
oa 407 9a? a (hk
Xcge ch aag—O a hae e 2
n on n
26 4ge ee Oa- (n—1)o"
= 3 + 3 = = 45 aoe Be

a> 5
=—(14+449+...(2—1))
n
Now, it can be shown (see §13.7) that
1
1+44.9+...(1— 1)" = —(n— 1 xnxtan = 1)

1
i gen —3n? +n)

Hence the sum of the areas of these rectangles is

a?
1
3 x
S=-— gen — 3n? +n)

and hence, when n- 00,

a
Ss
3
Hence the area under the curve y = x”, from x = 0 to x =a, is a?/3.

It is interesting to note that this result, proved by a similar method, was

known to the ancient Greeks, long before the invention of calculus.

The integral notation

8.4 Example | could be done by integration. Before doing this, we introduce
the symbol {(...)dx to denote integration with respect to x. The symbol f,
which is an elongated S, for ‘sum’, is a reminder that integration is essentially
summation.
The area under y= x +1 from x =0 to x = 10 is
10 10

| yar= | (x + 1) dx
0 0

10
= Es + s|
0
 Further integration 155
= (% x 10? + 10)—(0)
= 60
Similarly the result of Example 2 can be obtained by integration, as follows:

| x*dx'= Fa
0 0

For indefinite integrals, where there are no limits, a similar notation is used.
Thus

{ Bx? + 4) dx=x3+4x+e
Qu.2 Find the following indefinite integrals:

(a) {x—4)dx, — (b) |oe

(c) § J/x dx, (d) f(2./t—3)(1—/t)de.
Qu.3 Evaluate the following definite integrals:
é 2 1
(a) | (60t—16t7)dt, —(b) | dx, (c) ely st3)(y= a
1 /2 1 oe 1 Ny
x=10
We have shown above that when y = x + 1, the limit of ye ydx, as dx > 0, is
x=0
10
identical with, and is more readily evaluated as | y dx.
0
We shall now assume that for any curve which is continuous between x =a
and x =b, the area under the curve from x =a to x= bis
<= b
the limit, as 6x0, of >) ydx =| Vito

Notice that, in general, if f(x) is a continuous function and F(x) is the function
whose derivative is f(x), i.e. F’(x) = f(x), then

|: f(x) dx = |Foo |
= F(b) — F(a)
If, in addition, f(x) >0, when a< x <b, then this integral gives the area under
the curve y = f(x), from x =a to x = b. If, however, f(x) is not always positive in

*The reader may be interested to note the parallel between this statement and that concerning
dy _ dy
gradient, namely the limit, as 6x
>0, of Fauna
156 Pure Mathematics 1 8.4

this interval, then the graph of y = f(x) must be consulted, in order to distinguish
between the positive and negative areas.
The reader should in future think of every area bounded by a curve as a
summation, first writing down the area of one of the typical strips, or elements of
area, into which it is most conveniently divided, and then evaluating the limit of
the sum of those strips by integration. A convenient way of laying out the
working is shown in the following examples; these extend the work of Chapter 6
in the following ways:
(a) by using elements of area parallel to the x-axis, we may integrate with respect
to y;
(b) by finding the element of area cut off between two curves we may evaluate in
only one step the area enclosed between them.

Example 3 Find the area enclosed by y=4x — x?, x =1, x =2 and the x-axis
(Fig. 8.9).

Figure 8.9

The element of area is yx = (4x — x?)5x

‘ 2
., the required area = | (4x — x*) dx
1
Zz

= Ea ~4°|
1

= (8 —§)—(2—4)
aoe
Example 4 Find the area enclosed by that part of y = x? for which x is
positive
the y-axis, and the lines y=1 and y=4.
 Further integration 157

Figure 8.10

The required area is ABCD in Fig. 8.10. The equation may be written
x=+,/y, and for the part of the curve with which we are concerned
Messy pre segit?
The element of area is xdy.
4

., the required area = | x dy

1

Example 5 Find the area enclosed between the two curves y=4—x? and
y=x* 2 — 2x.

We must first sketch the curves, and to find the limits of integration we must
find the x-coordinates of the points of intersection.
When x? — 2x = 4— x?,

2x7 —2x —4=0

x? x/— 2=0
(x —2)(x'+
1)=0
x=-1 or ,+2

The element of area is shown shaded in Fig. 8.11.

158 Pure Mathematics 1

yy,

Figure 8.11

If we write Y=4—x? and y = x? — 2x, the element of area is (Y — y)6x.

+2

.. the required area = | (Y— y) dx

1

={) {(4 — x?) —(x? 29} dx

2

| (4 + 2x — 2x?) dx
=I

+2

= E aS a 2 |
=i

=(4x2+2?-4x 23)-(—441+3)
=8+4-—544+4-12
=9

Exercise 8b
1 Find the following integrals:

(a) {x(x
—3)dx, (b) |eae

(c) |(w+b+S) a (d) |(gee 42-S)ax

6 |(y+wie 4
ss)(v+4)ax (f |(s so
+ 1)?
as
 Further integration 159
nN Evaluate:
Sci) 4

(a) Sis(v?
+ 3)do, (b) | (y?
+ ./y) dy,

(c) | / x(x + 2) dx, (d) | G+a+a) a

10) 1

9 1 11
(e) | (Vx+) ex, (f) i V(x + 5) dx.

Find the area under each of the following curves between the given
limits:
(a) y=x?4+3, x=-1tox=2;
(b) y=x?(3—x), x=4tox=5;
(c) py=x? +1/x?; .x=4tox=1.
Find the area enclosed by the y-axis and the following curves and straight
lines:
(a) x=y’, y=3; (b) y=x*,
y=1, y=8;
(c) x—y?—3=0, y= —-1, y=2; RR0 eo eae
Find the area enclosed by each of the following curves and the y-axis:
(a) x=(y—1)(y—4) (Why is this negative?),
(b) x=3y—y’,
(c) x=y(y— 2)’.
Find the area enclosed by y* = 4x and the straight lines x = 1 and x = 4.
nN Find the area enclosed by y? = x + 9 and the y-axis, by taking an element of
area (a) parallel to the y-axis, and (b) parallel to the x-axis.
i.) Find the area enclosed by 9x? + y—16=0 and the x-axis, by integrating
(a) with respect to x, and (b) with respect to y.
Calculate the areas enclosed by
(ayny = y = toand*y = 420) 3 (b) x = 1/y?, y= 1, y=4; and x =0.
10 Find the area of the segment cut off from each of the following curves by the
given straight line:
(a) y=x?—2x+2, y=5; (b) y=x?—6x +9, y=1;
(c) y= —x?4+3x-4, y= —-4 (dl y= x(x — 2), y=x;
(ec) y=4—3x—x?, 2x+y+2=0; (f) y=x*-—6x+2,x+y—2=0.
1 — Find the area enclosed by each of the following pairs of curves:
(a) y=x(x—1) and y=x(2 — x),
(b) y=x(x +3) and y=x(5 — x),
(c) y=x? —5x and y = 3x? — 6x,
(d) y? =4x and x? =4y,
(ce) y=x?—3x—7 and y=5—x—Xx?’,
(f) y=2x?+7x+3 and y=9+4x—x?’.
12 Find the area of the segment cut off from y=1/x* by 10x+4y—21=0,
given that one of the points of intersection of the straight line and the curve is
_2 25

13 oeee to a clear diagram, show that if f(x) is an odd function, then

160 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 8b

| Harpers

Show also that if g(x) is an even function, then

+a +a

| g(x) dx =2 | g(x) dx
=a 10)

14 Prove, using the method of Example 2 in the text, that

[You will need to quote that 1+ 8+27+...+(N— 1)? =N?(N — 1)7/4.]

Solids of revolution
8.5 If we take a triangular piece of cardboard ABC with a right angle at B, and
rotate it through 360 degrees about AB, we sweep out the volume of a right
circular cone (Fig. 8.12). The cone can thus be thought of as the solid of
revolution generated by rotating the area ABC about the line AB.

[©

Figure 8.12

Qu.4 State the solid generated by rotating through 360 degrees:

(a) the above triangle ABC (i) about BC, (ii) about AC,
(b) the area of a semi-circle about the bounding diameter,
(c) a quadrant of a circle about a boundary radius,
(d) the area of a circle centre (3, 3) radius 1, about the y-axis,
(e) a rectangle about one of its sides.

The method of calculating the volume of a solid of revolution is best

illustrated by discussing an example; the ideas involved are the same as those of
§8.3..
 Further integration 161
Example 6 Find the volume ofthe solid generated by rotating about the x-axis
the area under y=3x from x =0 to x =4.
A typical element of area under y =x is ydx, shown shaded in Fig. 8.13;
rotating this area about the x-axis we generate the typical element of volume,
a
cylinder of volume ry*dx. The corresponding ‘slice’ of the solid (Fig. 8.14) has
one circular face of radius y, and the other of radius y + dy, and its volume lies
between that ofan ‘inside’ cylinder ny”6x, and an ‘outside’ cylinder m(y + dy)?dx.

Figure 8.13 Figure 8.14

The sum of the volumes of all the ‘inside’ (or ‘outside’) cylinders is an
approximation to the volume required, and, by making 6x sufficiently small, we
can make this sum approach as close as we please to the volume of the solid of
revolution, which may therefore be written as
x=4
the limit, as 6x0, of )° my7dx
x=0

This may be evaluated as | my” dx; thus the solution of this example may be
0
presented as follows.
; 9x 2
The element of volume = my*6x = Lares Ox

4 9x2
., the required volume = | Lares dx
0
 Pure Mathematics 1 8.5
162

Qu.5 Find the volume of the solid generated by rotating about the x-axis
(a) the area under y= x’ from x = 1 to x =2,
(b) the area under y=x?+1 from x= —1 tox= +1.
The volumes of solids generated by rotating areas about the y-axis may be
evaluated by integration with respect to y. This, and other aspects of this work,
are illustrated by the following examples.

Example 7 Find the volume of the solid generated by rotating about the y-axis
the area in the first quadrant enclosed by y= x’, y=1, y=4 and the y-axis
(Fig. 8.15).

Figure 8.15

The element of volume = nx7dy = nydy

4

., the required volume = | my dy

Example 8 The area of the segment cut off by y = 5 from the curve y = x? +1 is
rotated about y = 5; find the volume generated (Fig. 8.16).

The points of intersection occur when

x74+1=5
x? =4
x=—2 or +2

The element of volume = 1(5 — y)?6x

 Further integration 163

Figure 8.16

= 1(5 — x? — 1)?6x
= (16 — 8x? + x*)dx
+2

.. the required volume = | m(16 — 8x? + x*) dx

2

+2
= Ee — 8x34 15|
ae

= n(32 — 214+ 62) — n(—32 + 214 62)

Example 9 = The area of the segment cut off by y = 5 from the curve y= x? + 1 is
rotated about the x-axis; find the volume generated (Fig. 8.17).
The solid generated is a cylinder fully open at each end, but with the internal
diameter decreasing towards the middle; its volume is found by subtracting the
volume of the cavity from the volume of the solid cylinder of the same external
dimensions.

The required volume = the volume generated by rotation, about the x-axis,
of the rectangle ABDE (1)
minus the volume generated by rotation, about the x-axis,
of the area under y= x? + 1 from
x = —2 tox = +2,
i.e. ABCDE (2)

Volume (1) = mr7h =n x 5* x 4= 1002

Element of Volume (2) = ny76x
= n(x* + 2x? + 1)dx
eee,
, Volume (2) =| m(x* + 2x? + 1) dx
= 2
 Pure Mathematics 1 8.5
164

Figure 8.17

x? 2 2

”. Volume (2)=| x| —+=x?+ x

5 fe
= 1(63 + 54 + 2) — n(— 62 — 53 —2)
= 27750
.. the required volume = 100n — 27757
= 721

Exercise 8c

Leave Hi in the answers.

1 Find the volumes of the solids generated by rotating about the x-axis each of
the areas bounded by the following curves and lines:
(a) x+2y—12=0,x=0,y=0; (b) y=x?41, y=0,x=0,x=1:;
(c) y=/x, y=0, x =2, (d) y= x(x — 2), y=0;
(ec) y=x?(1—x), y=0; (f) y=1/x, y=0,x=1,x=4.
2 Find the volumes of the solids generated by rotating about the y-axis each of
the areas bounded by the following curves and lines:
(a) y=2x—4, y=2,x=0; (b) x=/(y—1 x=0,), y=4;
(c) x—y*?—-2=0,x=0, y=0,y=3; (d) y?=x+4,x=0;
(ce) y=1—x3, x=0, y=0; (f) xy =1, x =0, y= By ="'s.
3 Find the volumes of the solids generated when each of the areas enclosed by
the following curves and lines is rotated about the given line:
(a) y=x, x =0, y=2, about y=2;
(b) y=./x, y=0, x =4, about x =4;
(c) y>=x, x=0, y=2, about y =2;
 Further integration 165
d) y=2—x?, y=1, about y =1;
e) ysis 2x? of! y = 3, about y = 3;
f) y=1/x?, y=4, x =1, about y=4.
Repeat No. 3 for the following areas:
(a) x— 3) 3 =0,x=0, y=2, about the x-axis;
(b) x —y?—1=0, x =2, about the y-axis;
(c) y? =4x, y=x, about y =0;
(d) y=1/x, y=1, x =2, about y=0.
Obtain, by integration, the formula for the volume of a right circular cone of
base radius r, height h. (Consider the area enclosed by y = (h/r)x, x =0 and
y=h)
The equation of a circle centre the origin and radius r is x? + y? =r?. By
considering the area of this circle cut off in the first quadrant being rotated
about either the x- or y-axis, deduce the formula for the volume of a sphere
radius r.
A hemispherical bowl ofinternal radius 13 cm contains water to a maximum
depth of 8 cm. Find the volume of the water.
A goldfish bowl is a glass sphere of inside diameter 20 cm. Calculate the
volume of water it contains when the maximum depth is 18 cm.
A wall vase has one plane face, and its volume is equivalent to that generated
when the area enclosed by x =@;y* +1, the y-axis and y=8 is rotated
through 2 right angles about the y-axis, the units being cm. Calculate its
volume.
10 The area under y=4$x?+ 1 from x =0 to x = 3, and the area enclosed by
y=0, y=2, x =3, and x =4, are rotated about the y-axis, and the solid
generated represents a metal ash tray, the units being cm. Calculate the
volume of metal.
11 The area enclosed by y=x* — 6x + 18 and y= 10 is rotated about y = 10.
Find the volume generated.
12 The area enclosed by y = x* + 1/x, the x-axis and x = — 2, is rotated about
the x-axis; find the volume generated.
13 The area enclosed by y = 4/x?, y=1 and y= 4 is rotated about the x-axis;
find the volume generated.
14 The area enclosed by y = x? — 6x + 18 and y = 10 is rotated about the y-axis;
find the volume generated. [Take an element of area parallel to the x-axis of
length (x, — x,); express the typical element of volume in terms of y by using
the fact that x, and x, are the roots of x” — 6x + (18 — y) =0; see §9.7.]
15 Repeat No. 14 for the area enclosed by 4y = 4x* — 20x + 25 and 4y =9.

Centre of gravity
- $6 The reader who has dealt with this topic in mechanics will be familiar with
the fact that, for a system of bodies whose centres of gravity lie in a plane, taking
moments about any line in the plane,
the moment of their total weight acting at the centre of gravity of the system
=the sum of the moments of the weight of each body
166 Pure Mathematics 1 8.6

Ifnbodies of weight w,, w2, W3, ... w, have their centres of gravity at (x,, y;),
(X>, Yo), (X35 Y3) =-- (Xps Vn) Fespectively, writing the coordinates of the centre of
gravity of the system as (x, y), and taking moments about the y-axis,
X(wW, tw. +w3t... +w,) =X Wy + X2W2 + X3W3 +... + XW,

Using the )° notation,

x) wey XW
Similarly, taking moments about the x-axis,

yyw=d yw
If, instead of separate bodies, we consider the elements of area of a uniform
lamina, then )’ xw and )) yw become the sums of the moments of the weights of
the elements about the axes, and these can be evaluated by integration.

Example 10 hu the centre of gravity whe uniform lamina whose shape is the
area bounded by y? = 4x and x = 9.
By symmetry the centre of gravity lies on the x-axis, hence y= 0.
Consider the lamina as made up of strips parallel to the y-axis, then if the
weight per unit area is p, a typical element (Fig. 8.18) at a distance x from the
y-axis has weight p x 2y x 6x and its moment about the y-axis is x x 2pydx.

Figure 8.18

The sum of the moments of the weights of the elements

x= oD
=ry Dpxyorx
x=0
 Further integration 167
and the limit of this, as 6x +0, is evaluated as
9
2» | xy dx
0

The weight of the whole lamina

= p x twice the area under y = 2x!/? from x =0 to x =9
9
-29 | y dx
10)

Since x iwe
> xw
9 9
ex 2p | yax=2p [|xy dx
10) 0
9 9

ml yax= | xy dx
10) 0

But y= 2x",
9
; |0 x dy= x dx

w) wn wv
kad] rad
wlty lbra
«
Oo
al
Tepes Ll
jo)
Ke} °
ie}

os x is)
x Ww
Ww
II jbox Ww
wn

cad | aS

.. the centre of gravity of the lamina is at (42, 0).

Example 11 Find the centre of gravity of a uniform lamina whose shape is the
area bounded by y = x”, the x-axis and x = 4 (Fig. 8.19).

Figure 8.19
 Pure Mathematics 1 8.6
168
Let the weight per unit area be p.
Taking moments about the y-axis,
4 4
=xp| yar=p | xy dx
(0) 0

The centre of gravity of the element is at its mid-point, thus the moment of its
weight about the x-axis is ty x pydx.
Taking moments about the x-axis,
4 4

rxp| yax=p | zy? dx

10) 0)

., the centre of gravity of the lamina is at (3, 24).

Qu.6 Find the centre of gravity of the lamina whose area is bounded by
(a) y>=xandx=2, (b) y=,/x,
y=O and x =2.
‘The centre of gravity of a solid of revolution may be found in the same way,
since the centre of gravity of each element of volume lies in the plane of the axes.

Example 12 Find the centre of gravity of the solid generated by rotating about
the x-axis the area under y = x from x =0 to x =3 (Fig. 8.20).
The solid is a cone, vertex O, and axis Ox. By symmetry, the centre of gravity
lies on the x-axis.
 Further integration 169

S)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
N

Figure 8.20

Let the weight per unit volume be p.

The centre of gravity of the element of volume is on the x-axis, thus the
moment of its weight about the y-axis is x x pty70x.
Taking moments about the y-axis,

3 3

exp | ny? dx= | xpty* dx

0 0

, the centre of gravity of the cone is at (7, 0).

 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 8d
170

Exercise 8d

In Nos. 1 to 3, find the coordinates of the centre of gravity of the uniform lamina
whose area is bounded by the given straight lines and curves.
1 (a) 7°=9x, x =4; (b) y=4x7, y=
(c) y?=4—-x, the y-axis; (d) y=1
2 (a) x+y? —1=0,
the y-axis;
and y=0.
(b) y=x?4+2,x=—1,x=+1
3 (a) y=3x, y=0, x = 12; (b) =
yyy Lee}
2x}-1-
y
=0,
(c) y= x, x = 3; bee a
4 Find the centres of gravity of the solids of revolution generated when the areas
bounded by the following straight lines and curves are rotated about the given
axes:
(a) x+3y—6=0, x =0, y=0, about the x-axis;
(b) y=2,/x, y=0, x =4, about the x-axis;
(c) y?=4x, y=4, x =0, about the y-axis;
(d) y=x?(2—x), y=0, about the x-axis;
(ec) y= 1/x?2,.y = 0p = hy xi Dy about themeaxig;
@): y=x3,.p=lpp=8, x= 0, about the y-axis.
5 By considering the solid generated by rotating, about the x-axis, the area
enclosed by y =(r/h)x, the x-axis and x = h, deduce the position of the centre
of gravity of a right circular cone.
6 The equation of the circle centre the origin, radius r, is x? + y?>=r?. By
considering the solid generated by rotating about either axis the area of one
quadrant, deduce the distance of the centre of gravity of a solid hemisphere
from its plane surface.
7 A goldfish bowl consists of a sphere of inside radius 10 cm. If it contains water
to a maximum depth of 16 cm, find the height of the centre of gravity of the
water above the lowest point.
8 A uniform lamina is of the shape of the quadrant of the circle x? + y? =r? cut
off by the positive axes. Find the coordinates of its centre of gravity.

Exercise 8e (Miscellaneous)
i

1 Calculate x(x? — 1) dx.

Find the area bounded by the curve y=x(x?—1) and the x-axis
(a) between x = —1 and x =0, and (b) between x = 0 and x = 1.
2 Find the area between the curve y = x(x — 1)?(2— x) and the portion of the
x-axis between x = 1 and x =2.
3 The line y=4x+1 meets the curve y=1(7x — x?) at the points A and B.
Calculate the coordinates of A and B and the length of the line AB. Prove
that the segment of the curve cut off by the line has an area 14.
4 The area enclosed between the line x = 1, the x-axis, the line x = 3 and the
line 3x —y+2=0, is rotated through fonts right angles about the x-axis.
 Further integration 171
Find the volume generated.
Solids of revolution are generated by rotating
(a) about the x-axis the area bounded by the arc of the curve a2 x
between (0, 0) and (2, 8), the line x = 2 and the x-axis;
(b) about the y-axis the area bounded by the same arc, the line y =8 and the
y-axis.
Calculate the volumes of the two solids so formed.
The corners ofa trapezium are at the points (0, 2), (2, 2), (0, 4), (3, 4). Find the
volume of the solid formed by revolving the area about the y-axis.
Sketch the curve y = x*(1 — x). The area between the curve and the part of
the x-axis from x = 0 to x = 1 is rotated about the x-axis. Find the volume
swept out.
The portion of the parabola y=4,/x between x =} and x =2 is revolved
about the x-axis so as to obtain a parabolic cup with a circular base and top.
Show that the volume of the cup is approximately 2.75.
Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = x — 1/x at the point (1, 0).
The area between the curve, the x-axis and the ordinate x = 2 is rotated
about the x-axis. Prove that the volume thus obtained is 27.
10 The curve y = x? + 4 meets the axis of y at the point A, and B is the point on
the curve where x = 2. Find the area between the arc AB, the axes, and the
line x<.=2:
If this area is revolved about the x-axis, prove that the volume swept out is
approximately 188. |
11 The area bounded by the x-axis, the line x = 1, the line x = 4, and the curve
y? = 4x3 is rotated about the x-axis. Find the volume of the resulting solid.
(C)
12 A cylindrical hole of radius 4 cm is cut from a sphere of radius 5 cm, the axis
of the cylinder coinciding with a diameter of the sphere. Prove that the
volume of the remaining portion of the sphere is 36x cm?.
13 Find the area bounded by the curve y = 3x? — x? and the x-axis. Find the
x-coordinate of the centre of gravity of this area.
14 Find the area bounded by the x-axis and the arc of the curve

y=x?(x — 1)(3—x)
from x = 1 to x =3. Find also the x-coordinate of the centre of gravity of this
area.
15 Find the area and the x-coordinate of the centre of gravity of the lamina
whose edges are formed by the lines x = 0, y = 0, and the part of the curve
y=(1—x)(5+ 4x + x?) which is cut off by these lines in the first quadrant.
16 (a) Find the area bounded by the curve y = x?, the x-axis and the ordinates
¥=ilvand x =2.
(b) Find the x- and y-coordinates of the centre of gravity of this area.
17 Find the coordinates of the centre of gravity of the area enclosed by the
x-axis and the curve y = x7(3 — x).
18 Find the area bounded by the curve y=(x+1)(x— 2)? and _ the
x-axis from x = —1 to x =2. Also find the x-coordinate of the centre of
172 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 8e

gravity of this area.

19 Find the coordinates of the centre of gravity of the area bounded by the
curve y = 5x? and the straight lines x = 1, x = 2, y=0.
20 The area bounded by the arc of the curve y = x(3 — x) between the points
where x =0 and x =2, the x-axis, and the line x = 2, is rotated about the
x-axis. Find the volume of the solid of revolution so generated, and the
x-coordinate of its centre of gravity.
21 An area in the first quadrant is bounded by the ellipse 4x* + 9y* = 36 and
the axes. This area is rotated through four right angles about the x-axis. Find
(a) the volume of the solid generated,
(b) the x-coordinate of the centre of gravity of this solid.
22 The triangle formed by the three straight lines y = 0, y = 2x, and y=3 — x is
rotated about the side y=0.
Find the volume of the solid so generated, and the x-coordinate of its
centre of gravity.
23 Plot sufficient points to enable you to make a sketch of the curve
y? = x(x — 2)? from x = 0 to x = 2. Calculate the volume of the solid formed
by revolving the enclosed area about the x-axis, and find the distance of the
centre of gravity of the solid from the y-axis.
24 The curve y* = x?(2—x) cuts the x-axis at the points given by x =0 and
x =2. The area enclosed by the x-axis and the curve between these two
points is rotated about the x-axis so as to form a solid of revolution. Find the
volume of this solid and the x-coordinate of its centre of gravity.
Chapter 9

Some useful topics in algebra

Surds
9.1 It is not immediately obvious that

oh oe ee ae 15 aE 45 35 45
2 hiee 8 ; 14V 35, EY OG EP? ; MOP Gk apr: ee 28
all represent the same number. Again, it may not be clear on first sight that
1/(\/2 — 1) and ,/2 + 1 are equal.
Since square roots frequently occur in trigonometry and coordinate geome-
try, it is useful to be able to recognise a number when it is written in different
ways, and the purpose of this section is to give the reader practice in this.
The reader may have found an approximate value of wi2 ~ 1.414 213 562 ona
calculator and may know that this decimal does not terminate or recur. The
ancient Greeks did not use decimals, but they discovered that ,/2 could not be
expressed as a fraction of two integers (see §2.4). Such a root (,/3, ,/5, </6 are
other examples) is called a surd. In general, a number which cannot be expressed
as a fraction of two integers is called an irrational number.

Qu. 1 Square: (a) ./2, (b) /6, (c) Ja, (d) (ab), (e) 3/2, (f) 4/5, (g) 2/4,
(ey ee one ax) 1,.0)) 2 rm) 8, (Kk) 4/12 x23) (D) A/a x 4/D.
Note that the answers to parts (d) and (I) are the same, Le.

J (ab) =./a x ./b

This result will be used in the next example.

Example 1 Write ,/63 as the simplest possible surd.

The factors of 63 are 3? x 7.
se f 03 = 4)(37 cei o” wis 37

Example 2 Express 6,/5 as a simple square root.

6/55/36 x s/fSie) (36 x 5) =./180

173
174 Pure Mathematics 1 9.1

Example 3 Simplify ,/50 + /2—2,/18

+ /8.
21
+ [8 =5/24
50/2 eae ale
I22 8
= 8,/2—6,/2
=n) 2

It is usual not to write surds in the denominator of a fraction when this can be
avoided. The process of clearing irrational numbers is called rationalisation.

1 1
Example 4 Rationalise the denominators of (a) 2’ (b) Te

(a) raed numerator and denominator by af2. Thus

“ie
hee =
lng
oleae
2 ee 2
(b) Multiply numerator and denominator 2 the denominator with the sign
of ,/2 changed:
1p nasled wh
ate
3 eal Qecn aii deel
ote
~ 9-2

=ses
a EL ary
+./2)

Exercise 9a (Oral)
1 Square:

(a) /5, (b) J; (0) 4./3,-~ @4/2 ©) fi

fy./3*.f5, <2) do eid (h) ve, (i) ait (j) Sang

2 Express in terms of the simplest possible surds:

(a) ,/8, (b) / 12, (jae (d) ,/50,
(e) 45, f) 1210, (g) 75, (hy) /32,
(eneI2, (j) ./98, (k) ,/60, Ty i512.
3 Express as square roots:
(a) 3/2, (0) 23) Ses) 2a
(c) 3/8, (f) 6/6, (g) 8/2, _—(h) 10/10,
ner ae 2
i) 7? (eee. ) 3B (1) ary
4 Rationalise the denominators of the following fractions:
 Some useful topics in algebra 175

aan
(a) J5 iy
(b) tink (c) ¥
!
"ee
2
(d) Wa;

bien 1 3 9
(e) Je’ (f) oe: (g) Le (h) 4/6’

i 1 : 1 3}
(i) es 1? (j) ee 3. (k) 4— 1102 (I) ey

mea
ae es) 2 OER o ©) a0 ee
Exercise 9b
Calculators should not be used in this exercise.

1 Simplify:
Shey Gab 18 —2./2, (Bes a2 127)
(c) /28+./175—./63, (d) ./1000—./40—./90,
Chath ctrl dPBctde/ 32s; pin(fhnf24-34/6 a/216:-+./294
2 Given that \/2=1.414... and \/3 = 1.732 ..., evaluate correct to 3 significant
figures:
1
(a) / 648, (b) Rr onl2, Or =20

d) G+ /2), (© J3-VJs, —(f)_ 0.0675.

3. Express in the form A + B,/C:
2} 5

a) ag?) (b) (/5+ 2)’, (c) + ./2)(3 — 2,/2),

DG tml)?, fe) I f2) (3 F 2/2 WelE ren SH) Sy Ss

Ov wate 1 1
0 BE: Bite

A Slane
IGE et
eee3.
1
(i One, 342+ ee)
4 Rationalise the denominators of
J34J2" - yy VS+1 gy 2W2-V3
Prgachyo! ULE Tepph/3°
gy) V242V5 (©) apOrb (f LO 24/5
a2 f6—./3’ (04/5
5 Express in surd form and rationalise the denominators:
1 2 1 + tan 60°
Gods”) 1—copaora a) T= tan 60°”
176 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 9b

q 1 + tan 30° 1 + sin 45° (f) 1

\) opntes me Dendy, (1 — sin 45°)?”

Laws of indices
9.2 It is assumed that the reader knows the three laws of indices for positive
integers:
(i) epsea aa
(2): a" a= a"”, - (> n)
©a Ca ac
We shall now assume that these laws hold for any indices, and see what
meaning must be assigned to fractional and negative indices as a result of this
assumption.

Rational indices
9.3. We know that 4°>=4x 4x4, but so far 4'/* has not been given any
meaning. If rational indices are to be used, clearly it is an advantage if they are
governed by the laws of indices. This being so, what meaning should be given to
41/29 By the first law of indices,
42x 4ir?giig
Therefore 4'/? is defined as the square root of 4 (to avoid ambiguity we take it to
be the positive square root) and so 4'/? = 2. Similarly, a’/? = //a.
To see what value should be given to 8'/%, consider
81/3 x gt/3 x gi/3 = gi = 8

Therefore 8'/° is defined as </8, which is 2. Similarly, a‘/? = Ja.

In general, taking n factors of a!/",
al" xa" x Sala a
so that

lait
Next consider 87/. We know that 8'/3 = 2, so
82/3
—81/3 x 32x 2=4
Therefore we must take 87/? to be the square of the cube root of 8, and in general
a" must be taken to be the mth power of oya (or the nth root of a”), and we may
write
qn" =a"

Qu. 2 Find the values of

(a) 927) (b) 2747 “Ob yey e748” (d) ate
(e)243/2, (f) 9°/2, (g) 84/3, (h) 163/4,
 Some useful topics in algebra 177

Zero and negative indices

9.4 So far 2° has been given no meaning. Again it is desirable for it to be given
a meaning consistent with the laws of indices, so we divide 2! by 2' using the
second law:
2* — 92h — 2°

But 2! + 2! = 1, so 2° must be taken to be 1. In the same way, a"~a"=a", so

a=] (a0)
Qu. 3 Why does the above not hold for a= 0?
To find what meaning must be given to 2” ', divide 2° by 2', using the second
law of indices:
2° 269!
= O74
But 2°+2'=1+2=4, therefore we must take 27! to be 4.
Similarly,

=an¥no kaa!

Thus 273 is the reciprocal of 2°.

In the same way

that is, a-" is the reciprocal of a”.

Example 5 Find the value of (27/8) ?'°.

Using the last result, (27/8)~2/3 = (8/27)?’°.

ay)
Taking the cube root,

Qs 1 +x)? —do(1 +.x)71?

Example 6 Simplify JNone
1+%x

Multiply numerator and denominator by 2(1 + x)"”.

(1+x)!2—4x(1+x) 74? AL+x)—x
1+x Oh) Gay
ea
~ 2(h+ x)???
178 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 9c

Exercise 9c (Oral)
1 Find the values of

(a). 2535/4 (ou 27> 3 (c) 6413/6 (d) 49%”,

(e)
Ie
rd le: irs
1/4
(sy(=-s)
1/3
=. UU ert bho

(i)Ego 23 (eon, (ky 252, (4g

1 Siz 4 1/2 Da) 1/3
16 \1/4
(m) (;) > (n) (5) > (0) (F > (p) (=) .

2 Find the values of

(a) 7° (bye Chey dd) 45%

(e) 2-3 , f
(f) et )
> (g) a
3 > » (2) 4 0

: PK?
[ircis (eles
O)es (k) (-3).
1 =) 1 peo 29 x i}

im (—3) > n) 3-1 (0) 372? (p) 5-1

3 Find the values of

(Qa Secst (b) 857"; (4-85 (d) 4-32,

(e) 20 (f) (;) _-
1\~1/2
Me (;)
1\71/3
w (2) 1 2/3

aro asset
avi 4) 81)? is defin ie Ya
an ees
16\~ 14

Exercise 9d
1 Find the values of
(a) 256747, (b) 12961/2, (c) 64773, (d) 2161/3,
(e) 23)", (D: (ig), (oti (h) 4-3/2,
(i) 64-23, (k) (7)
1/2

ORs
8 2/3

(n) 1.33113, (0) 0.04- 3/2,

2 Find the values of
1613 x 41/3 2712 % 2431/2 B27 16) cee
(a) ——, 24348 eh eae
 Some useful topics in algebra 179
61/2 x 961/4 ! 121/3 x 61/3 f gi/6 x 41/3
(d) Dorie 2” gaeee ©) spe Tee
3 Simplify:
(ay 8 222 Aer.
(b) 3° 4x 9" = 2702/30,
(c) 16°3/4)" es Q(5/3)n x anti

(d) Q~ (1/2)n x gnt2 x Sirei*.

(e) 6(1/2)n x 12"+1 x 277 (1/2)n a B22 in

(f) 19/3)" x 15(1/2)n x 6(1/6)n 2 45(1/3)n_

4 Simplify:
6) x7 23 y¢ x L/4 a J (xy) x x13 x Qyt/4
1/6 ? eval ?

1/2
/ xontl
a ae _ eae Ee
(c) Vx" ? (d) xnt2k xen 3?

xP t/2)4 y 2p-4q = 23, —1/3

(e)
(xy?)2)\p x ./x daa (f) -
(x*y’)
4 seas

5 Simplify:

(a) x7 (x? +1) )pt? é — ((x24 1)1

)
x

(b) — 4x(1 —x)71/2 +1 — x)?

x

$x'2(1 + x)7V2 — $7 VA + x)H?

(c)
x >

(d) (1 +x)'/3 —4$x(1 + x)-7°

(1+ x)? :
) aie —x)4(1+x)°17 4+3(1 —x) 7 /(1 +x)
1 x J

Logarithms
9.5 Readers will probably be familiar with the use of logarithms for multiplica-
tion and division, but there are certain properties of logarithms that are useful in
more advanced work. Having just considered indices, this is the appropriate place
for logarithms because a logarithm is an index.
From a calculator we can see that the logarithm of 3, to base 10, is 0.47712
(correct to five decimal places). This means that 10°-+77!2 — 3, working to five
is
significant figures. The statement ‘the logarithm of 3, to the base 10, is 0.47712’
abbreviated to log;) 3 = 0.47712.
Similarly, 10°-°°2°9 = 8, which may be expressed as log; 8 ~ 0.90309.
180 Pure Mathematics 1 ID

Now 22 =8, and this statement may also be written in logarithmic notation.
Here the base is 2 and the index (i.e. logarithm) is 3, thus log, 8 = 3.

Qu.4 What are the bases and logarithms in the following statements?
(a) 107 = 100, (Dy LOM 40, (c) 9= 37,
(d) 4° = 64, (pi he (ff), 8=(1)2)-7,
(s) ase.

Exercise 9e (Oral)
1 Express the following statements in logarithmic notation:
(a) 27 = 16, (b) 27-= 37: (ce) 125 =H,
(d) 10° = 1 000 000, (e) 1728 = 123, (fy 64= 167,
(g) 10* = 10 000, (h) 4° = 1) (i) 08F= 10-2,
(j) $=271, (k) 99/2 = 27, () 8-23 =4,
(m) 81 = (1/3)4, (aye 2’ (o) 167
¥* =4)
(p) (1/8)
=1, (q) 27=81°%, (r) 4=(1/16)"*,
(s) (—2/3)?
=4/9, (t) (-3) '=—-3, (u) c=a,
vied =D, (w) p?=r, Gpa=F-
2 Express in index notation:
(a) log, 32 =5, (b) log, 9 =2, (c) 2=log, 25,
(d) log;5 100000=5, (e) 7=log, 128, (f) logs 1=0,
(g) —2=log; 5, (h) log, 2=3, (i) log, 1=0,
(j) logs, 3 =3, (k) 2=log, x, (1) log; a=b,
(m) log, 8 =c, (n) y=log, z, (0) p=log, r.
3. Evaluate:
(a) log, 64, (b) logy, 100, (c) logio 10’, (d) log, a’,
(e) logg 2, (f) log, 1, (g) logs, 3, (h) log>/3 3
: 1
(i) logs 125, J) logo. 10, —(k) log, e*, (I) log.—.
e

Two numbers can be multiplied by adding their logarithms and divided by

subtracting them. The rules are familiar, but it is worth while proving them as an
example of logarithmic notation.

Qu.5 Write in logarithmic notation: a=c*, b=c’, ab=c**?, a/b=c”?.

Deduce that
log.a+log.b=log. ab, and that
log. a — log. b = log, (a/b)
The logarithm of the nth power of a number is obtained by multiplying its
logarithm by n. A method of proving this rule is suggested in the next question.

Qu.6 Write in logarithmic notation: a=c*, a"=c™.

Deduce that log, a” =n log, a.
 Some useful topics in algebra 181
In Qu. 5 and Qu. 6, the suffix c has been used to denote the base of the
logarithms. However, when the same base is used throughout a piece of work
(for example the answer to a single question or exercise) the suffix may be
omitted. Using this convention, the results we have found above can be
summarised as follows:
log a+ log b= log (a x b)
log a — log b = log (a/b)
n x log a= log (a")
These three results are used in the next example.
253
Example 7 Express log, 100 Je in terms of logy a, logy b, logyo c.

First note that «/c='c'/*.

Using the two rules of Qu. 5,
a 2p3
logyo an ize log1o a? + log, b? —log,, 100 —log,, c!/”

Then by the rule of Qu. 6, and writing log,, 100 = 2,

ab 1
logo To0ct? = 2 log;) a+ 3 log,) b—2— 5 logioc¢

The logarithm, to base ten, of x is frequently written lg x. This abbreviation is

used in the next example and in the exercise which follows.

Ig 125
Example 8 Simplify ee

[Note that 125 and 25 are both powers of 5, so their logarithms can be
expressed in terms of lg 5.]
Melos
ig 31g5, 21,3
1225 tole Same be12
Example 9 Use tables or a calculator to find an approximate value of log, 7.
Write x = log, 7, then 2* = 7. Since 2* = 7, their logarithms to the base of ten
are equal, therefore
i? =I2'7
ee
2 ig

ai,
fiectle2
= 2.8074 (correct to five significant figures)
Therefore log, 7 = 2.8074.
182 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 9f

Exercise 9f
Note Ig x = logo x.

—_ Express in terms of log a, log b, log c:

a 1
(a) log ab, (b) logs (c) logy

q)/3p*
1
(d) log a?b?/?, (e) log fa» (f) log CO >

(g) log /a, (h) log </b, (i) log /(ab),

(j) 1g (10a),

(mn) log “|(=), (n)

Nn Express as single logarithms:
(a) log 2 + log 3, (b) log 18 — log 9,
(c) log 4+ 2 log 3 — log 6, (d) 3 log 2+ 2 log 3 — 2 log 6,
(e) loge + log a, (f) log x + log y — log z,
(g) 2 log a—log b, (h) 2log a+ 3 log b—logc,
(i) zlog x —4 log y, (j) log
p —3 log q,
(k) 2+ 3lga, (l) 1+lga—4lgb,
(m) 2 lg a— 3 —lg 2c, (n) 3lgx—Jflgy+1.
os) Simplify:
(a) lg 1000, (b) 4 log, 81, (c) 5 log, 64,

(d) —log, 3, (e) 4 log 8, (f) 3 log 49,

(g) —tlog4, (h) 3 log 3 —log 27, (i) 5 log 2 —log 32,
OR 2. (k) log 81 log 49
log 2 log 9 ) log 343°
4 Solve the equations:
(2) 52 =,
(ap 2x2”) S10,
(b) 3*=2, (), = 4,
(e) (1/2)* = 6, ar = 1/16,
5 Evaluate, taking log m = 0.4971 and e = 2.718:
(a) log, 9, (b) log,, 6, (c) log, Tl,

(d) log, 10, — (e) log. x, (f) logs >.

6 Show that log, b= 1/log, a,
(a) using the result log, b x log, c = log, c,
(b) from first principles.
7 Evaluate:
(a). 2.561:71, (b) hen ae:
(y*2.71es
(d) 0.561?/5, (es 0.51327, (f) 0.005752",
 Some useful topics in algebra 183
The functions x +> a" and x + log, x
9.6 We can legitimately use the word function to describe x+> 10* and
X t+ logy x, because, in each case, for a given value of x, the rule will produce a
unique result. In the case of x + 10*, the domain is R and the range is R*, and
for x ++ logy, x, the domain is R* and the range is R. In most instances, the
actual calculation of 10* or log;, x will be very complicated, but this does not
matter; a calculator can be used where it is appropriate (the same remarks apply
to the function x ++ ,/x). More generally, if a is a fixed, positive, real number,
xt+a* and x+> log, x, are perfectly satisfactory functions. (Note that the
domains are R and R’, respectively.)

Qu. 7 If f(x) = 10* and g(x) = log, x, find the values of

(yD et) 12) te 1), \ G)-e9),, «©) aft), ) 2(,/10).
Qu.8 If F(x) =a* and G(x) = log, x, find
(a) FQ), (6) FQ), © F(-),. @)G@, © Gi), — ) Gi/a).
The following special cases are very common and the reader is advised to
commit them to memory:
log, 1=0
log,a=1
log, (1/a) = —1
Remember that a logarithm is an index; the logarithm of q to base a is the power
to which a must be raised to equal gq, e.g. log,, 1000 = 3, and log, (1/8) = —3.
Thus if a? = g, then log, q = p, and these are equivalent statements, being simply
alternative ways of stating the relationship between a, p and g. We can combine
these statements in two ways:

log, (a”) = log, (4) =P

and
qi°8e4 — gP — q

So, if f(x) = log, x and g(x) = a*, then the composite functions fg and gf are given
by
fg(x) = f(a") = log, (a*) = x
and

af(x) = g(log, x) = a?®* = x

In other words, the composite function merely gives the original value of x; the
function f ‘undoes’ the effect of function g, and function g ‘undoes’ the effect of
function f; that is the functions f and g are inverses of one another.
This effect can easily be observed on a pocket calculator. Enter any positive
number, say 5, press the ‘log’ function key (the display should show 0.69897), and
then press the ‘10*’ function key. The display should return to the value
originally entered, i.e. 5. Repeat this with other numbers; try it also with the
 1 9.6
184 Pure Mathematics
function keys
functions in the reverse order. If your calculator is equipped with
exp and In on some calculat ors) try the same
for e* and log, x (these appear as
routine with this pair of inverse function s.
with all
Sketches of the graphs of y = a* and log, x are shown in Fig. 9.1. As
reflectio ns of one another in the line y=x.
inverse functions, the graphs are

Figure 9.1

Roots of quadratic equations

9.7 If an algebraic equation, in which the unknown quantity is x, is satisfied
by putting x=c, we say that c is a root of the equation. For example
x* — 5x + 6 = Ois satisfied by putting x = 2, so one root of this equation is 2 (the
other is 3).
It is often useful to be able to obtain information about the roots of an
equation without actually solving it. For instance, if « and f are the roots of the
equation 3x? + x — 1 =0, the value of «* + 8? can be found without first finding
the values of « and f. This is done by finding the values of «+ B and «f, and
expressing «” + fh? in terms of «+ B and af.
The equation whose roots are « and f may be written

(x —a)(x — B)=0
J. x? —ax — Bx + af =0
“x? —(a+ B)x + a8 =0 (1)
But suppose that « and f are also the roots of the equation
ax* ++bx+c=0
 Some useful topics in algebra 185
which may be written
b ae
Px = 0 (2)
a a
Now equations (1) and (2), having the same roots, must be precisely the same
equation, written in two different ways, since the coefficients of x2 are both 1.
Therefore
(a) the coefficients of x must be equal,
b
“a+ p= ——
a
(b) the constant terms must be equal,
c
|, ap=—
a
Note. If it is required to write down an equation whose roots are known,
equation (1) gives it in a convenient form. It may be written:
x? —(sum of the roots)x + (product of the roots) = 0
Qu.9 Write down the sums and products of the roots of the following
equations:
(a) 3x x 1 = 02 (by 5x? HIIx 3 = 0;
(axe 2 Sx Le (d) 2x(x + 1)=x+7.
Qu. 10 Write down equations, the sums and products of whose roots are
respectively:
yal are (dD) Sar 23 gO) = 2, es 4,(d) 3,0,
Qu. 11 Write down the sum and product of the roots of the equation
3x? + 9x +7=0.
Example 10 The roots of the equation 3x* + 4x —5 =O are a, B. Find the values
of (a) 1/« + 1/B, (b) «7 + B?.
Both 1/a+ 1/B and a? + B? can be expressed in terms of « + f and af.
ot Pag ecliap 3
1 1 Bta —-$4
Oe ig. Bie ah
(b) a? + B? =a? + 2af + B? — 208
= (a + B)? — 2a8 =(—$)?
— 2-3)
eee 16 10 46
Crile OF Bue leRticg |
Alternatively, since « and f are roots of the equation 3x? + 4x —5=0,
30? + 4a— 5 =0
3p? + 4p —5=0
186 Pure Mathematics 1 9.7

Adding,

3(a? + B?) + Ha + B)—10=0

lela) cae apa
phe beB? = Ae Seeoe
Example 11. The roots of the equation 2x? —7x+4=0 are «, B. Find an
equation with integral coefficients whose roots are «/B, B/.
Since a, B are the roots of the equation 2x” — 7x + 4=0, we have
oP p=s, ap=2
Then the required equation may be formed from equation (3) above, if the sum
and product of «/B, B/« are expressed in terms of « + B and af.
a Bo + Bi as Be 258
Le ap ap

=F amen
2 8
Therefore the sum of the roots is 33.

ee
Be
Therefore the product of the roots is 1.
Hence the equation with roots «/f, B/« is
x? —33x+1=0
Multiplying through by 8, in order to obtain integral coefficients, the required
equation is
8x? — 33x +8 =0

Symmetrical functions
9.8 The functions of « and f that have been used in this chapter all show a
certain symmetry. Consider, for example,
Leal ia? 6
a+ - fp,> ap St oeaT
+ Rp? a : +B ie B + ie7
DD

Notice that if « and # are interchanged:

Bra a a, fa,
Cee
oes |
+2, Po,
o59 i F O45iy
a
ay a

the resulting functions are the same. When a function of « and B is unchanged
when « and f are interchanged, it is called a symmetrical function of « and B.
Such functions occurring in this chapter may be expressed in terms of w + B and
af, as in the next example.
 Some useful topics in algebra 187
Example 12 Express in terms of «+ B and af: (a) «3 + B3, (b) (a — By’.
(a) «° and f° occur in the expansion of (« + f)°.
(a+ 6)? =a + 3a78+ 308? +63
a? + BP =(« + B)> — 3078 — 308?
4° + B? =(a + B)> — 3uB(a + B)
(b) (a — B)* = a? — 2a + B.
a* and f occur in the expansion of (« + f)?.
(w+ 8)? =a? + 208 + Bp?
. («— B) =(a + By’ —4a8

Exercise 9g
1 Find the sums and products of the roots of the following equations:
(ay 2x = tx 310, (b) 2x? +x =1=0, (c) 3x?
= 7x + 6,
(axes, (e) ¢(t
— 1) =3, (f) yiyt+1)=2y+5,
1 1 1 1

N Find equations, with integral coefficients, the sums and products of whose
roots are respectively:
(a) 3,4; (b) =5,6; (c) 3, —35 (d) —3,0;
(e) 0, —7; (f) 1.2, 0.8; (g) —4, 45; (h) —2.5, = 1.6.
The roots of the equation 2x* + 3x —4=0 are «, f. Find the values of
(a) a? +B?, = (b) T/a+1/B, (©) (+1641), @) Bata/p.
If the roots of the equation 3x” — 5x +1=0 are a, f, find the values of
(ayrrp? stat Bree 1i(b) 2c te B 4,0 eva(e)eaeB%, (d) «?/B + B?/c.
The equation 4x? + 8x — 1 =0 has roots «, f. Find the values of

(a) 1/a?+1/B*, (b) (w@—B)’, = (©) wB+ap, (d) Te

Z 2 2 3 3 1 1

If the roots of the equation x? — 5x —7=0 are a, f, find equations whose

roots are
(a) o,f; (bat, f+l; (0) 2B, af’.
The roots of the equation 2x? —4x + 1=0 are a, f. Find equations with
integral coefficients whose roots are
(a) «—2,B—2; (b) 1/a, 1/8; (©) a/B, B/a.
i.) Find an equation, with integral coefficients, whose roots are the squares of
the roots of the equation 2x” + 5x —6=0.
The roots of the equation x? + 6x + q=0 are « and « — 1. Find the value of
q.
10 The roots of the equation x? — px + 8 = 0 are w and @ + 2. Find two possible
values of p.
 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 9g
188
11 The roots of the equation x? + 2px + q =0 differ by 2. Show that p? =1+ q.
12 If the roots of the equation ax? + bx +c=0 are «, B, find expressions in
terms of a, b, c for
(a) a?B+aB?, (b) a7 + f?, (c) a? + B°,
(d) 1/e+1/B, (©) o/B+B/o, (f) a* +f.
13 The equation ax” + bx + c=0 has roots «, B. Find equations whose roots
are
(a) —a, —8B; (b) a+ 1, B+ 1; (c). a”, B
(d) —1/a, —1/f; (e) a—fB, B—«o; B, a+ 26.
(f) 2a+
14 Prove that, if the difference between the roots of the equation

ax? +bx +c =0

is 1, then a* = b? — 4ac.
15 Prove that, if one root of the equation ax* + bx +c =0 is twice the other,
then 2b? = 9ac.
16 Prove that, if the sum of the squares of the roots of the equation

ax? +bx+c=0

is 1, then b? = 2ac +a’.

17 Prove that, if the sum of the reciprocals of the roots of the equation

ax? +bx+c=0

is 1, then b + c = 0. If, in addition, one root of the equation is twice the other,
use the result of No. 15 to find one set of values of a, b, c. Solve the equation.
18 In the equation ax? + bx +c=0, make the substitutions
(a)x=y-1, (b) x=y, © x= /y,
and simplify the equations.
If the roots of the equation ax* + bx + c= 0 are a, B, what are the roots of
the three equations in y? [Express y in terms of x, and give your answers in
terms of «, B.]
19 If the roots of the equation ax? + bx +c =0 are a, B, make substitutions, as
in No. 18, to find equations whose roots are
(a) @+2P492;07 ©(b) 1fe, YBa ve(Oedichafa, 1-4/8.

The remainder theorem

9.9. An expression of the form

ax"+bx""'+...+k
where a, b, ... k are real numbers and nis a positive integer is called a polynomial
of degree n. (The expression 5x’ — 3x? + 1.5x — 0.3, for example, is a polynomial
of degree 7.)
If we divide the polynomial x3 — 3x? + 6x + 5 by x —2:
 Some useful topics in algebra 189
x? —x-+44
x —2)x3 —3x? + 6x +5
xox 2x4
VK?+ 6x
— x? + 2x
4x+5
4x —8
13
the result may be expressed in the identity
x? — 3x? + 6x + 5=(x — 2)(x?—x4+4) +13
Here x* — x +4 is called the quotient and 13 the remainder.
The remainder theorem gives a method of finding the remainder without
going through the process of division.
Suppose it is required to find the remainder when x* — 5x + 6 is divided by
x — 2. If the division were performed, we could write
x* — 5x + 6 =(x — 2) x quotient + remainder
Now if we put x = 2 in this identity we obtain
16—10+6=0 x quotient + remainder
.. the remainder = 12
Applying this process to any such expression divided’by x — a, we may write
expression = (x — a) x quotient + remainder

Putting x =a in this identity, it follows that

the remainder = the value of the expression when x = a.
The function notation may be used to state the remainder theorem. If a
polynomial f(x) is divided by x — a, the remainder is f(a).
Qu. 12 For what type of expression is the above method valid?

Example 13 Find the remainder when

x> —4x3 42x +3
is divided by (a) x — 1, (b) x +2.
Let f(x) = x° — 4x? + 2x + 3, then
(a) the remainder when f(x) is divided by x — 1 is
f(1)=1-—44+24+3=2
(b) the remainder when f(x) is divided by x + 2 is
f(—2)= —32+32-—4+3=—1
 Pure Mathematics | 99
190
Example 14 Find the remainder when 4x° — 6x + 5 is divided by 2x —1.
As 2x—1 is not in the form x—a, imagine the division to have been
performed, then

4x3 — 6x + 5 =(2x — 1) x quotient + remainder

Putting x =4 in this identity,
4+_3+45=0 x quotient + remainder
Therefore the remainder is 25.

Example 15 Factorise the expression 2x* + 3x? — 32x + 15.

Let f(x) = 2x3 + 3x? — 32x + 15.
[x —a will be a factor of f(x) only if there is no remainder on division, i.e. if
f(a) =0.]
f(1)=24+3-—32+1540 ., x — 1is not afactor.
f(—1)= —24+34324+1540 ..x+1 is nota factor.
x —2 and x + 2 cannot be factors, as 2 is not a factor of the constant term 15.
f(3) = 54+ 27-—96+ 15=0 .. X—3 18afactor.
On division (or by inspection),
2x3 + 3x? — 32x + 15 =(x — 3)(2x? + 9x — 5)
Therefore the factors of 2x? + 3x? — 32x + 15 are (x — 3)(x + 5)(2x — 1).

Example 16 When the expression x° + 4x? + ax +b is divided by x* —1, the

remainder is 2x + 3. Find the values of a and b.
Suppose the division to have been performed, then
x>° + 4x? + ax + b =(x? — 1) x quotient
+ 2x + 3
Putting x=1, 1+4+a+b=2+3.
Putting x =—1, —1+4-a+b=—2+43.
These equations may be rewritten a+ b=0 and —a+b= —2.
Adding,
2b= —2
..b=-1 and a=1

Exercise 9h
1 Find the values of f(0), f(1), f(— 1), f(2), f(— 2) when
(a) f(x)=x?+3x?—4x—12, — (b) f(x) = 3x3 —2x —1,
(c) efx) = x° +: 2x* + 3x7 (d) f(x) ="x* — 4x? + 3.
State one factor of each expression.
 Some useful topics in algebra 191
2 Find the remainders when
(a) x° + 3x? —4x 4 2 is divided by x —1 ’

(b) x* — 2x? + 5x +8 is divided by x —2 >

(c) x° +x —9 is divided by x + 1,
(d) x? + 3x? + 3x +1 is divided by x +2,
(e) 4x* —5x 4+ 4 is divided by 2x — 1,
(f) 4x° + 6x? + 3x +2 is divided by 2x +3.
3 Find the values of a in the expressions below when the following conditions
are Satisfied:
(a) x° + ax” + 3x —5 has remainder —3 when divided by x —2,
(b) x° + x? +. ax + 8 is divisible by x — 1,
(c) x? + x* — 2ax + a* has remainder 8 when divided by x — 2,
(d) x* — 3x? + 2x +a is divisible by x + 1,
(e) x? — 3x? + ax +5 has remainder 17 when divided by x — 3,
(f) x° + 4x* — 6x? + ax +2 has remainder 6 when divided by x + 2.
4 Show that 2x* + x? — 13x + 6 is divisible by x — 2, and hence find the other
factors of the expression.
5 Show that 12x? + 16x? — 5x — 3 is divisible by 2x — 1 and find the factors of
the expression.
6 Factorise:
(a) x? — 2x? — 5x + 6, (b), x3. — 4x? + x.+ 6,
(c) 2x3 + x? — 8x —4, (d) 2x? + 5x? +x —2,
(ec) 2x3 + 11x? + 17x
+ 6, (f) 2x? —x?+2x—1.
7 Find the ualuss of a and b if ax* + bx? — 8x? + 6 has remainder 2x + 1 when
divided by x? —1.
8 The expression px* + qx* + 3x* — 2x + 3 has remainder x + 1 when divided
by x? — 3x +2. Find the values of p and q.
9 The expression ax? + bx +c is divisible by x —1, has remainder 2 when
divided by x + 1, and has remainder 8 when divided by x — 2. Find the values
of a, b, c.
10 x —1 and x +1 are factors of the expression x? + ax* + bx + c, and it leaves
a remainder of 12 when divided by x — 2. Find the values of a, b, c.

Exercise 9i (Miscellaneous)
Calculators should not be used in this exercise.

1 Write in terms of the simplest possible surds:

SN oie
2-4
ae
(a) / 180 + ./1125 — ,/1280, (b) 3=22’ (c) (/3+/2)? +(/3-

2 Given that ,/2~1.414 and uy3 x 1.732, evaluate correct to three significant
figures:

/48+ /72+,/12.5, () J44J4e.

(a) Boar
aa
v
192 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 91

3 Express in the form a+ b,/2:

2 34/2 Seog
@) 4a 2? b) (3 + /2)(5—/2).
4 (a) Find the values of eh (4/993, Sd Dae?
(b) Solve the equation x7/? — 5x'/° +6 =0. ao)
5 Multiply x2/3 + 2x!/3 +1 by x!/?—2. Check your answer by substituting
x=8.
6 Without using tables, find the values of
123? x 1618 (b) Ig 75 + 21g 2—Ig3.
9) DFM x 181”
Given that lg 2 = 0.301 030 and lg 3 = 0.477 121, find, the values correct to
five places of decimals of:
(a) lg12, —_(b) 21g 21 —1g 98, (c) lg </60.
100a? .
8 (a) Express lg Bale in terms of lg a, lg b, lg c.
(b) Given that lg 5 ~ 0.698 970 0, find correct to six decimal places the value of
Ig 40.
9 Taking lg 2~0.301 030 0 and lg 3+0.477 121 3, find the values of (a) lg 5,
(b) lg 18, (c) lg 1.5, correct to six decimal places.
10 Solve the equations:
(ajo = 27°, (b) 279;
11 On a slide rule the distance from mark ‘1’ to mark ‘n’ is proportional to lg n.
If the distance from mark ‘1’ to mark ‘10° is 25 cm, calculate the distances
(a) from the mark ‘l’ to the mark ‘2’,
(b) from the mark ‘2’ to the mark ‘3’.
12 Find the sum and product of the roots of the equation 3x? + 5x — 1 =0. Also
find the equation whose roots are the squares of the roots of this equation.
13 Find the values of m for which the equation x* + (m + 3)x + 4m =0 has equal
roots. For what value of m is the sum of the roots zero?
14 If « and £ are the roots of the equation 2x? — 5x — 1 = 0, find
(a) the value of a? + B?,
(b) an equation with integral coefficients whose roots are 1/« and 1/f.
15 he are the values of a and b if x —3 and x + 7 are factors of the quadratic
ax* +12x+b?
16 Show that 3x* + x?—8x+4 is zero when x =4, and hence factorise the
expression.
17 What is the value of a if 2x? — x — 6, 3x? — 8x + 4 and ax? — 10x — 4 have a
common factor?
18 Factorise the expression 3x? — 11x? — 19x — 5.
19 If the expression ax* + bx? — x? + 2x +3 has remainder 3x +5 when it is
divided by x* — x — 2, find the values of a and b.
20 Find the values of p and q which make x* + 6x3 + 13x? + px +q a perfect
square.
 Chapter 10

Quadratic equations and

complex numbers
The quadratic equation ax? + bx + c=0
10.1 It is assumed that readers are familiar with solving quadratic equations
by factorisation, as in Example 1 below, and that some will be familiar with
‘completing the square’, which is illustrated in Example 2.

Example 1 Solve 2x? + 7x — 15=0.

2x Tx 15 = 0
(2x — 3)(x +5)=0
hence,
either 2x — 3 =0, x=tt
or x+5=0, a5
When it is difficult to factorise, the technique of completing the square can be
used. This method depends on the identity
(x +k)? =x? + 2kx + k?

Example 2 Solve 5x? — 6x —2=0.

5x7 — 6x — 2 =0
Add 2 to both sides,
5x? — 6x =2
divide through by 5,
6 2
x2 me 5 x = *

complete the square, by adding (3)* to both sides,

, (6 3\2 /3\2 2941019
eee eels etal52 aden 4250 25
193
194 Pure Mathematics 1 10.1

factorise the left-hand side,

3\? _ 19
st) ae
take the square root of both sides,
1 19
x= A =+ Ss of:
i
5 25 5

and ar add2 to both sides,

Ee 34/19
2G
sa 5
[Answers to such questions should be left with surds in them, unless a
specified degree of accuracy is demanded by the question. ]
Notice that the roots can be used to find the factors of the original expression.
Thus in Example 2,

“fe 292)
5x? — 6x —2 = 5(x? —$x —2)
1 —./19

The quadratic formula

10.2. The procedure illustrated in Example 2, above, can be generalised, as
follows. To solve
ax? + bx +c =0
subtract c from both sides,

ax? + bx =-—c

nie (9
divide through by a,

a a
complete the square (by adding b/(4a”) to both sides),
ape b =a ET ea
a 2a) 4a* a
and factorise the left-hand side, which gives
She b\? _b? —4ac
Ja) “aye
Take the square root (but note this is only possible if the right-hand side is non-
negative i.e. if b> — 4ac > 0),
 Quadratic equations and complex numbers 195

be\y 2 b* — 4ac — 4ac)

+ ,/(b*
(x+3)=+ /( 4a? ie 2a (1)

Now subtract b/(2a) from both sides

b e J (b? — 4ac)
x=
2a 2a
a Qo. 4ac)
So, ifax?+bx+c=0 thenx= b+ “
a
This formula is usually the most convenient way of solving quadratic
equations which cannot readily be solved by factorisation.

Example 3 Solve 2x* — 6x —3 =0.

In this example a=2, b= —6 and c= —3, hence b?—4ac=36—4
x 2 x(—3),
that is, b* — 4ac = 60. Substituting these figures into the formula
= —b+,/(b? — 4ac)
2a
gives
_ +6+,/60
Ae 4
pee 25) 15
_ 4
i a
Kit ee,
Notice the importance of the step marked (1) in the proof of the quadratic
formula. Three possibilities can arise:
(i) b?—4ac>0; a real value of Ay(b>—4ac) can be found and so the
equation has two real distinct roots,
(ii) b? —4ac =0; the solution is x = —b/(2a),
(iii) b? —4ac <0; there is no real value of ,/(b? — 4ac) and so there are no real
roots.
In case (ii), the expression x? + (b/a)x + (c/a) is the square of x + b/(2a) and it is
convenient to say that the quadratic equation has ‘two identical roots’. We shall
return to case (ili) in §10.6.
Because of its important role in determining the nature of the roots, the term
(b? — 4ac) is called the discriminant of the equation.
Qu.1 Calculate the discriminant of each of the quadratics below and state
whether the equation has (i) two distinct real roots, (ii) two identical routs, or
(iii) no real roots.
(a) 3x?+5x-—1=0, (b) 49x? + 42x +9 =0,
(c) 2x7+8x+9=0, (d) 2x?+7x+4=0.
196 Pure Mathematics 1 10.2

The quadratic function f(x) = ax? + bx +c

10.3. Using the method of completing the square, the form ax? + bx +c can
always be reduced to the form a(x — p)* +q. This is illustrated in Example 4
below.

Example 4 Express the function f(x) = 2x* — 12x + 23 in the form a(x — p)? +4.

2x? — 12x + 23 = 2(x? — 6x + 11.5)

= (x — 3)? —9 + 11.5]
= (x +3)? +2.5]
= 2(x— 3)? +5

In this example, a = 2, p = 3 and q = 5. One advantage of this form is that, since

(x — 3)? > 0, we can read off that f(x) > 5 and that the least value of the function
occurs when x = 3.

Example 5 Find, by completing the square, the greatest value of the function
f(x) = 1 — 6x — x?.

f(x) = 1—6x—x?
=~100 +64 x)
=10—(3+ x)?

Since (3 + x)? is the square of a real number it cannot be negative; it is zero when
x = — 3, otherwise it is positive. Consequently 10 — (3 + x)? is always less than or
equal to 10.
’, the greatest value of the function is 10 and this occurs when x = — 3.

_ In general

bsetbxtema(x ++?Px <)

nol (x+35)-aa+5
eee |
rs pst Feud? = hae
2a 4a

and thus f(x)=ax?+bx+c may be written a(x —p)? + q, where

b b* — 4ac
De Tag and gq=— ig
 Quadratic equations and complex numbers 197
The least (or greatest) value of f(x) is f(p) = q. If a> 0, f(p) is the least value; if
a <Q, it is the greatest value.

Qu.2 Find, by completing the square, the range of the function

f(t) = 10 + 20t — 5t?

The graph of y= ax?+ bx+c

10.4 We have seen in §10.3 that this equation can be expressed in the form

y=a(x—p)’+4q
Now, we know that the graph of y =x? is a parabola and that the graph of
y =(x—p)’ is the same shape, but it is displaced p units to the right (Fig. 10.1).

Figure 10.1

Multiplying (x — p)* by a merely ‘stretches’ the graph parallel to the y-axis,

although if a is negative it will also turn it upside down. Adding q to a(x — p)*
translates the graph q units vertically upwards. Thus the graph of

y=a(x—p)’+4q
looks like Fig. 10.2. In this diagram a>0, p>0 and q>0 (Le. b? — 4ac <0).
Notice that if g <0 (ie. b? — 4ac > 0) but a and p are positive, then the graph
would look like Fig. 10.3.
In this case, M is the point (—b/(2a), 0) and H and K are the points where
ax? + bx +c =0 and, as we have seen in §10.2, at these points
b 4/(b?
—4ac)
2 eae a
Notice that these values of x can only be real if b” — 4ac > 0.
198 Pure Mathematics 1
10.4

Ve euiae

Figure 10.2

y= a(x— p)?+q

Figure 10.3

Qu.3 Sketch the graph of y = ax? + bx +c, when

(a) b*>>4ac and a<0, (b) b?=4ac and a>0O.
In each diagram mark clearly the coordinates of the vertex.

Exercise 10a

Leave surds in the answers.

1 Solve, by factorisation:
(a) 2x*—5x+3=0, (b) x?+4x—21=0,
 Quadratic equations and complex numbers 199
(c) 4x? -—25=0, (d) 7x? + 5x =0.
2 Solve, by completing the square:
(a) 2x* 6x —1=0, (b) 5x? + 12x +6=0,
(e) x? 7x3= 0, (d) 10+3x —2x?=0.
3 Solve, by using the formula:
(a) 3t? —7t—1=0, (b) 5z7+3z-—7=0,
(c) 44+ 13y+ y* =0, (d) 3p?= 7p + 2.
4 Solve, where possible, by any suitable method:
(a) 15—30x + 4x? =0, (b) 11x? = 48x,
(Ce 9x2 = 8x (d) 7x? —38x+15=0.
5 Using the results of No. 2, factorise:
(a) 2x?—6x—1, (b) 5x?4+12x+6,
(c) x? + 7x —3, (d) 10 + 3x — 2x?.
6 Sketch the graphs of
(a) y=2x? — 5x + 3, (De OX — y6 I
(c) y=3x? —7x —1, (d) y= 3x? — 7x +5.
[Hint: use the answers to 1(a), 2(a) and 3(a).]
7 Sketch the graphs of
+25,
(a) y = 9x? —30x (b) y= x? — 6x + 13,
(cy y=5o x, (d) y= 36 + 48x — 9x?.
8 Given that 3x*—kx + 12 is positive for all values of x, find the range of
possible values for k.
9 Given that « and f are the roots of the quadratic equation, x? — 7x + 3 =0,
find « and f from the formula, and verify that « + B =7 and af =3.
10 By completing the square, find the greatest values of
(a) 2—2x — x?, (b) —7+ 12x — 3x?,
and the least values of
(c) 13+6x+3x?, (d) 15+ 8x +4x?.

Imaginary numbers
10.5 We have seen that the equation x? +1=0, or x? = —1, has no real
roots. For the moment, let us not worry too much about this; instead, we will
write i for a (—1). We could then say that x7 + 1 =0 has two roots, namely
x = +i. Historically, this is how the subject developed. The sixteenth century
mathematicians Cardano and Bombelli started to use symbols for square roots of
negative numbers even though they knew they were not real numbers. Later
Descartes started to call these numbers ‘imaginary numbers’. Then, in the
eighteenth century, the Swiss mathematician Euler introduced the symbol i for
—1).
ae introduced i there is no need to invent further symbols for the square
roots of other negative numbers. Consider, for example, vy:(— 25).
(—25) =,/(25 x —1)
V ioe
= 5i
200 Pure Mathematics 1 10.5

So an equation in the form

x?+n?=0 or x*?=-—n’, where nek,
has two roots, x = +n.

[In some contexts, especially electricity where i is used to represent the current
in an electrical circuit, the symbolj is used instead of 1.]
Qu. 4 Solve the equations:
(a) x7 +64=0, (b) x? +7=0, (c) 4x7+9=0, (d) (x + 3)?= —25.

Complex numbers
10.6 We can now return to the problem of solving
ax? + bx +c =0 when b? < 4ac
Previously (§10.2) we decided that no real roots exist in this case.
First, we consider a particular example; we shall try to solve
x*-—4x+5=0
Completing the square gives

x?-4x =—5
(x3)? 54 cutis
Ee epieolas. Ly
Previously, at this stage we were unable to proceed further because we could not
find the square root of — 1. Now, we can use our imaginary numbers. Hence

(x —2)=+1
= al

Qu.5 Solve x? —6x +34=0.

The general solution of the equation ax? + bx +c =0 is

- —b+,/(b? — 4ac)
* 2a

When b? < 4ac this can be written

Sb tye tach}
X
2a

orbiterbh),
ae ey

2a 2a

Notice that both — b/(2a) and ,/(4ac — b*)/(2a) are real numbers.
Numbers of the form p+ ig, where p and q are real numbers, are called
complex numbers. The standard symbol for the set of complex numbers is C.
 Quadratic equations and complex numbers 201
Example 6 Solve x* — 6x +13 =0, where x EC.
x? —6x+13=0
Using the formula

= tot JG6—4 x 1 x 13)

2
lap 2.)
(— 16)

644i
aie 9
Sbe=
Sk 2h

In the complex number p+ ig, the number p is called the real part of the
complex number and q is called its imaginary part. (Thus the real part of 5 + 4i is
5, and the imaginary part is 4.) It is frequently convenient to have a single letter
to represent a complex number, and the normal choice for this is z, although w is
also sometimes used. The real part of a complex number z can then be
abbreviated to Re(z) and the imaginary part is written Im(z). Thus if z = 2 + 7i,
then Re(z) = 2 and Im(z) = 7, or again, if w = 4 — 31, then we can write Re(w) = 4
and Im(w) = —3.
It is important to notice that two complex numbers are equal if, and only if,
their real parts are equal and their imaginary parts are equal, for if
a+ib=c+id

then

a—c =i(d—b)
and, squaring both sides,

(a—c)’
= —(d—by’
Now, since a, b, c and d are real numbers, (a — c)* and (d — b)’ are either positive
or they are zero. It is impossible for them to be positive, because we would then
have a positive number on the left-hand side and a negative number on the right.
Therefore (a — c)? and (d—b)’ are both zero, ice.
a=c and b=d

[The reader may feel that this is a rather trivial point, but, as we will see later,
this is a very valuable feature of complex numbers. It may seem less trivial if it is
compared with a similar situation in rational numbers. Here it is possible to
have a/b =c/d, even though a #c and b #d, for example, 2/3 = 10/15.]
Since it was necessary to introduce complex numbers in order to include the
roots of all quadratic equations, it might be thought that yet further types of
number might be necessary in order to find the roots of equations of higher
202 Pure Mathematics 1 10.6

degree. However this is not so; it can be proved that a polynomial equation of
degree n has exactly n roots (possibly repeated) in C, but the proofis beyond the
scope of this book.

Qu.6 Solve the following equations with the quadratic formula or by

completing the square:
(ajez?—42 13 = 0, (b) 922+ 25=0,
(Cc) 277 27-13 (d). 3427? —6z4+ 1 =0.

The algebra of complex numbers

10.7 In the course of learning elementary arithmetic, one has to learn how to
add, subtract, multiply, and divide fractions: we are now faced with the problem
of manipulating complex numbers. The operations addition, subtraction, multi-
plication, and division which we have used so far are concerned with real
numbers, hence it is necessary to define what we mean by these operations with
regard to complex numbers. It is easiest for us to define these operations by
saying that we shall use the usual laws of algebra together with the relation
i? = —1. Thus
(a+ib)+(c+id)=(a+c)+i(b+d)
(a + ib) — (c + id) = (a —c) + i(b — d)
(a + ib) x (c + id) = ac + aid + ibc + ibd
= (ac — bd) + i(ad + bc)

At this stage it is worth comparing the corresponding operations with real

numbers in the form a + ,/2b (a, b rational):

(a+ b,/2)+(c + d,/2) =(a+c) +./2(b +d)

(a + b,/2)—(c +.d,/2) =(a—0) +.Jb —d)
(a + b,/2) x (c + d,/2)
=ac + ad,/2 + be,/2+ 2bd
= (ac + 2bd) + ,/2(ad + bc)
This helps us to find a way of expressing (a + ib)/(c + id) in the form p + ig. The
reader will probably recall the corresponding process with (a + b,/2)/(c + d,/2).
The method is to multiply numerator and denominator in such a way that the
new denominator involves a difference of two squares:

a+b/2 c—d/2 _(ac—2bd)+,/2(be

— ad)
6+ aye coal cd?
__ac— 2bd bc
— ad
Steg ee Aas
Similarly, the expression (a + ib)/(c + id) may be expressed in the form p + ig by
multiplying numerator and denominator by c — id because

(c + id) x (c —id) = c? —i*d? =c? + d?

 Quadratic equations and complex numbers 203
In other words,

a+ib a+ib c—id

= ees ;
C¢tid }c+id c—id
__ (ac + bd) + i(be — ad)
i" c* +d?

Definition

Two complex numbers in the form x + iy, x —iy are called conjugate complex
numbers,
The symbol z* is used to represent the complex conjugate of z, so ifz= x + iy,
then we write
z*=x—ly

Qu.7 Express (2 + 3i)/(1 + i) in the form p + ig (p, qe R). [Multiply numerator

and denominator by 1 —i.]
Do not attempt to memorise expressions for the sum, difference, product, and
quotient of two complex numbers: simply use the usual laws of algebra, together
with the relation i? = —1.

Exercise 10b

Simplify:

ee er ee Bee ae ea y= @ 5.
2 (a) (3+1)+(1 + 21), (b) (5 — 3i) + (4 + 31),
(c) (2 — 3i)—(1 + 21), (d) (1 +i)—(1 —3).
3 (a) (2 + 31)(4 + 5i), (b) (2 —i)(3 + 21),
(c) (1 +1)(1 —3), (d) (3 + 41) (3 — 41),
(e) (u+iv)(u—iv), (f) (x + 2iy) (2x + iy),
(g) i(2p + 3iq), (h) (p + 2iq)(p — 2iq).
4 Express with real denominators:
1-1 1 3i—2 5+ 4i
(a) ic (b) Aa (c) Tp i’ (d) 504°

1 1 1 1
So apnibon ia ate OED
Simplify the expressions in Nos. 5 and 6:
5 (a) (2+3i)%, (b) (4—Si)*, ©) (x + iy)’.
6@ (i+), OU-) © +i.
204 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 10b

7 Solve the quadratic equations:

(a) 27—4z+ 29=0, (b) 4z7+7=0,
Cy" 22 oe PS = 0, (d) 427+4z+5=0.
8 If « and f are the roots of z?—10z+29=0, find « and f by using the
formula. Verify that « + 6 = 10 and af = 29.
9 If « and f are the roots of az*+bz+c=0, find, by using the formula,
expressions for « and f, in terms of a, b and c. Verify that «+ B= —b/a
and that af =c/a.
10 Solve the cubic equation 2z? + 3z* + 8z—5=0.

Complex numbers as ordered pairs

10.8 To see how a satisfactory definition of complex numbers can be given,
consider the problem of defining rational numbers in terms of the integers.
Note. (i) A rational number is formed from a pair of integers, e.g. 2/3, 7/5, 4/1
(the last of which is commonly abbreviated to 4). (See §2.3.)
é aa ; a b
(ii) The position of the integers is important because in general — # -.
b a
We therefore say that a rational number is an ordered pair of integers — but this,
by itself, is not enough. To complete the definition, we must say how numbers of
this type are to be added, subtracted, multiplied and divided.
We know that for rational numbers
‘a “ be ad + be’
b d= = bd
but this is by no means the only possible way of defining addition of the ordered
pairs a/b, c/d. For instance, it would be much simpler to define addition by the
rule
CIE 8)
hb: @ bed
As to multiplication, with rational numbers,
Ae Gun e
bd bd
but multiplication of the ordered pairs a/b, c/d might have been defined by the
rule
a d c ac—bd
bd ad+bce
We need not go through the process of defining subtraction and division: the
point to note about defining the various operations on ordered pairs is that the
properties of the numbers so defined will depend on the rules chosen.
Now consider complex numbers. We have seen that a complex number
involves a pair of real numbers and that the order of the pair is important
because in general a + ib #b + ia. We therefore define a complex number as an
 Quadratic equations and complex numbers
205
ordered pair of real numbers which we shall write as La, b]. The fundamental
operations of addition and multiplication are defined by the rules:
[a,b] +[c,d]=[a+c,b+d]
La, b] x [¢, d] = [ac — bd, ad + bc]

Subtraction and division are defined in terms of addition and multiplication

thus, for any type of number,

p —q is the number x such that g + x = p and

p= q is the number y such that q x y=p
Now

[c,d] +[a—c,b—d]=[a,b]
.. [a,b] —[c, d] = [a—c, b—d].
Qu.8 Use the definition of division above to show that

(a) for the rational numbers = -

es lla 2
Did whe
(b) for the complex numbers [a, b], [c, d],

ac+bd bc—ad
[a,b (6a) =(Soe eras
Qu.9 Note that to every real number a there corresponds a unique complex
number [a, 0]. Find, from the definitions of the four operations on complex
numbers |
(a) [a,0]+[c,0], —(b) [a, 0] x [c, 0],
(c) [a,0]—[c, 0], (d) [a, 0] + [c, 0].
Compare these results with the corresponding operations on the real numbers
aye
The next stage would be to show that these ordered pairs obey the laws of
arithmetic. This would justify the use of the term complex numbers. However, we
shall not pursue this argument.
The definition of a complex number as an ordered pair was first given by
Hamilton in 1835.

The Argand diagram

10.9 The last section was written to show the reader that complex numbers can
be put on a satisfactory logical basis. However, manipulation of complex
numbers is most easily carried out as before: the ordered pair notation is simply
a device for defining these numbers without reference to ,/(— 1). We could write
ey(— 1) as the ordered pair [0, 1] but this would be rather clumsy and it is easier
to write ,/(— 1) =i.
 Pure Mathematics 1 10.9
206

Qu. 10 Prove from the definition of multiplication of complex numbers that

f‘O. lta l= l— E01
Although the idea of an ordered pair may appear to some readers to have
been a digression, it leads us to the next step in our treatment of the subject. The
Argand diagram is named after J. R. Argand, who published his work on the
graphical representation of complex numbers in 1806.
Corresponding to every complex number [x, y] or x + iy, there is a point (x, y)
in the Cartesian plane; and corresponding to any point (x, ) in the plane, there
is a complex number x + iy. (Here it is worth comparing the equivalent situation
with real numbers. Corresponding to every real number x there is a point on the
x-axis. What is less easy to prove is that corresponding to every point on the
x-axis there is a real number). At first this correspondence between complex
numbers and points on the plane may appear to be rather obvious and not very
useful, but in fact it proves to be a considerable importance to the theory of
complex numbers.

Figure 10.4

The value of this correspondence is increased by the fact that with every point
P(x, y) in the plane there is associated a radius vector OP (see Fig. 10.4). This
means that corresponding to every complex number x +iy there is a radius
vector OP where P is (x, y). Further, corresponding to every radius vector OP in
the plane there is complex number x + iy.
Look at Fig. 10.5. The points A, B, A’, B’ are respectively (1, 0), (0, 1), (— 1, 0),
(0, — 1). Corresponding to

OA there is the complex number 1+ 0i Oran

OB there is the complex number 0+ 1i orre si
OA’ there is the complex number — 1 + 0i or — 1
OB’ there is the complex number 0+(-—1)i or — i
Looking down the right-hand side of the last four lines, each number is equal to
the previous one multiplied by i, Meanwhile, the corresponding radius vector
has rotated in the positive (anti-clockwise) sense through one right angle. Would
the same thing happen if any complex number were multiplied by 1?
 Quadratic equations and complex numbers 207

B+ (0, 1)

Figure 10.5

Qu. 11 Find the complex numbers obtained by multiplying x + iy once, twice

and three times by i. Does the corresponding radius vector rotate through one
right angle each time?
Two quantities are required to specify a vector through the origin: magnitude
and direction. The magnitude r of OP (Fig. 10.6) presents no difficulty

rae ty)
This quantity is called the modulus of the complex number x + iy. ‘The modulus
of x + iy’ is abbreviated to |x + 1y| hence

|x + iy| =./(x? + y?)

uy

Figure 10.6

Qu. 12 Write down the moduli of

(a) 34+ 41, (b) —1, (c) cos 8+isin 6,
(d) $—3,/ 3i, feiss 3fn 28 *E)blor i
 1 10.9
208 Pure Mathematics

The direction specifying the radius vector OP is not quite so easy to deal with
because there are infinitely many positive and negative angles which would do.

Figure 10.7

The problem of which angle to choose is well illustrated by a radius vector in

the third quadrant (Fig. 10.7). It is simply a matter of convention whether we
take the positive reflex angle or the negative obtuse angle. In fact the
numerically smaller angle is used. The angle between the radius vector OP and
the positive x-axis is called the argument of the complex number x + iy. This is
abbreviated to arg(x +iy) and has, as we have said before, infinitely many
values. The value uniquely specified by the above convention is called the
principal value of the argument and is written arg (x + iy), so that
— 180° < arg (x + 1y) < 180°

[In some textbooks, the argument is called the amplitude but this term is less
acceptable because of possible confusion with the amplitude of a current,
motion, or wave.]
Qu. 13 Find the principal values of the arguments of
(a) cos 45° +1 sin 45°, (b) +1,
(c) —1, (d) 1-1,
(ec) $+4./3i, (f) cos 120° +i sin 120°,
(g) cos 20° —i sin 20°, (h) sin 20° +i cos 20°.
A complex number can be completely specified by its modulus and argument,
because, as we can see from Fig. 10.8, x =r cos 6 and y=rsin 0. Thus if \zj=r
and arg z = 0, then
z=rcos@+irsin 6
=r(cos @ + isin 0)
Notice, also, that if we are given a complex number z=x +i y, then its
complex conjugate, z* = x — iy. In other words z* is the reflection of z in the real
 Quadratic equations and complex numbers 209
axis. Hence |z*| =|z| and arg (z*) = — arg z. (z may also be used to
denote the
complex conjugate of z.)

Figure 10.8

Example 7 Given |z| = 10 and arg z = 120°, write down z.

z = 10(cos 120° +1 sin 120°)

=10(-3ja
+i)
= =—545,/3i

Exercise 10c
1 Mark on the Argand diagram, the radius vectors corresponding to
iavelaki (b) —3+2i,
(Saree Hii, (d) 3—4i,
(ce) —44+3i, (f) cos 60° +i sin 60°,
(g) cos 120° + sin 120°, (h) cos 180° +1 sin 180°.
Write down the moduli of these complex numbers and give the principal
values of their arguments.
2 Write down, in the form x + iy, the complex numbers whose moduli are equal
to one and whose arguments are
(a) 0°, (b) 90°, (ey; £80", (d) 270°, (e) 360°,
(f) 30°, (g) —30°, (h) 120°, (i) —120°, (j) 150°.
3 Given that z = 3+ 4i and w= 12 + Si, write down the moduli and arguments
of
(a) z, (b) w, fs) \L/zs (d) 1/w, (e) zw,
)eFe oa(Shawiots Ab 2W)F100 (2°, (j) w?.
4 Simplify: (1 +i), (1 +i°, (1 +i)*.
210 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 10c

Draw in the Argand diagram the radius vectors corresponding to (1 +1),

(1 +i)*, (1 +i)°, (1 + i)*. Find the principal values of the arguments of these
complex numbers.
Repeat No. 4
(a) for the complex number 3,/3 + 3i,
(b) for the complex number ,/3 +i.
Given the complex number z = a + ib, where a and be R, find z* and 1/z in
terms of a and b. Verify that |z?| =|z|? and |1/z| = 1/|zI.
sl Prove that if |z| =r, then zz* =r’.
Given that z=a+ib and w=c + id, where a, b,c and de R, find zw in terms
of a, b, c, and d, and verify that |zw| = |z| x |w].

Exercise 10d (Miscellaneous)

1 Prove that 3x — 2 is a factor of 3x3 — 2x? + 3x —2.
Find the solution set of the equation 3x*— 2x? + 3x—2=0, when x
belongs to the set of (a) integers, Z; (b) rational numbers, Q; (c) real numbers,
RR; (d) complex numbers, C.
Solve each of the equations
(i) (x+4)(5x—7)=0 (ii) (x? +4)(5x?-7)=0
when x belongs to the set of (a) integers, (b) rational numbers, (c) real
numbers, (d) complex numbers.
Given that z = 3 +iand w= 1 + 3i, express in the form a + ib, where a, b € R,
the complex numbers (a) zw, (b) z/w, (c) z? — w? and find their moduli and
arguments in degrees, correct to the nearest 1°.
(a) Express the following complex numbers in a form having a real
denominator:
1 1
3-21’ (1 —i)?
(b) Find the modulus and principal argument of each of the complex
numbers z = | + 2i and w = 2 —i, and represent z and w clearly by points
A and B in an Argand diagram. Find also the sum and product of z and w
and mark the corresponding points C and D in your diagram. (C)
If the complex number x + iy is denoted by z, then the complex conjugate
number x —iy is denoted by z*.
(a) Express |z*| and arg (z*) in terms of |z| and arg (z).
(b) If a,b, and c are real numbers, prove that if az? + bz + c =0 then

a(z*)? + b(z*)+c=0
(c) If p and q are complex numbers and q #0, prove that (2) = ue (C)
q
Find the values of a and b such that (a +ib)? =i. Hence or otherwise, solve
the equation z* + 2z + 1 —i=0, giving your answers in the form p +iq, where
p and q are real numbers. (O)
 Quadratic equations and complex numbers 211
7 (a) The equation x*— 4x3 + 3x?+2x—6=0 has a root 1—i. Find the
other three roots.
(b) Given that 1, w,, w, are the roots of the equation z3 = 1 express w, and
w, in the form x + iy and hence, or otherwise, show that
(i) 1+w,+w,=0,
(ii) 1/w, = wp. (L)
8 (a) Given that the complex numbers w, and w, are the roots of the equation
27 —5=—12i=0, express w, and w, in the form a+ ib, where a and b are
real.
(b) Indicate the point sets in an Argand diagram corresponding to the sets of
complex numbers
A = {z:|z|=3,zeC}
BS {z*|z|=2,726'C}
Shade the region corresponding to values of z for which the inequalities
Ci ae and 0 ale
2 OO
are simultaneously satisfied. (L)
9 If z=4(1 +1), write down the modulus and argument for each of the
numbers z, 2”, z°, z*. Hence, or otherwise, show in an Argand diagram, the
point representing the number 1 + z+ 27 +23 +274.
(O & C: SMP I, part of question)
10 If « and f are the roots of the quadratic equation
(1+j)2z? —2jz2+(3+j)=0
where j= ,/(— 1), express each of «+ 8 and af in the form a + jb, where a
and b are real, and show, on an Argand diagram, the points representing the
complex numbers a+ f and «f.
Find, in a form not involving « and f, the quadratic equation whose roots
are «+ 28 and 2a + f. (O & C: MED)
Chapter 11

Matrices
Introduction
11.1 Readers who are already familiar with this topic are advised to check
through §11.2 to §11.5 to ensure that their knowledge of the basic work is
absolutely secure, while those to whom it is totally new may find it helpful to
supplement the exercises in this book with further practice from a more
elementary textbook.

A matrix is nothing more than a rectangular array of numbers. A matrix

containing m rows and n columns is called an m x n matrix. Matrices are often
used to store information; the matrix P, below, records the sales of three books,
labelled A, B and C, each of which is published in hardback and paperback form,
on one particular day. (This is a 2 x 3 matrix.)

A. 5B. G
Hardback age
Paperback 10 7 4

This matrix tells us, for example, that, on the day in question, 7 copies of the
paperback edition of book B were sold.
There are conventions in mathematics about the way matrices are written.
Firstly, if the layout of the matrix, in a particular context, has been standardised,
the labels of the rows and columns may be discarded. Secondly, the array of
numbers should be enclosed in large round brackets (some writers use square
brackets), and the letter used as the name of the matrix (P in the example above)
should be printed in bold type (in manuscript it should be a capital letter with a
wavy line underneath, i.e. P). So the matrix described in the preceding paragraph
is written

p-i{ > * }
10 7 4

The matrix Q, below, represents the sales of the same books on the following
day:

212
 Matrices DAS
awh
om ip 7 |
On this day, for example, 3 copies of the hardback version of book A were sold.
One very common use for matrices in mathematics is to store the coordinates
of points in coordinate geometry. In the example below, the first row of the 2 x 4
matrix M gives the x-coordinate and the second row gives the y-coordinate of
four points, A, B, C and D, in order.

M = 0-3 4 5
Yo § 2-424. 4

This matrix tells us that A is the point (0, 1), B is (— 3, 2), C is (4, — 1) and D is
(5, 4). Unlike the previous example, the entries in this matrix do not have to be
whole numbers. In general, the elements in a matrix can be any real numbers (in
more advanced work, even complex numbers may be used).

Matrix addition
11.2 Inthe last section, we used P and Q to represent the sales of books on two
consecutive days. If the book shop owner wishes to know the number of books
sold on the two days taken together, all he has to do is to add the corresponding
elements, i.e. the numbers which appear in the corresponding positions in the
two matrices. If he is good at arithmetic, he should obtain

oe 2
18 14 8

It is natural to call the matrix obtained in this way the sum of P and Q, and so
we write

ppm pein? Hs
HQ graye g
The difference of P and Q is obtained in a similar fashion:

et Ba
Ppl (s 0 5
What meaning could the bookseller attach to this matrix?
In the preceding paragraphs we have described P and Q as ‘2 x 3 matrices’
and M as ‘a 2 x 4 matrix’. This was because P and Q each had two rows and
three columns; M, on the other hand, had two rows and four columns. A matrix
which has m rows and n columns is called an m x n matrix and we say that the
order of the matrix is m xn. It is only possible to add (or subtract) matrices
which have the same order, i.e. they must each have the same number of rows
and the same number of columns. If m = n, that is, the number of rows equals the
number of columns, the matrix is called a square matrix.
 1 112
214 Pure Mathematics

Example 1 Find A +B and A —B when

Lens eee pa(.=: eee
Ouse oe 0 ucla? aco tolemaes
Pca bees
(b) A=} 3 —6 B=|6 7
5 1 aye

3-1 5+4 440 443

BASE =\\0g (ao
SPSS t 51
coe \ch, eebinaie alt 5
ag? 3+1 ey dt |ety ome
i Mngle css Ua lied thee AceSo
( 1

PAO 0-2G
(b) A+ B=|34+6 -—6+7
5 ocmah 0)

= 1—0
2 6
={-3 —13
2 1

A matrix in which every element is zero is called a zero matrix. When a zero
matrix is added to another matrix with the same number of rows and columns,
that matrix will be unchanged:

at bee = OFS OF Oi 3 fal bbs ¢

ha ala ils Ui) panel escoll
The zero matrix, then, has the property A +0= A, which is very similar to
the way the number zero behaves in ordinary algebra. (When you write 0 for the
zero matrix, do not forget to put the wavy line under it to distinguish it from the
number zero.)
 Matrices JATE

Multiplication by a scalar
: Felt 2
11.3. If M is the matrix if ‘)then, proceeding as in the last section,

M+M+M+M+M= nae
15 oe)

In ordinary algebra we reduce x +x +x +x +x to 5x and it is natural to do the

same in matrix algebra, and so we write

5M — >» 10
L520

In general, to multiply a matrix A by a real number k (often called a scalar in

this context), we multiply each number, or element, in the matrix A by k. Two
examples are given below to illustrate this:

K(
4 b ae ka kb ke
dyVee afin Mid acke ”

and

nap ene
x—-ya ges
+xy xan
x
2x

heed Ji Dene l
Qu. 1 Giiven thattha A= f 4 :)and B= (| 0 i find 5A + 4B.

Matrix multiplication
11.4 Returning to the illustration of the book sales in §11.2, suppose the matrix
S, below, represents the total sales of the hardback books in one week,

S=(20 25-10)
and, let us suppose the prices of the three books are £5, £6 and £7, respectively,
then the total value of the books sold is

£(20 x 5+25 x 6+ 10 x 7)= £320

Now, in any logical game, whether it is mathematics or chess or any similar

intellectual pastime, it is necessary to define the basic rules of the game and
adhere to them rigidly. (If we change the rule for moving a knight on a
chessboard, we might have invented an interesting new game, but it is no longer
chess!) In matrix algebra, the rule for multiplying matrices is very complicated
and it requires care and patience to learn it and apply it accurately. In its
simplest form, the rule for multiplying a single row by a single column, each
containing the same number of elements can be expressed as follows:
216 Pure Mathematics 1 11.4

(as pe Cet) =(ap

+ bq + cr + ds)

*~
no
ON

If there are more than four elements, just continue to multiply each element of
the row by the corresponding element in the column and add the product to the
total. Notice that the result of the operation is a 1 x 1 matrix, that is, it is a single
number (but it is still a matrix, so do not leave out the brackets).
The illustration of the book sales, above, can be expressed in matrix algebra as
follows.
The sales are represented by the 1 x 3 matrix S, above, the prices are shown in
5
a 3 x 1 column matrix P, where P = | 6 } and the total value of the books sold
7
is found by evaluating the matrix product SP.

>
SP=(20° 25. 10) 1416
7

= (100 + 150 + 70)

= (320)

Now suppose the sales of the same books in the following week are
represented by the matrix R, where R=(30 15 5), then the value of the total
sales in the second week is given by the matrix product RP.

5
RP=(30 15 5) [ 6
7
= (150
+ 90 + 35)
=(275)
We can combine these two sets of figures into a single matrix product, namely,

- 25 i 3 ea
a
cdind aBis pea ee
7
When we read this, it must be clearly understood that the first row of the first
matrix and the first row of the product represent the first week’s figures and the
second row in each case represents the second week’s figures.
Let us now suppose that our bookseller discovered that the price list he had
been using was out of date and the prices he should have been charging were
£5.50, £6.50 and £7.50. He would, of course, want to know how much he should
 Matrices DAT
have got for his two weeks’ sales. Proceeding as before, he would calculate the
matrix product:

DOs Mae? 347.50

As 5} Nm? | = \ 50660
7.50 j
He could go a stage further and display both sets of figures side by side. Here, it
must be understood, the second column of the price matrix corresponds to the
second column of the product.

a 5250
OES ae
Ee 15 4 0 80 Ae Ht
7 7.50 .
It is unlikely that there are many booksellers who bother to learn matrix
algebra in order to do their accounts! Nevertheless this example will, it is hoped,
serve to introduce the multiplication of matrices, which is absolutely funda-
mental in the study of matrix algebra. Matrix algebra was the brain-child of a
Cambridge mathematician, Arthur Cayley (1821-1895). Cayley produced a
paper on the subject in 1858; at the time he was working on the theory of
transformations (see §11.6). The study of matrices has been one of the most
significant factors in the development of mathematics in the twentieth century.
Although it originated as a branch of pure mathematics it has turned out to be
an extremely useful subject and today it is extensively used in applied
mathematics and physics.
Let us now take another look at matrix multiplication. Here we multiply a
3 x 2 matrix A by a 2x1 matrix B. (Notice that, for multiplication to be
possible, it is essential that the number of columns in the first matrix should be
the same as the number of rows in the second matrix.) Remember to work across
each row and down each column.

Z
al= > I and ne (;)
TER
(Bop
218 Pure Mathematics 1 11.4

Now we examine the product of a 3x2 matrix P and a 2x2 matrix Q,

bearing in mind that in picking out the pairs of corresponding elements for
multiplying together, we work across each row of P and down each column of Q.
ie)
ihe AP = 3 4 and d .O== 9Ko 0
5 6

ja5 age Das oS, xo. 2x

PQ=|.3.x7, + .4x9 3x8 + 4x0
5x7 + 6x9 5XB> Gs)

2s
= 57 24
89 40
It should be noted (a) that for each row of matrix P there is a row in the product
PQ, and that for each column of matrix Q there is a column in the product PQ,
and (b) that, for example, the element 89 in the third row and first column of PQ
is the sum of the products of the corresponding elements of the third row of P
and the first column of Q. ;
We can now set out the following general features of matrix multiplication:
(1) In any matrix product CD, if the first matrix C has m rows and n columns
and the second matrix D has n rows and p columns, then the product CD has m
rows and p columns.
(2) The element which lies in the ith row and jth column of CD is the sum of
the products of the corresponding elements of the ith row of C and the jth
column of D.

Example 2 Find, where possible, the products PQ and MN, given that

Rabanne 2x(—1)+3x2+4x3
Tx T+ 35x 0-2 x1 Ix(-1)+5x2+2x3
6 16
Saul $
 Matrices 219
(b) It is impossible to form the product MN, because M has three columns,
while N has only two rows.

Qu. 2 Find the following matrix products:

soa FLAC tel:

@ (2 0) ( ), w ( )(2).
yd Ni 2B a4) NN
et 2D)
(or (ins? “eye Paya |t @ (5 ; ') 1 0
AD 1—}
In the algebra of real numbers, the order of the terms in a product does not
matter, for instance 3 x 5 and 5 x 3 both equal 15. We say that in the algebra of
real numbers multiplication is commutative, that is, ab = ba for any pair of real
2,
numbers. This is not the case in matrix algebra. For example, if A = 4)aana

diag 2dyf 526 19 22

ap=(; males seh aa
but

LE CRAP RE 23034
Ba-(; alls Aledles i
So in matrix algebra, the order of the matrices in a product does matter. We say
that in matrix algebra, multiplication is not commutative.

Exercise lla
Aimee lhe 2 aN = ||
1 Given
i that A = (; ; *)and B= é \ ;3 evaluate: :

(a) 3A, (b) 2B, (c) 3A + 2B, (d) 3A — 2B.

2 A newspaper agent records the number of papers sold on each day of one
week, as follows:
Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat
The Post 120 250 350 300 420 200
The News 120 300 420 200 300 500

Write this as a 2 x 6 matrix S.

The Post costs 12p and The News costs 15p. Write this information as a
1 x 2 row matrix P. It is only possible to form one of the products PS and SP.
Evaluate the product which it is possible to form and explain the meaning of
the first element in the product matrix.
 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex lla
220

3 Find, where possible, the following products. When it is not possible to form
the product, state this clearly and give the reason for your conclusion.

eee RS ease |leinaral

OO sni4 7): Chiesa sop

a(iea t) 2
(2 32)ARENT ES

= el
4 Given that A= (; | and B= (; a find AB and BA. State the
property of matrix multiplication which is illustrated by the answer.
Ly0 b
5 Given that I= hs ')and A= We “8find IA and AI. In the algebra of
c
real numbers there is a number which has a property which is very similar to
the property shown by I in this question. State the number and describe this
property.
Sie,2 4 —2
6 Given that A= Ricks and B= 5 3) find AB and BA.

2
7 Given that A = € a (*)and. C= ( 1). the result of No. 6 to

solve the matrix equation AX = C.

[Hint: multiply both sides of the equation by B.]

8 Repeat No. 6, given that A = € ‘)and B= (is

: ag:

x
9 Repeat No. 7, given that A = € 1)X=( an a. 2) I
y en
ee. xe
10 Evaluate the matrix products:
Bee ee es 2 fe A
(a) (745 4610/3 -¥ 243 Oy iso 2) [Beas
1 0:aiie 0-7 B-1 O/)\4s 16

{C4 Daven
11 Matrices M and N are members of a set S which is defined as follows:

Prove that the product MN is also a member of set S.

Hint m=( P 7)and N= ( ‘ ‘).|
—q p —s r
12 Matrices P and Q are members of a set R which is defined as follows:

r=4(" j)ibede Rad —be=1|

Gala

Prove that the product PQ is also a member of set R.

 Matrices 221

a
13 S is the set of matrices of the form ( k aia where a and b can be any
b/ , a =

real numbers, but k is the same real number for all members of S. If A and
B are two distinct members of set S, show that the product AB also belongs
to-set.S.
, a b d —b
14 Given that P = he “|and that Q = ( ; ) evaluate the products PQ
= C a

and QP. Comment on your answers.

Matrix algebra
11.5 The rules for adding and subtracting a pair of m x n matrices, which were
introduced in §11.3, are very simple and unremarkable. The reader should have
no difficulty convincing himself that, if A and B are a pair of such matrices,
A+B=B+A

so matrix addition is commutative. Also if 0 is the m x n zero matrix, then

A+0=A

If C is another m x n matrix, then it follows from the associative property of real

numbers under addition that
(A+B)+C=A+(B+O0)
The technical term for this is that matrix addition is associative. (This termi-
nology may be new to some readers. All it means is that the position of the
brackets does not matter; and if this remark seems trivial, contrast it with
(24 + 12) +2 which does not equal 24 + (12 + 2). Division is not an associative
operation in real numbers.)
Multiplication of matrices, which was introduced in §11.4, is a more
complicated operation and, as a result, the rules of matrix multiplication are
more interesting. We have already seen that it is possible to have a pair of
matrices A and B, for which AB#BA, so matrix multiplication is not
commutative.
We have also seen (Exercise 11a, No. 5) that if A is any 2 x 2 matrix and if

[= (
: A , then IA = AI= A. This is very similar to the way the real number 1

behaves in ordinary algebra, that is, 1 x x =x x 1=x, where x is any real

number. This matrix I is plainly a very special matrix and so it is given a special
name; it is usually called the unit matrix (in recognition of its similarity to the
number 1) or the identity matrix. More generally, if A is any n x n matrix, then
the corresponding unit matrix is an n x n matrix, with 1’s along the leading
diagonal (the one that goes from the top left-hand corner to the bottom right-
hand corner), and 0’s elsewhere.
ee
So the 3 x 3 unit matrix is 1 0
a
OFOo
DOD Pure Mathematics 1 eS

Ne agage We
Qu.3 IfA=|d e ff } and Tis the 3 x3 unit matrix, verify that AI=IA=A.
gts J
In ordinary algebra, if we have a pair of numbers p and q such that pq = |
(for example 4 x 4= 1) we say that q is the inverse of p, and conversely p is the
inverse of g. (Similarly 4 is the inverse of 2; 3/5 is the inverse of 5/3.) The same
term is used in matrix algebra to describe a pair of matrices A and B such that
AB=BA =I. We say that A is the inverse of B and B is the inverse of A. For
such a statement to be possible, both A and B must be square matrices which
have the same number of rows and columns as each other. (If this is not obvious,
write down a pair of matrices for which it is not true and try to evaluate both AB
and BA.)
If we are given any square matrix A, the task of finding its inverse can be very
difficult. In this section we shall tackle the simplest case, where A is a 2 x 2
matrix.
: ‘ Te bl, 7
Suppose we are given a 2 x 2 matrix A= ( ipThe problem is to find a
c
iY
2 x 2 matrix B, such that AB=I. Let us write B as ( af(In the work that
r s
follows, remember that a, b, c and d are known, but p, g, rand s are unknown; the
task is to find p, q, r and s.)

aB= (2 b\(p q\_ (apt+obr aq + bs

c. d}\r-sJ .\cp+dr cq +ds

: : ed pi
This product is to be equal to the identity matrix & Hf)
, SO We can write down
four equations

ap+br=1 (1)
cp+dr=0 (2)
aq+bs=0 (3)
cq +ds=1 (4)

from which to find p, q, r and s.

Multiplying (1) by d and (2) by b, we have

adp + bdr =d
bep + bdr =0
Subtracting,
(ad — bc)p =d
Provided ad — be is not zero we may divide by it, hence

p= Ms (where A = ad — bc)
A
 Matrices 223
Substituting this in equation (2) gives

cd
Ae hi?

The reader should now solve equations (3) and (4) to find q and s. The solutions
are q= —b/A and s=a/A.
Hence the inverse matrix B is given by

B= dig Db/A\ J d —b
=A @igiAJi AN =c a
This is the required inverse of the matrix A and the standard abbreviation of this
is A‘. Consequently we write:

é GD 1 d —b
ffAr= h Sex ‘
; (: ;)thenA x(! ‘

This is an important result and every effort should be made to memorise it.
: t sea sib :
The method for finding the inverse of a matrix ( ‘1can be summarised as
C
follows:

the elements on the leading diagonal, a and d, are interchanged, the

elements on the other diagonal, b and c, have their signs changed, and
the matrix is divided by ad—bce.

Qu.4 Using the matrices A and A! above, verify that A 'A=I.

Notice that in finding the inverse of (é a the term A = ad — bc has a very

important role to play. We shall be referring to this term quite frequently and so

it is given a special name; it is called the determinant of the matrix (: i

It is convenient to reduce the phrase ‘the determinant of matrix M’ to det M,

so if M= (: : then we write det M = ad — bce.

Matrices for which A = 0 are often called singular matrices. A singular matrix
has no inverse because we cannot divide by zero.

Example 3. Given that M= (é Mywrite the simultaneous equations

5
7x + 9y =3
5x+7y=1
224 Pure Mathematics 1 113

in the form MX = C, where X is the column matrix (*)and C is the column matrix
x .

OF Hence solve the equations.

In matrix notation the equations can be expressed

G 3)G)-()
Su eT pay

This is in the form

1

MX =C
as required. Multiply both sides of this matrix equation by M —! and we have
M~ 31(MX)=M~'C (1)
Now the left-hand side of this equation can be simplified, as follows:
M_ 1(MX) =(M_'M)X
using the associative property of matrix multiplication, and
(M~'M)X = IX=X
using the properties of the inverse and identity matrices.
Equation (1) can now be reduced to

290)
(4)
Hence
x = 3 and y= —2.

As a method for solving a pair of simultaneous equations, this is using a

sledge-hammer to crack a nut. Nevertheless, it is a method which can be
developed for tackling the more general problem of solving n simultaneous
equations in n unknowns. It also gives an example of the way the basic
properties of matrix algebra can be combined into a logical argument.

Exercise 11b (Oral)

Find the determinants of the following matrices:

ra as 3) (G4)
32
off ~ sPeTCD: ak
 Matrices 225

SK12
2) (3 a ( ), (0)ee. a @ (4 vo) k #0.
Al
Nile le
wl

3 State which of these matrices are singular:

Sea aie 34 11 :
() (; ak (0). 4) ©) & a ) ee aul

03) eG 2 eC? L,) «(53

4 Find the values of x for which the following matrices have no inverse:

xe] 8 x—

5 State the inverse of each of these matrices (read each column in turn):

3 4 Zan Game t x —1
(a) E i (b)b (; y (0) € aE (d) ( a}

Exercise llc
1 Find, where possible, the inverses of the following matrices:

74
(a) (; ) ( 8 2Ih (c) (;
‘es!
7 (a) & oI
2 Find the inverses of the following matrices:
Hf, tisk (2 1423 4/3
/2
(ie way OC ys “in
3/5 —4/5 1/2 ./3/2
a be eal te igus ie
: ; <ipee;
3 Find the inverse of the matrix M, where M = (5 i)and hence solve the

1
matrix equation MX = C, in which X = (*)and C= (5).

EP
4 Repeat No. 3 for M= :
8 4
5 Write the simultaneous equations
Ix+ 9y=1
10x + 13y=2

in matrix form, and, using the method employed in Nos. 3 and 4, solve the
equations.
‘ae 1-1
4 zi
6 Solve the matrix equation AX = B, where A = ( and B= (\ to
1)

find the (unknown) matrix X.

 1 Bxalitc
226 Pure Mathematics

Ly
3 4Vilpe an
et
i ies i find the matrix M, where
7 Given that P=

M =P 'AP. Hence, or otherwise, find M°.

8 By writing M= (' i and N= (’ A prove that, for any two 2 x 2

Cc ros
matrices M and N, det MN = det M det N.
—5
10 8 —-1 2 4
9 Verify that if M= 4 —-7 —-6 and N= 2 1 —2 }, then
—3 6 § —3 “O0\+5
MN = NM =| where I is the 3 x 3 unit matrix. Use this to solve the matrix
equation
—5 10 8 De —3
4 —7T —6 y |= a
—-3 6 5 Zz 2
10 Express the simultaneous equations
—x+2y+4z= 7
2x+ y—2z=-2
— 3x + Oe" 7
in the form of a matrix equation NX = C, where N is the 3 x 3 matrix in
No.9 and X and C are suitable column matrices. Hence, using the
information from No. 9, solve these equations by the matrix method.
oer head ht
11 Given that A=] 0 1 1 ], verify that AX =11A — 14], where I is the
0 4 -3
3 x 3 unit matrix. Hence find A}.
12 Solve, by elimination, the simultaneous equations
2x+ y ==
y+ z=b
4y —3z=c

in terms of a, b and c. Express the three simultaneous equations in the form

x
AX = C, where A and C are suitably chosen matrices and X =| y ], and
Z
give your answer in the form X= BC. Hence write down the inverse of
matrix A.

Transformations and matrices

11.6 As mentioned earlier (§11.4), matrices were invented by Cayley in the
course of his work on linear transformations. In this section we shall take a
 Matrices 227
closer look at this topic. In two dimensions, a linear transformation is a
transformation which moves any point P, with coordinates (x, y), to a new
position P’, whose coordinates (x’, y’) are given by a pair oflinear equations, that
is equations of the form
x’ =ax+by
y =cx+dy
In matrix notation this can be written
x fa BN ix
Vd}

()-6 90)
Example 4 _A transformation is defined by the matrix equation

Draw a diagram showing the unit square OIRJ, whose vertices are at (0, 0), (1, 0),
(1, 1) and (0, 1) respectively, and its image O'I'R’J’ under the transformation.
Describe in words the effect of the transformation on the unit square.

(0a)(o)-(0)— (@-2)o)-(o)
(0a)(i)=(-2) (0-2)(a)-()
It is worth noting that these four operations can be combined into a single one,
2 0 : ; Omir t—~() h
0 | is applied to the 2 x 4 matrix p; 01
in which the matrix ( 4 that

iS,

See Otte 0\. (08 2 ° 2 90

Cee =| 91s 0 O—2 =2
From the diagram (Fig. 11.1) we can see that OIRJ has been enlarged by a scale-
factor of 2 and it has been reflected in the x-axis.

If we are given a description, in words, of a certain transformation, it can be

quite difficult to find the corresponding matrix, but in some simple cases the
matrix can be found by considering the effect of the transformation on a triangle
OPM, whose vertices are the points (0, 0), (x, y) and (x, 0) respectively. It should
be noted, at this stage, that the image of (0, 0) under this type of transforma-
tion is always (0, 0).

(a) Rotation, about O, through 90° anti-clockwise

From Fig. 11.2, we can see that the new y-coordinate is OM’ and that this is
equal in length to OM (since OM’ is OM rotated through 90°) and OM is the
 1 11.6
228 Pure Mathematics

Figure 11.1

P’(x’, y’)

Figure 11.2

original x-coordinate, so y’=x. The new x-coordinate is equal to P’M’ in

magnitude, but it is negative; however, P’M’ is equal in length to the original
y-coordinate and so, x’ = — y. Hence the new coordinates (x’, y’) are given by the
pair of equations

and these can be written in matrix form as

ve ey Os
PAT ality
In the next two cases the detailed explanation is omitted; the reader should
make sure that he or she understands how the matrix equations are obtained
from the diagram.
 Matrices 229
(b) Reflection in the x-axis (see Fig. 11.3)

Figure 11.3

*
| | ‘<
a

De

Figure 11.4
 1 11.6
230 Pure Mathematics

Rnd
A
I ro

Qu.5
Dot
aN
ll
a) oe
itn Seeae ea tN
Se 5
as

Find the matrices which correspond to the following transformations:

(a) a rotation about the origin, through 90°, clockwise,
(b) a reflection in the line x + y=0,
(c) an enlargement by a factor of 5, with the origin as the centre of the
enlargement.

General properties of linear transformations

11.7. In the last section we were able to look at some simple transformations
and write down the corresponding matrices. Before we can tackle more
complicated transformations, we must look more closely at the general
properties of transformations which are defined by matrix equations of the form
x) fd DNEX
VY ek Cuadsaly
Where appropriate, the notation (x, y)++ (x’, y’) will be used to indicate that,
under the transformation, the point (x, y) moves to the point (x’, y’). It is the
normal practice to say ‘(x’, y’) is the image of (x, y) under the transformation’ and
that ‘(x, y) is mapped onto the point (x’, y’/.
The following four properties of such transformations are very important; the
reader should make sure that they are understood before proceeding further.

(1) The image of (0, 0) is (0, 0)

We can see from the matrix product (3 i)

a) = & that the image of (0, 0)
is (0, 0), for all values of a, b,c and d. We say that the origin is invariant under any
linear transformation; (0, 0) +> (0, 0).

(2) The images of (1, 0) and (0, 1) are (a, c) and (5, d) respectively
[Throughout this chapter the points (1,0) and (0, 1) will be labelled I and J
respectively; a similar convention is used in Chapter 15.]
As before we need only look at the matrix products
(: UV, 1) ofa pa a b\/(0 b
c d)\o)~ \c : c d)\1)~ \a
to see that (1, 0)+ (a, c) and (0, 1) (6, d).
This property is especially valuable because it means that, if we are given the
description of a transformation, we only have to look at its effect on the unit
square OIRJ, and in particular, the images of I and J, to find the values of a, b,c
 Matrices 231
and d. (At this stage the reader should look back at the transformations
in §11.6
to confirm this.) Fig. 11.5 shows the unit square OIRJ and its image,
for a
general transformation

G)-C dG)
ry,

Figure 11.5

(3) The area of the parallelogram OI’R’J’ is (ad— bc)

This is left as an exercise for the reader. It can be proved fairly easily if the
parallelogram is ‘framed’ in a rectangle which has O and R’ as a pair of
diagonally opposite vertices. The region surrounding the parallelogram should
then be dissected into suitable rectangles and right-angled triangles.

Notice that (ad — bc) is A, the determinant of the matrix (’ ay Notice also

that it is possible for (ad — bc) to be negative. This will happen when the unit
square is ‘turned inside-out’, as in a reflection.

(4) Any set of parallel lines is transformed into a set of lines which are also
parallel to one another
Let the original set of lines have equations of the form y = mx +k, where m is
constant, thereby ensuring that the lines in the original set all have the same
gradient, i.e., they are parallel to one another. We shall show that these are
transformed into a set of lines whose gradient does not depend upon the value of
k, i.e. the gradient is the same for any line from the original set of lines.
The new coordinates (x’, y’) are given by

O)-0 0)
 117
232 Pure Mathematics 1

Solving this equation, as in §11.5, Example 3, we obtain

Be i d —=DN\/ x
pL &Y-e Waly

where A = ad — bc. Hence,

dx' — by’ an ee Ws
A A
Now (x, y) is a point on the line y= mx +k, and consequently its coordinates
satisfy this equation. Substituting for x and y we find

—cx'+ay' _ m(dx' — by’)

A 'y A
+k
—cx' + ay’ =mdx' —mby’'+kA
(a+ bm)y’' =(c + dm)x’ + kA
so the coordinates (x’; y’) of P’ satisfy the equation

(a+ bm)y =(c+dm)x+kA

This is the equation of a straight line and its gradient, (c + dm)/(a + bm), does not
depend on k. Consequently all members of the original set of lines are
transformed into another set of lines, all of which have the same gradient as each
other, namely (c + dm)/(a + bm).

In Fig. 11.6 the first diagram shows the original plane with a set of equally
spaced lines parallel to the x-axis and another set parallel to the y-axis. The
second diagram shows these two sets of lines after the transformation. The unit
square is labelled OI, RJ, in the first diagram and its image OI R’J, appears in
the second.
Notice that each little square in the original diagram has an area of one
square unit and that each of these is transformed into a parallelogram whose
area is (ad — bc). Consequently any region in the original diagram will be
transformed into a region whose area is (ad — bc) times greater than the area of
the original region.

Example 5A linear transformation is defined by

Mvhiy. (3nd \f x
y}) \5 4)\y
Find the images of (1, 0) and (0, 1) and find the factor by which areas are increased
by the transformation. Find also the point whose image is (4, 6).

The image of (1,0) is given by the first column of the matrix. Hence
(1, 0)(3, 5). The image of (0,1) is given by the second column. Hence
(0, 1) ++ (2, 4). The area is increased by a factor equal to the determinant, i.e.
(3x4-—2x 5)=2.
 Matrices 233

Figure 11.6

Let the point (4, 6) be the image of (x, y), then

(5 3)G)-()
Multiplying both sides of this equation by the inverse matrix, we obtain
% 1 4 -2\/4
(*)= +(_3
— 5)(6) here
where A= 12—10= 2
234 Pure Mathematics 1 1:7

x 1 4\.. 2
Ru eh eo ae es |
Hence (4, 6) is the image of (2, — 1).

Property (2), above, is especially useful because it enables us to write down,

with very little working, the matrices which represent some common transforma-
tions, which we can add to our list (a), (b), (c) in §11.6.

(d) Rotation through an angle « about the origin

Figure 11.7

Since OI’=1, we can see that a=cosa and c=sina. Also, since OJ’ =1,
b=-—sin « and d=cos «. (See Fig. 11.7.) Hence the required matrix is
cosa —sin a
sina cosa

(e) Reflection in the line y = mx, where m = tan a

The required matrix is
cos 2a sin 2a
sin 2a —cos 2a

Proof of this is left to the reader; it is not difficult, provided a careful diagram is
drawn.

(f) The transformation under which the unit square is mapped onto the parallel-
ogram with vertices O, I’ (1, 0), R’ (3, 1) and J’ (2, 1)

(See Fig. 11.8; a transformation such as this is called a shear, parallel to the
X-axis.)
Using the same method as before, the required matrix is ( y)
 Matrices 235

J R’(3, 1)
(0, 1)

o|
Figure 11.8

Qu. 6 Write down the matrix which represents the shear parallel to the y-axis,
under which the unit square is mapped onto the parallelogram with vertices
O, I’ (1, 5), R’ (1, 6) and J’ (0, 1).
It should be noticed that the same letter may be used to represent both the
transformation and its corresponding matrix — indeed this causes less confu-
sion than using two different letters. Thus we can say ‘the transformation E is an
enlargement with a scale factor k’ and we can also say that the matrix
kr)
representing this transformation is E, where E = ({ a

Composite transformations
11.8 Suppose that we have two transformations P and Q, which are given by
the matrix equations

Bg y cy d,/\y alicesasdo)a
y Cy d,/\y
and suppose that P is applied first, mapping (x, y) onto (x’, y’) and that Q is then
applied, mapping (x’, y’) onto (x”, y”) ie.

‘Apsley
y’ Cc, d,/\y
ave j
/

Then, substituting for fs]we obtain

Ga a kets le
Xe Ne (Aa Ae a

So the matrix which represents the composite transformation ‘do P, then do Q’

is the matrix product

a, by i 4
C5) Ada hte iid
 1 11.8
236 Pure Mathematics
matrix on
Notice that the matrix which represents the first transformation is the
composit e matrix is always written QP.
the right in this product. This
Remember that P is applied first and Q second. This may seem strange, but it is
logical if we look at the way the matrix product, above, was formed. Notice also
that it is the same convention as that used in forming composite functions (see
§2.10).

Example 6 Write down the matrices R and S, which represent a reflection in the
line y = x, and a rotation through 90°, anti-clockwise about the origin, respectively.
Find the matrix which represents the composite transformation SR and draw a
diagram showing the unit square and its image under the transformation SR.
Describe SR in words.
Di apal ; 0 -1
te - and Sey >) (see §11.6)

e=(7 OG o)=(o 4)

Vi

Figure 11.9

The transformation SR is a reflection in the line x = 0 (see Fig. 11.9).

Example 7 Write down the matrices A and B which represent rotations about the
origin, through angles « and B, respectively. Find the matrix which represents the
transformation AB and describe this transformation in words. Write down another
matrix which represents this transformation and hence find expressions, in terms of
sin a, cos a, sin B and cos f,for sin (« + B) and cos (a + f).
cosa —sina cos B —sin B
A= fe - me
a ‘) and B= & B ae s (see §11.6).

The composite transformation is given by the product

yy pee as
cosa —sina \/co sp —sisin B
sin a cos a/\sin B cos B
steepness sin B —cos
« sin B —sin «cos B
sin a cos B + cos « sin B cos « cos B — sin « sin B
 Matrices Dai
The composite transformation is a rotation through an angle f followed by a
rotation through an angle «: this can be simplified by replacing it by a single
rotation through an angle («+ f). (In this particular case the order of the
transformations is immaterial; in other words the transformations are commu-
tative.) The single rotation through an angle (a + 8) can be represented by the
matrix
res(« + B) —sin eee)
sin (a + f) cos (x + f)
Comparing this with the matrix AB, above, we see that
cos (a + 8) =cos «cos B —sin « sinB
sin (w + 8) =sin « cos B+ cos a sin Bp

Example 8 Write down the matrix R which represents a reflection in the line
y =mx, where m= tan a. Prove that R? =I, and hence write down the inverse of
the matrix R. Verify that this agrees with the result obtained by using the normal
method for finding R™' (see §11.5).
R= cos2a sin 2a
~ \sin 2a —cos 2a
cos 2a sin 2a cos 2a sin 2a
sin 2a —cos2a/\sin 2a —cos 2a

cos” 2a + sin? 2a cos 2a sin 2a — sin 2a cos *)

cos 2a sin 2a — sin 2« cos 2a cos? 2a + sin? 2a

=I]

Since R? =I, the inverse of R is R itself, so

2 cos2a sin 2a
R=
sin 2x —cos 2a
(This is not very surprising because we have reflected an object in a given line,
and then reflected it again in the same line; this would return the object to its
original position. In other words R? leaves the object unchanged. Any matrix M
with the property M~' = M is called a self-inverse matrix.)
The determinant of R is given by
det R = —cos? 2a — sin” 2«
= —(cos? 2a + sin? 2a)
Ley
Hence, applying the method in §11.5 for inverting a matrix, we obtain
R-1= 1 /—cos2«a —sin 2x
~ —1\—sin2a +cos 2a
 Pure Mathematics 1 11.8
238

R-! cos2a sin 2a

~ \sin 2a —cos 2a
it

Exercise 11d
1 Describe the transformations represented by

0) (09) hs e Diaeorat
te) Salar Hess |

eet L 4

2 A certain transformation is represented by

od a ck Yc
yp KBP Oa Ry
Draw a diagram showing the unit square and its image under this
transformation. The triangle whose vertices are A(3, 2), B(7, 2) and C(6, 5) is
mapped onto. A’B’C’, by this transformation. Find the coordinates of A’, B’
and C’. Find also the areas of the triangles ABC and A’B’C’.
3 Two matrices P and Q are given below:

rf) eee)
Find the product QPQ and describe the transformation it represents.
4 A circle, centre O, radius a, is subject to a transformation whose matrix is

0 bie Draw a diagram showing the circle and its image and write down
(
. . .
4 .
I 7

the area inside each of the curves.

5 Write down the matrices which represent
(a) an anti-clockwise rotation, about the origin, through an acute angle
whose sine is 3/5,
(b) an enlargement by a factor of 5, followed by a reflection in the line y = x.
6 Describe the transformation which is given by
RV ee GO x
Vo} bo Sa) ep
where a and b are real numbers. State the condition required if this matrix
represents a pure rotation.
7 By considering the effect on the unit square, describe the transformation

which is represented by the matrix A = ( ‘)

. Hence, or otherwise, find 4
 Matrices 239
and m such that

ii) A)
expressing m in the form tan a. Hence prove that tan 224° = J2-1.

oO Show that A = be ie )is ‘self-inverse’, that is, A* = I, the unit matrix.

4/5 —3/5
Hence describe the transformation which A represents.
Write down the matrix which represents a reflection in the line y = (tan «)x.
Hence show that a reflection in a line which is inclined at an angle « to the
x-axis, followed by a reflection in a line which is inclined at an angle f to the
X-axis, is equivalent to a reflection. State the angle which the mirror line of
this reflection makes with the x-axis.
[You will need the formulae

sin (P — Q) =sin P cos Q—cos P sinQ

cos (P —Q)=cos P cos Q + sin P sinQ
See Chapter 17.]
10 State the transformation which is represented by the matrix A, where
quae. cos 8 —sin @
~ \sin@ cos @
and find the matrix A”. Describe the transformation represented by A? and
hence write down expressions for cos 26 and sin 20, in terms of cos 6 and
sin 0.

Exercise 1le (Miscellaneous)

1 Find, where possible, the following products:

@ (7 $)(_5).
22a: 4
Baa Erase? \dys}
as

Baad 11 /0esimel 0
©) (; a >), (d) e it 1 0 “i
Z Find, where possible, the inverses of the following matrices:
S91) “or
alge, leanetr-(& 3): (ote ee ND (oe)
Sire] =)uae pens

& Find, where possible, the inverses of the following matrices:

b cos@ sin@ OF ae b ¥
(a) feat a © (2, Saal ©) fe at " ts b}
240 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex lle

Solve the following matrix equations:

7 6 yee 1 5 3\ im Ais
(a) i= —3 ee): = :
Sea 4] \y 8 S/\esy 3 4

Find the equation of the line onto which the line x + y = 0 is mapped by the
. Xe oi LUE Ni 3s
transformation = :
y FUSSY
A oats i
The transformation (*)= f Alea maps the triangle A(3, 2), B(7, 2),
C(3, 8) onto the triangle A’B’C’. Find the coordinates of A’, B’ and C’ and
calculate the area of the triangle A’B’C’.
Under a certain transformation, the image of the point (x, y) is (X, Y), where
aN: : :
a = € ee This transformation maps any point on the line
y
y =mx onto another point on the line y = mx. Find the (two) possible values
of m.
Under a certain transformation, the images of the points (1, 0) and (0, 1) are
(3, 5) and (5, 9) respectively. Find the image of the point (2, — 5) under the
same transformation. Find also the point whose image is (8, 6) under this
transformation.
Look. aGQ
Given that A is the matrix 1 0-1 and B is the matrix
|ae
1 —2 -1
—3 2 1 J, find the product AB. Hence write down A ‘+, the inverse
1 0-1
of A.
10 As a result of market research, it is known that a per cent of the population
buys Soft shampoo and b per cent does not, and that if the product is
advertised on television for a week, these percentages change from C to AC,
45 Saige cs 2
where C = (5)and A = ( ‘) . However, if it is not advertised for a week,
Blw 5
AiR
1 3
C changes to BC, where B= (: v
2 10
At the start of week 1, a= 20 and b = 80. Find the values of a and b two
weeks later, if Soft shampoo is advertised
(a) in both weeks,
(b) in week 1, but not in week 2,
(c) in week 2, but not in week 1.
11 Given that z is the complex number x + iy and that the matrix A(z) is defined
Xe —

as A(z) = ( 4, prove that

yx

A(z; 22)= A(z,)A(z2)

 Matrices 241
12 By considering the effect on the unit square, or otherwise, write down the
matrices M and R which represent a reflection in the line x=y, anda
rotation about the origin through an angle 0, respectively. Find the matrix
M 'RM and describe it in words.
Find also the matrix product R~ ‘MR and, by considering the effect of
R= 'MR on the unit square, show that

Ee & 20 cos if
cos 20 —sin 20

Hence write down expressions, in terms of cos @ and sin 0, for cos 20 and
sin 20.
Seer a (
13 The matrix Ais | 0 —1 2 J}. Show that A satisfies the matrix equation
0 3-2
A* = 13A — 121. Assuming that A! exists, show that this equation can be
written A” ' = (131 — A”), and hence find A}.
‘ Ape b
14 The matrix M is given by M= ie . where a,b,c,d € R. Find M?.
c
Given that M*=M and that b and c are non-zero, prove that M is
singular. Prove also that, in this case, the transformation T, defined by

etem)
maps all points of the plane to points of the line (1 — a)x = by. (C)

15 Given the matrix M = 5 (é A , evaluate M? and the determinant of M.

05 x x :
Find a set of matrices (*)such that M (*)= (*)and also a set of matrices

(‘)such that m(“) = at

v v —v
Describe, in geometrical terms, the transformation represented by the
matrix M. (JMB)
b\. : a6
16 The transpose of a matrix M = 6 i)is the matrix M‘ = (5 ‘) , and M

is said to be orthogonal when M7M =I, where I is the unit matrix. Given

that the matrix N = ~ Ss)is orthogonal, find the value of k.

af

Describe geometrically the transformation of the x—y plane which is

represented by N.
Under a transformation S of the real plane into itself, a point P = (x, y) is
mapped onto the point S(P)=(ax + by, cx + dy). Show that, when M is
orthogonal, the distance between any two points P and Q is the same as the
distance between their images S(P) and S(Q). (L)
 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex lle
242

17 A transformation T is represented by
x b 0 DG
= h b ellkt
(3 (C vin) ¥her i
(a) Draw a diagram showing the unit square and its image under T.
(b) Show that area is invariant under T.
(c) Show that T maps the curve y = 1/x onto itself.
(d) Show that T maps the region bounded by the curve y= 1/x, the lines
x = 1 and x =a, and the x-axis, onto the region bounded by the same
curve, the lines x = b and x = ab, and the x-axis.
a{ ab 1
(e) Hence show that |—dx =| — dx.
1x b x
t
1
(f) Given that F(t) = — dx, show that
ron
F(ab) = F(a) + F(b)
(The reader should note several interesting and significant points about this
question. The integral in (e) cannot be evaluated by methods which have
been introduced so far, and the result of (f) looks very much like a standard
property of logarithms. We shall return to these points in Book 2.)
 Chapter 12

Permutations and combinations

Arrangements
12.1 This chapter aims at teaching a method of approach to certain problems
involving arrangements and selections. In the course of the work, a notation is
introduced, and a formula is obtained for use in the proof of the binomial
theorem (Chapter 14).

Example 1 From a pack of playing cards, the Ace, King, Queen, Jack, and Ten
of Spades are taken. In how many ways can three of these five cards be placed in a
row from left to right?
The first card can be any one of the five, viz.:

Pie Ke od Os de gl0)
When the first card has been placed, there are four cards left to choose from,
and so the possible ways of placing the first two cards are:
Kee A Os GAT, A 10;
5 Y. eiepitlll616 Negeed“AL K 10;
QA, Qk, ‘ewe Q 10;
JA, JK, LO. J 10;
[eee OO e 61 0.J.
Thus, for each of the 5 ways of choosing the first, there are 4 ways in which the
second card may be chosen; therefore there are 5 x 4 (i.e. 20) ways of choosing
the first two cards.
Now for each of the 20 ways of placing the first two cards, there are 3 cards left
to choose from (e.g. if the first two cards were A K, the third could be Q, J, or 10);
therefore there are 20 x 3 ways of placing the third card.
Thus, three cards chosen from the Ace, King, Queen, Jack, and Ten of Spades
may be placed in a row from left to right in 60 different ways.

Example 2. Three schools have teams of six or more runners in a cross-country

race. In how many ways can the first six places be taken by the three schools, if
there are no dead heats?

243
244 Pure Mathematics 1 17a

First it should be made clear that there is no question of the individuality of

the runners, but only which school each of the first six runners belongs to.
The first place can be taken by any of the 3 schools.
When the first runner has come in, the second place can be taken by any of the
3 schools, so the first two places can be taken in 3 x 3, or 37, ways.
Similarly, the third place can be taken by any of the 3 schools, so the first three
places can be taken in 3? x 3, or 3°, ways.
Continuing the argument for the fourth, fifth and sixth places, it follows that
the first six places may be taken in 3°, or 729, ways by the three schools.

Example 3 How many even numbers, greater than 2000, can be formed with the
digits 1, 2, 4, 8, if each digit may be used only once in each number?
If the number is greater than 2000, the first digit can be chosen in 3 ways (viz.:
2, 4, or 8).
Then, whichever has been chosen to be the first digit, there are 2 ways in which
the last digit may be chosen, in order to make the number even. Thus there are
3 x 2 ways of choosing the first and last digits.
When the first and last digits have been chosen, there are 2 digits, either of
which may be the second digit of the number. Thus there are 3 x 2 x 2 ways of
choosing the first, last, and second digit.
Now, when three digits have been chosen, there is only 1 left to fill the
remaining place, and so there are 3 x 2 x 2 x 1, ie. 12, even numbers greater
than 2000 which may be formed from the digits 1, 2, 4, 8, without repetitions.
The following table is useful for showing the argument briefly:

Position of digit First Last Second Third

Number of possibilities é) 2 2 1

It is to be understood, in this and later tables, that the choice is made in the
order of the first line.

Exercise 12a
1 Ten boys are running a race. In how many ways can the first three places be
filled, if there are no dead heats?
2 In how many ways can four letters of the word BRIDGE be arranged in a
row, if no letter is repeated?
3 Five letters from the word DRILLING are arranged in a row. Find the
number of ways in which this can be done, when the first letter is I and the
last is L,
(a) if no letter may be repeated,
(b) if each letter may occur as many times as it does in DRILLING.
4 A man, who works a five-day week, can travel to work on foot, by cycle or by
bus. In how many ways can he arrange a week’s travelling to work?
 Permutations and combinations 245
5 How many five-figure odd numbers can be made from the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, if
no digit is repeated?
6 A girl has two coats, four scarves and three pairs of gloves. How many
different outfits, consisting of coat, scarf, and a pair of gloves, can she make
out of these?
In a class of thirty pupils, one prize is awarded for English, another for
French, and a third for mathematics. In how many ways can the recipients be
chosen?
A man has five different flags. In how many ways can he fly them one above
the other?
The computer department in a large company assigns a personal code
number to each employee in the form of a three-digit number, using the
digits 0 to 9 inclusive. Code numbers starting with 0 are reserved for
members of the management. How many code numbers are available for
non-management employees?
10 There are sixteen books on a shelf. In how many ways can these be arranged
if twelve of them are volumes of a history, and must be kept together, in
order?
11 A typist has six envelopes and six letters. In how many ways can one letter be
placed in each envelope without getting every letter in the right envelope?
12 How many postal codes of the form AB1 2CD (i.e. two letters, followed by a
single digit, a space, another digit and two more letters) can be formed from
the symbols A, B, C, D, 1 and 2, if each symbol is used once only?
13 In how many ways can the letters of the word NOTATION be arranged?
14 How many odd numbers, greater than 500 000, can be made from the digits
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, without repetitions?
15 Three letters from the word RELATION are arranged in a row. In how
many ways can this be done? How many of these contain exactly one
vowel?
16 Seven men and six women are to be seated in a row on a platform. In how
many ways can they be arranged if no two men sit next to each other? In how
many ways can the arrangement be made if there are six men and six women,
subject to the same restriction?
17 A man stays three days at a hotel and the menu is the same for breakfast each
day. He may have any one of three types of egg dish, or two types of fish, or
meat. In how many ways can he order his three breakfasts if he does not have
egg two days running nor repeat any dish?
18 A boy has five blue marbles, four green marbles and three red marbles. In
how many ways can he arrange four of them in a row, if the marbles of any
one colour are indistinguishable?
19 I have fifteen books of three different sizes, five of each. In how many ways can
I arrange them on my shelf if I keep books of the same size together?
20 Four men and their wives sit on a bench. In how many ways can they be
arranged if
(a) there is no restriction,
(b) each man sits next to his wife?
246 Pure Mathematics 1 ieee)

The factorial notation

12.2 There are times when a problem on arrangements leads to an answer
involving a product of more factors than it is convenient to write down. The next
example shows how this may arise.

Example 4 In how many ways can the cards of one suit, from a pack of playing
cards, be placed in a row?

Position of card in row | First Second ae Twelfth Thirteenth

Number of possibilities | 13 iWe ai ps 1

The table abbreviates the type of argument used in the last three examples,
and it leads to the conclusion that the cards of one suit can be placed in a row in
13.12% 610569: 82eT7 068 KI SK Ade 3 x Qoaliwage

To shorten the answer, the product could be evaluated, giving 6 227 020 800;
but it is easier to write
13!

(which is read, ‘factorial thirteen’, or by some, ‘thirteen shriek’!). Thus,

Thal Ons: Hae 3heQeeli=5040

and similarly for any other positive integer.

The factorial notation will be used freely in this chapter and Chapter 14, and
the reader should become thoroughly used to it before going on to the next
section.

9!
Example 5 (a) Evaluate Thi

(b) Write 40 x 39 x 38 x 37 in factorial notation.

(a) Written in full,

SE ARO TOK SRA KID RI

Zi, ate XT RO Ka ee x

in Dis
HiQee4

(D)atnA0 36 X35
SEM Diet
439 38 OT edn 88 30a ee
30x 302 eed
_ 40!
36!
 Permutations and combinations 247

Exercise 12b
1 Evaluate:

3! 10! 7! 12!
(a)r31, (b) 4!,l (Chas! (d) ia
gr? e) he
ar (f) es
or

11!
Eee!
612!
Elie 1)2
ee! 10! 10!
Daa
— ——_
Me 8 CY
eekeeI
O ap am?) aaisr-
2 Express in factorial notation:
(a)_6 5 x 4, (b) 10 x 9, (c) Bi al excl0x9%

(@) nin—1)(n=2), m2 a4 I)m,— t) 10SP,

6 XS S2HCS 15x 50 . n(n—1)
8) 30x
a ALee 4 2

OE ALTENE
h Tt Adit ee ae

Warr eT
. (n+ 1)n(n — 1) 2n(2n — 1) ;
(j) 1 oie k a ie (1) n(n—1)...(n—r
+1).

3 Express in factors:
(a) 20!
+ 21!, (b) 26!—25}, (c) 14!
—2(131),
(d) 15!
+ 4(14)), (e) (n+ 1)! +n), nr 1)! (= 2)!
(g) n! + 2(n— 1)!, (h) (n+ 2)! + (n+ 1)! 4+n!.
4 Simplify:
1st 15! ai! | 2!
@) thar? par M141" 8113!’
16! 2x16! 16! (a 351 3x35!
© on + toe tins ©tenor * ier’
n! n!
ORs cetera met pT
f n! 2x n! a n!
() (n—r)!r! ay(n—r+i1)(r—1)! (n—r+2)\(r—2)!

Permutations
12.3. In Example 4, it was found that 13 playing cards could be placed in a row
in 13! ways. If we consider n unlike objects placed in a row, using the same
method,

Position of object in row

Number of possibilities

we find that they may be arranged in n! ways.

248 Pure Mathematics 1 12.3

The arrangements of the n objects are called permutations. Thus

ABC, ACB, BCA, BAC, CAB, CBA,
are the 3! permutations of the three letters A, B, Gi
Again, in Example 1, it was found that 3 cards chosen from 5 unlike cards
could be arranged in 60 ways. This might be expressed by saying that there are
60 permutations of 3 cards chosen from 5 unlike cards.
A permutation is an arrangement of anumber of objects in a particular order.
In practice, the order may be in space, such as from left to right in a row; or it
may be in time, such as reaching the winning post in a race, or dialling on a
telephone.
How many permutations are there ofrobjects chosen from n unlike objects?
The method is indicated in the table below.

Order of choice
of object Ist = 2nd 3rd .. ~ (r—1)th rth
Number of
possibilities n (n — 1) (n — 2) = (n—r+2) (n—r+1)

Thus there are

n(n— 1)(n—2)...(n—r+2)(n—r+1)
permutations of the objects. But
n(n— 1)(n—2)...(n—r+2)(n—r-+ 1)

_ n(n—1)(n-2)..(n—1+2)n—rt+1) x (n—n)..2xt
= (n—r)...2x1
n!
(n—r)!
Therefore there are n!/(m —r)! permutations of r objects chosen from n unlike
objects, if r is less than n.
(We have already found that there are n! permutations of n unlike objects.)

Example 6 There are 20 books ona shelf, but the red covers of two of them clash,
and they must not be put together. In how many ways can the books be arranged?
This is best tackled by finding out the number of ways in which the two books
are together, and subtracting this from the number of ways in which the 20
books can be arranged if there is no restriction.
Suppose the two red books are tied together, then there are 19 objects, which
can be arranged in 19! ways. Now if the order of the two red books is reversed,
there will again be 19! arrangements; so that there are 2 x 19! ways of arranging
the books with the red ones next to each other.
With no restriction, 20 books can be arranged in 20! ways; therefore the
number of arrangements in which the red books are not together is
20)
— 2% 19)
18 x19!
 Permutations and combinations 249
Example 7 In how many ways can 8 people sit at a round table?
Since the table is round, the position of people relative to the table is of no
consequence. Thus, supposing they sit down, and then all move one place to the
left, the arrangement is still the same.
Therefore one person may be considered to be fixed, and the other 7 can then
be arranged about him or her in 7! ways.
Thus there are 5040 ways in which 8 people can sit at a round table.

Example 8 In how many ways can the letters of the word BESIEGE be
arranged?

First, give the three E’s suffixes: BE,SIE,GE,. Then, treating the E’s as
different, the 7 letters may be arranged in 7! ways.
Now, in every distinct arrangement, the 3 E’s may be rearranged amongst
themselves in 3! ways, without altering the positions of the B, S, I, or G; for
instance, SEIBEEG would have been counted 3! times in the 7! arrangements as

SE,IBE,E;G, SE,IBE,E,G, SE,IBE,E,G,

SE,IBE,E,G, SE,IBE,E,;G, SE,IBE,E,G.
Therefore the number of distinct arrangements of the letters in BESIEGE is
7!/3! = 840.
In the next exercise there are some examples which are best tackled from first
principles, like the next example.

Example 9 How many even numbers, greater than 50 000, can be formed with the
digits 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 0, without repetitions?

Compared with Example 3, §12.1, there are two extra difficulties: the number
can have either 5 or 6 digits, and the number cannot begin with 0. Therefore the
problem is split up into four parts:
(1) Numbers with 5 digits, the first digit being even.

Position of digit in number Ist Sth 2nd 3rd 4th

Number of possibilities J 2 4 3 2

This gives 1 x 2x 4x 3 x 2=48 possibilities.

(2) Numbers with 5 digits, the first digit being odd.

Position of digit in number

Number of possibilities

This gives 2 x 3 x 4x 3 x 2=144 possibilities.

 12:3
250 Pure Mathematics 1

(3) Numbers with 6 digits, the first digit being even.

Position of digit in number Ist 6th 2nd 3rd 4th Sth

Number of possibilities 2 2 4 3 2 1

This gives 2 x 2 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 96 possibilities.

(4) Numbers with 6 digits, the first digit being odd.

Position of digit in number Ist 6th 2nd 3rd 4th Sth

Number of possibilities 3 3 = 3 : 1

This gives 3 x 3x 4x 3 x 2 x 1 = 216 possibilities.

Therefore the total number of possibilities is 48 + 144 + 96 + 216 = 504.

Exercise 12c
1 Seven boys and two girls are to sit together on a bench. In how many ways
can they arrange themselves so that the girls do not sit next to each other?
2 Eight women and two men are to sit at a round table. In how many ways can
they be arranged? If, however, the two men sit directly opposite each other,
in how many ways can the ten people be arranged?
How many arrangements can be made of the letters in the word
TROTTING? In how many of these are the N and the G next to each other?
On a bookshelf, four books are bound in leather and sixteen in cloth. If the
books are to be arranged so that the leather-bound ones are together, in how
many ways can this be done? If, in addition, the cloth-bound books are to be
kept together, in how many ways can the shelf be arranged?
There is room for ten books on a bedside table, but there are fifteen to choose
from. Of these, however, a Bible and a book of ghost stories must go at the
ends. In how many ways can the books be arranged?
Ten beads of different colours are arranged on a ring. If a salesman claims
that no two of his rings are the same, what is the greatest number of rings he
could have? (A ring can be turned over.)
In his cowhouse, a farmer has seven stalls for cows, and four for calves. If he
has ten cows and five calves, in how many ways can he arrange the animals in
his cowhouse?
8 At a conference of five powers, each delegation consists of three members. If
each delegation sits together, with their leader in the middle, in how many
ways can the members be arranged at a round table?
9 How many numbers, divisible by 5, can be made with the digits 2, 3, 4, 5, no
digit being used more than once in each number?
10 In a cricket team, the captain has settled the first four places in the batting
order, and has decided that the four bowlers will occupy the last four places.
 Permutations and combinations 251
In how many ways can the batting order be made out?
11 How many arrangements can be made of the letters in the word
TERRITORY?
12 A man has ten ornaments for his mantelpiece, and of these the clock must go
in the centre. If there is only room for seven ornaments altogether, how many
arrangements can be made on the mantelpiece?
13 How many odd numbers, greater than 60 000, can be made from the digits 5,
6, 7, 8, 9, 0, if no number contains any digit more than once?
14 A code word consists of three letters, followed by two digits. How many code
words can be made, if no letter nor digit is repeated in any code word?
15 How many numbers of five digits can be made from the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
8, 9, when each number contains exactly one even digit and no digit more
than once?
16 A bridge player holds five spades, four hearts, two diamonds and two clubs.
If he keeps the cards of each suit together, in how many ways can he arrange
the cards he holds
(a) if the suits are in the above order,
(b) if the suits may be arranged in any order?
17 Find the number of ways in which the letters of ISOSCELES can be
arranged if the two E’s are separated.
18 Find how many numbers greater than 400 000 can be made, using all the
digits of 416 566.
19 In how many ways can four red beads, three green beads, and five beads of
different colours be strung on a circular wire?
20 Six natives and two foreigners are seated in a compartment of a railway
carriage with four seats either side. In how many ways can the passengers
seat themselves if
(a) the foreigners do not sit opposite each other,
(b) the foreigners do not sit next to each other?

Combinations
12.4 In the last section, attention was given to permutations, where the order
of a set of objects was of importance; but in other circumstances, the order of
selection is irrelevant. If, for instance, eight tourists find there is only room for
five of them at a hotel, they will be chiefly interested in which five of them stay
there, rather than in any order of arrangement.
When a selection of objects is made with no regard being paid to order, it is
referred to as a combination. Thus, ABC, ACB, CBA, are different permutations,
but they are the same combination of letters.

Example 10 In how many ways can 13 cards be selected from a pack of 52

playing cards? |

First of all, suppose that thirteen cards from the pack are laid on a table in an
order from left to right. From the last section, it follows that this can be done in
52!/39! ways.
252 Pure Mathematics 1 12.4

Now each combination of cards can be arranged in 13! ways, therefore

the number of permutations = 13! x (the number of combinations)
!
ie ae= 13! x (the number of combinations)

Therefore the number of combinations of 13 cards chosen from a pack of playing

cards is 52!/(39!133).

In how many ways can r objects be chosen from n unlike objects?

In §12.3 it was shown that there are n!/(n—r)! permutations of r objects
chosen from n unlike objects.
Now each combination of r objects can be arranged in r! ways, therefore
the number of permutations =r! x (the number of combinations)
!
=r! x (the number of combinations)
(n—r)!

Hence the number of combinations of r objects chosen from n unlike objects is

n!
(n—r)!r!
For brevity, the number of combinations of r objects chosen from n unlike
objects is written "C,, thus

n!
" (n—v)lr!

"C, is also sometimes written as ,C, and (")(see §14.5).

r

Qu. 1 What are the values of (a) °C, °C.; (b) 1°C,, °C4?
Qu.2 In how many ways can n—r objects be chosen from n unlike objects?
Qu.3 Show that "C,="C i Seed,hd

Example 11 A mixed hockey team containing 5 men and 6 women is to be chosen

from 7 men and 9 women. In how many ways can this be done?
Five men can be selected from 7 men in 7C, ways, and 6 women can be
selected from 9 women in °C, ways.
Now for each of the 7C, ways of selecting the men, there are °C. ways of
selecting the women, therefore there are ’C; x °C, ways of selecting the team.

7 9 Nm ia9!
SB ste

Cs x Cs ash” Bil
ar ea
Therefore the team can be chosen in 1764 ways.
 Permutations and combinations 253

Exercise 12d
1 Evaluate: (a) *°C,, (b) °C4, (c) 7C3, (d) °Cs, (e) 8C,.
Express in factors: (f) "C2, (g) "C3, (h) "C,>, (i) "*!C,, (j) "*1C,_1.
2 In how many ways can a cricket team be selected from thirteen players?
3 There are ten possible players for the VI to represent a tennis club, and of
these the captain and the secretary must be in the team. In how many ways
can the team be selected?
Ten boxes each hold one white ball and one coloured ball, every colour being
different. Find the number of ways in which one ball may be taken from each
box if half those taken are white.
Nine people are going to travel in two taxis. The larger has five seats, and the
smaller has four. In how many ways can the party be split up?
A girl wants to ask eight friends to tea, but there is only room for four of
them. In how many ways can she choose whom to invite if two of them are
sisters and must not be separated? (Consider two cases, (a) when both sisters
are invited, (b) when neither sister is invited.)
In a game of mixed hockey there are ten married couples and two spinsters
playing. In how many ways can the two teams be made up, if no husband
may play against his wife?
A ferry which holds ten people carries a party of thirteen men and seven
women across a river. Find the number of ways in which the party may be
taken across if all the women go on the first trip.
Twelve people each spin a coin. Find the number of ways in which exactly
five heads may be obtained.
10 Two punts each hold six people. In how many ways can a party of six boys
and six girls divide themselves so that there are equal numbers of boys and
girls in each punt?
11 In how many ways can eight white and four black draughtsmen be arranged
in a pile?
12 A committee of six is to be formed from nine women and three men. In how
many ways can the members be chosen so as to include at least one man?
13 Ten men are present at a club. In how many ways can four be chosen to play
bridge if two men refuse to sit at the same table?
14 A man is allowed to take six volumes to a desert island. He is going to choose
these from eleven books, one of which contains two volumes, which he will
take or leave together. Find the number of ways in which he can make his
choice.
15 Four people are to play bridge and four others are to play whist. Find the
number of ways in which they may be chosen if eleven people are available.
16 A party of twelve is to dine at three tables at a hotel. In how many ways may
they be split up if each table holds four?
17 Twelve people are to travel by three cars, each of which holds four. Find the
number of ways in which the party may be divided if two people refuse to
travel in the same car.
18 A committee of ten is to be chosen from nine men and six women. In how
 Ex 12d
254 Pure Mathematics 1

many ways can it be formed if at least four women are to be on the

committee?
19 In how many ways can eleven men be chosen to represent a cricket club if
they are selected from seven Englishmen, six Welshmen and five Scots, and if
at least one of each nationality must be in the team?

Exercise 12e (Miscellaneous)

1 In the absence of the chairman, a committee of three vice-chairmen and four
ordinary members is to sit on a platform. In how many ways can they be
arranged if one of the vice-chairmen sits in the middle?
In how many ways can a committee of four men and three women be formed
from seven men and eight women?
Show that the number of ways of choosing six objects from fourteen unlike
objects is equal to the number of ways of choosing five objects from fifteen
unlike objects.
How many arrangements can be made of the letters in THIRTIETH?
In how many ways can a committee of eight be arranged at a round table? In
how many of these does the chairman sit between the secretary and the
treasurer?
How many circular rings can be formed from seven differently coloured
beads? In how many of these are the red and the blue beads separated?
In how many ways can a boy arrange in a row six balls from seven cricket
balls, six tennis balls and five squash balls?
Find the number of diagonals of a polygon of n sides.
How many five-figure numbers can be made from the digits of 10 242?
In how many ways can ten books be arranged on a shelf if four of them are
kept together?
In how many ways can a man who has ten chairs put five in one room, three
in a second and two in a third?
How many odd numbers, greater than 600 000, can be made from the digits
5,:6, 7.859, 0;
(a) if repetitions are not allowed,
(b) if repetitions are allowed?
How many arrangements can be made with the letters of LEATHERETTE?
In how many ways can four mince-pies, three jam tarts, and three cakes be
given to ten children if each receives one?
In how many ways can a committee of nine be formed from ten men and
their wives, if no husband serves on it with his wife?
There are six ornaments on my mantelpiece. In how many ways can I put
three more on it without changing the order of those already there?
How many mixed hockey teams may be made from six married couples, one
bachelor and three spinsters, if no wife will play without her husband?
A man has ten pieces of clothing to dispose of. In how many ways can he do
this if he gives away at least two articles and sells the rest?
 Permutations and combinations 255

19 Eight boys and two girls sit on a bench. If the girls may sit neither at the ends
nor together, in how many ways can they be arranged?
20 In how many arrangements of the letters of REVERSE are the V and S
separated?
21 In how many ways is it possible to select one or more letters from those in
INSIPIDITY?
22 Four men and their wives, four bachelors and four spinsters are travelling in
two eight-seat compartments of a train, one of which is a smoking
compartment and the other is not. In how many ways can the party be split
up if no wife is separated from her husband?
23 A painter has to paint the doors of twelve new council houses and has
sufficient paint to do five green and three yellow. If he is given paint of only
one colour — blue, green, or yellow — for the remaining doors, in how many
ways can the twelve doors be painted?
24 In how many ways can a lift holding eight passengers carry a party of
thirteen up a building in two journeys?
25 How many numbers of five or six digits can be formed from the digits 1, 2, 2,
2,35 42
26 In how many ways is it possible to select six letters, including at least one
vowel, from the letters of (a) INCOMPUTABLE, (b) FLABELLIFORM?
Chapter 13

Series
Sequences
13.1 The reader should examine the following lists of numbers. Each list is
written down in a definite order, and there is a simple rule by which the terms are
obtained. Such a list of terms is called a sequence.

Qu. 1 Write down the next two terms in each of the fo “ine sequences:
(a) Goat (b) a2; eB, ftEar (c) 1,2, 4,8,.
@ tide © 13233,4, OLFb4«
(g) 1, 4,9, 16,. Ch) ya Getdod 20sceed 0) fe ee
(j) 4, Illy sade. (kj hlge ha. (Ol = eee
Suppose one is asked to add up the integers from 1 to 100. This could be done
by elementary arithmetic, but it would be very tedious: fortunately there is a
short-cut.
First write the numbers down in their natural order:
14+2+3+...+98+99
+ 100

Now write the numbers down again in the opposite order, so that we have:
1+ 24+ 3+...+ 98+ 994100
1004) 99'4- 98: 54> B4ee 24+ 21
101+ 101+ 101+...+ 101+ 101+ 101
The numbers in each column have been added together, and, since there are 100
terms in the top line, the total is 100 x 101 = 10 100. But this is twice the sum
required, therefore the sum of the integers from 1 to 100 is 5050.
If the terms of a sequence are considered as a sum, for instance
1+2+3+4+...+98+
99 + 100
or
1+3+4+$t...
the expression is called a series. A series may end after a finite number of terms,

256
 Series 257
in which case it is called a finite series; or it may be considered not to end,
and it
is then called an infinite series.

Arithmetical progressions
13.2 The method of§13.1, for finding the sum of a series, may only be applied
to a certain type, which is usually called an arithmetical progression (often
abbreviated to A.P.). For example,
14+3+5+...+99
74+114+15+...4+79
3—2-—7-...—42
1g+14+134+...4+34
—2-—4-6-...—16
are arithmetical progressions. In such a series, any term may be obtained from
the previous term by adding a certain number, called the common difference.
Thus the common differences in the above progressions are 2, 4, — 5,4, —2.

Example 1 Find the third, tenth, twenty-first and nth terms of the A.P. with first
term 6 and common difference 5.

Position
of term 3rd 4th 10th 21st nth

Note that to find the mth term n — 1 common differences are added to the first
term. (Throughout this chapter it should be assumed that n represents a positive
integer.)
The third, tenth, twenty-first, and nth terms are 16, 51, 106, and Sn + 1.

Example 2 Find the sum of the first twenty terms of the AP. -4—1+2+....
To find the twentieth term, add 19 times the common difference to the first
term: —4+ 19 x 3=53.
Write S,, for the sum of the first twenty terms, then using the method of §13.1,

S.o= —4-—142+4+...+53

Again,
Soo = 23+ 20447+...—4
Adding,
2849 = 49 + 494+ 494+... +49
= 20 x 49
~, S59 = 490
Therefore the sum of the first twenty terms of the A.P. is 490.
258 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 13a

Exercise 13a
1 Which of the following series are arithmetical progressions? Write down the
common differences of those that are.
(a) 7+84+ 10+ 113, (b) —2—5-—8-—1],
(c) 1+1.14+124 1.3, (d) 14+1.14+1.114 1.111,
(ec) +2+6+43, (f) 174+27+37+4?,
(g) n+2n+ 3n+ 4n, (h) 1+34+43+4+4,
(i) 1442443244, (j) 194 124+5—2—9,
(k) 1=24+3=4 +5, (l) 1+08+0.6+0.4.
Write down the terms indicated in each of the following A.P.s:
(a) 34+11+..., 10th, 19th, (b) 845+...,
15th, 31st,
(c) 44+-$4..., 12th, nth, (d) 50+
48 +..., 100th, nth,
(ec) 74+ 64+..., 42nd, nth, (f) 34+74+...,
200th, (n+ 1)th.
Find the number of terms in the following A.P.s:
(a) 24+4+6+...+ 46, (b) 50+47+44+4+...4+
14,
(c) 2.74 3.2 + ..>R17.7, (d) 644744...
+ 314,
(ce) 407+ 4014+...
— 133, (f) 2—9—...
— 130,
(g) 2+4+...+4n, (h) x + 2x4...
+x,
(i) a+(a+d)+...+ {a+(n—1)d}, (j) a+(at+d)+...
41.
Find the sums of the following A.P.s:
(a) 14+34+5+4... +101, (b) 2+7412+...+77,
(c) —10—7—4-... + 50, (d) 71 +67 + 63 + :.. — 33,
(e) 2.01 + 2.02 + 2.03 +... + 3.00, (f) 1+144144+...4+44,
(g) x+3x+5x+...+21x, (h) a+(a+1)+...+(a+n-—1),
(i) a+(a+d)+...+ {a+(n—1)d}.
Find the sums of the following arithmetical progressions as far as the terms
indicated:
(a) 4+10+...12th term, (b) 15+ 13+4+...20th term,
(c) 1+2+...200th term, (d) 20+ 13+...16th term,
(ec) 6+ 10+...nth term, (f) 14+1+4+...nth term.
The second term of an A.P. is 15, and the fifth is 21. Find the common
difference, the first term and the sum of the first ten terms.
The fourth term of an A.P. is 18, and the common difference is — 5. Find the
first term and the sum of the first sixteen terms.
Find the difference between the sums of the first ten terms of the A.P.s whose
first terms are 12 and 8, and whose common differences are respectively 2
and 3.
The first term of an A.P. is — 12, and the last term is 40. If the sum of the
progression is 196, find the number of terms and the common difference.
Find the sum of the odd numbers between 100 and 200.
11 Find the sum of the even numbers, divisible by three, lying between 400 and
500.
12 The twenty-first term of an A.P. is 54, and the sum of the first twenty-one
terms is 944. Find the first term, the common difference and the sum of the
first thirty terms.
 Series 259
13 Show that the sum of the integers from 1 to n is 5n(n + 1).
14 The twenty-first term of an A.P. is 37 and the sum of the first twenty terms is
320. What is the sum of the first ten terms?
15 Show that the sum of the first n terms of the A.P. with first term a and
common difference d is 3n{2a + (n—1)d}.

Geometrical progressions
13.3. Another series of common occurrence is the geometrical progression, for
example:

Wa hae er sty
3+6+12+...+192
NG ei Dal
Bap PA Ae SR OOO MLE

In such a progression, the ratio ofa term to the previous one is a constant, called
the common ratio. Thus, the common ratios of the above progressions are
respectively 4,2 and — 3.

Qu. 2 Write down the third and fourth terms of the progressions which begin
(i)2+4+..., (i) 12+6+..., (a) if they are A.P.s, (b) if they are G.P.s.

Example 3 Find the third, tenth, twenty-first and nth terms of the G.P. which
begins 3+6+....

Position
of term 1st | 2nd 3rd 4th 10th 21st nth

Value 3 30 BN ea a a ane taeo

Note that to find the mth term, the first term is multiplied by the (m— 1)th
power of the common ratio.
The third, tenth, twenty-first, and nth terms are 12, 1536, 3 145 728, and
Ce ate

Example 4 Find the sum of the first eight terms of the geometrical progression
2+64+18+....
To find the eighth term, multiply the first term by the seventh power of the
common ratio: 2 x 3’, .
Let Sg be the sum of the first eight terms of the expression.
42x
37? +...4+2
1 Sg=24+2%3 x 37

Now multiply both sides by the common ratio and write the terms obtained
one place to the right, so that we have
Sg=2+2x342x37+...4+2x37
3Sgp= 2K 342% 3740.4 2 3°
37+2x
260 Pure Mathematics 1 13.3

Subtracting the top line from the lower,

ee aaa Sease
Eat Sie 3 aol

Therefore the sum of the first eight terms is 6560.

Exercise 13b
1 Which of the following series are geometrical progressions? Write down the
common ratios of those that are.
(a) 3+9+27+81, (b) 1+44+4%4+4,
(cy) =142—4 45; (dpi = Pi Se
(ce) 1414414414, (f) ata?
+a3 + a+,
(2) Le dd 4+1 2E133 ek (bh) bee
(jn 2458-6, (j) 3+ 3427+
162.
2 Write down the terms indicated in each of the following geometrical
progressions. Do not simplify your answers.
(a) 5+10+..., 11th, 20th; (b) 10+ 25+..., 7th, 19th;
(c) 44+34...,
12th, nth; (d) 3—2+...,
8th, nth;
(e) 3-—4+...,
9th, nth; (f) 34+144..., 19th, 2nth.
3 Find the number of terms in the following geometrical progressions:
(a) 2+44+8+... +512, (b) 814+274+9+4+...+35,
(c) 0.03 + 0.06 + 0.12 +... + 1.92, (dd) #-B+s-...-1K,
(ec) 5+104+20+...+5
x 2", (f) at+ar+ar?+...+ar""},
4 Find the sums of the geometrical progressions in No. 3. Simplify, but do not
evaluate, your answers.
5 Find the sums of the following geometrical progressions as far as the terms
indicated. Simplify, but do not evaluate, your answers.
(a) 44124364...,12th term: (b) 15+5+4+13+4...,
20th term:
(c) 1—2+4+4-...,
50th term; (d) 24—12+46-..., 17th term;
(ec) 1.141.2141.3314+...,23rdterm; (f) 4+4444...,13th term;
(g) 3+64+12+...,nth term; (h) 1-344
-..., nth term.
6 The third term of a geometrical progression is 10, and the sixth is 80. Find
the common ratio, the first term and the sum of the first six terms.
7 The third term of a geometrical progression is 2, and the fifth is 18. Find two
possible values of the common ratio, and the second term in each case.
8 The three numbers, n—2, n, n+ 3, are consecutive terms of a geometrical
progression. Find n, and the term after n+ 3.
9 A man starts saving on Ist April. He saves 1p the first day, 2p the second, 4p
the third, and so on, doubling the amount every day. If he managed to keep
on saving under this system until the end of the month (30 days), how much
would he have saved? Give your answer in pounds, correct to three
significant figures.
10 The first term of a G.P. is 16 and the fifth term is 9. What is the value of the
seventh term?
 Series 261
11 Show that the sum ofthe series 4 + 12 + 36 + 108 + ... to 20 terms is greater
than 3 x 10°.
12 The numbers n—4, n+ 2, 3n+1 are in geometrical progression. Find the
two possible values of the common ratio.
13 What is the common ratio of the G.P. (,/2— 1) + (3 —2,/2) + ...? Find the
third term of the progression.
14 Find the ratio of the sum of the first 10 terms of the series

log x + log x? + log x*+ + log x8 +...

to the first term.

Formulae for the sums of A.P.s and G.P.s

13.4 The methods of Examples 2 and 4 will now be applied to general A.P.s
and G.P.s to obtain formulae for their sums.
(a) If the first term of an A.P. is a, and the nth term is /, we may find the sum S,
of the first n terms.
We have

S,=a+(a+d)+...+(l1—d)+I (where there are n terms), and again,

S,=l+(l-—d)+...4(a+d)+a

Adding,

28, =(a+)l+(a+l+...4+(a+)4+(a4+l)

Now there are n terms on the right-hand side,

.. 258, =n(a + 1)
ie oa tf)
.S,= 3

(b) If the first term of an A.P. is a, and the common difference is d, the nth term
is a+ (n—1)d. Substituting / =a +(n— 1)d in the formula above,

S,=5{a+a+(n—1)d}

hee 5(2a +(n—1)d}

(c) If the first term of a G.P. is a and the common ratio is r, we may find the
sum S,, of the first n terms.
The nth term is ar"', therefore

S,=a+ar+ar?+...+ar"™!
v.rS,= ar+ar?+...+ar"~'+ar"
262 Pure Mathematics 1 13.4

Subtracting,
S, —'S, =@—=ar"
~, 8,(L—7r) =all — 7”)
P igths 1—-r’
Se ato l—r

An alternative formula for the sum of a G.P. is obtained by multiplying

numerator and denominator by — I:

This is more convenient if r is greater than 1.

Example 5 In an arithmetical progression, the thirteenth term is 27, and the

seventh term is three times the second term. Find the first term, the common
difference and the sum of the first ten terms.
[We have two unknowns (the first term and the common difference). We have
two pieces of information:
(a) the thirteenth term is 27.
(b) the seventh term is three times the second term.
Thus we can form two equations which will enable us to find the two
unknowns. |
Let the first term be a, and let the common difference be d.
Then the thirteenth term is a + 12d, therefore
a+ 12d=27
The seventh term is a + 6d, and the second term is a + d, therefore
a+ 6d =3(a+d)
» ahs 20
Substituting in the first equation,
a+ 8a=27
a=3
and so
C=.
Therefore the first term is 3, and the common difference is 2.
To find the sum of the first ten terms, we know that

ee 5(2a+(n —1)d}

= x 24
Therefore the sum of the first ten terms is 120.
 Series 263
Example 6 Ina geometrical progression, the sum of the second and third terms is
6, and the sum of the third and fourth terms is — 12. Find the first term and the
common ratio.

[As in the last example, we have two unknowns (the first term and the
common ratio). We have two pieces of information:
(a) the sum of the second and third terms is 6,
(b) the sum of the third and fourth terms is — 12.
We may therefore write down two equations and these will enable us to find the
two unknowns. |
Let the first term be a, and let the common ratio be r. Then the second term is
ar, and the third term is ar”, therefore

ar + ar? =6
The third term is ar’, and the fourth term is ar, therefore

ar? + ar? = —12

Factorising the left-hand sides of the equations,

ar(1+7r)=6
ar?(1+r)=—12
We may eliminate a by dividing:

alleen): ¥¢ sige
are(icsr)! geo?

fc —2

Substituting r= —2 in ar(1 +r) =6,

a(—2)(—1)=6
init =

Therefore the first term is 3, and the common ratio is —2.

Example 7 The sum of a number of consecutive terms of an arithmetical

progression is — 194, the first term is 163, and the common difference is — 3. Find
the number of terms.
With the notation of §13.4,

n
Sie 3 (2a +(n—1)d}

Substituting S, = — 194, a= 164, d= —3:

 Pure Mathematics 1 13.4
264
39 on
x ghee 3(n — 1) 7

“, —39 =n(36 — 3n)

“, 3n* — 36n — 39 =0
Dividing through by 3,
n? —12n—13=0
“. (n— 13)(n+ 1)=0
Eni EOF, geet
Therefore the number of terms is 13.

Example 8 What is the smallest number of terms of the geometrical progression,

8+24472+..., that will give a total greater than 6 000 000?
With the notation of §13.4,

S,—a (“fal )
a r—1
Substituting a = 8 and r=3,

a4
S,=¢/——__
(7) (3"—1)
|=4G"-1
Now if we solve the equation
4(3" — 1) = 6 000 000
the first integer greater than the value of n found from this will be the number of
terms required.
To solve the equation:
3"— 1 = 1 500 000
“. 3"= 1 500 001
Taking logarithms (base 10) of both sides,
nlg
3 =l1g 1 500 001
, 8 1500 001
Bo a igsd
_ 6.1761*
~ 0.4771
= 12.94, correct to four significant figures
Therefore the number of terms required to make a total exceeding 6 000 000
is 13.
*If a calculator is used it is not necessary, or desirable, to write these figures down.
 Series 265
Arithmetic and geometric means
13.5 If three numbers a, b, c are in arithmetical progression, b is called the
arithmetic mean of a and c. The common difference ofthe progression is given by
b—a or c—b. Therefore

b—a=c—b
7 2D=a--c

Therefore the arithmetic mean of a and c is (a+c)/2. This is the ordinary

‘average’ of a and c.

If three numbers a, b, c are in geometrical progression, b is called the

geometric mean of a and c. The common ratio is given by b/a or c/b. Therefore

Pe
a b

* b? =ac

Therefore the geometric mean of a and c is J(ac). If a rectangle is drawn with

sides a and c, then b is the side of a square whose area is equal to that of the
rectangle.

Qu.3 Find (a) the arithmetic mean, (b) the geometric mean of 4 and 64.
Qu.4 The reciprocal of the harmonic mean of two numbers is the arithmetic
mean of their reciprocals. Find the harmonic mean of 5 and 20. Also find the
arithmetic and geometric means of 5 and 20.
Qu.5 Find an expression for the harmonic mean of a and c.

Exercise 13c
1 Find the sum of the even numbers up to and including 100.
2 How many terms of the series 2—6+ 18—54+... are needed to make a
total of 4(1 — 38)?
3 The fifth term of an A.P. is 17 and the third term is 11. Find the sum of the
first seven terms.
4 The fourth term of a G.P. is — 6 and the seventh term is 48. Write down the
first three terms of the progression.
5 Find the sum of the first eight terms of the G.P.5+15+....
6 What is the difference between the sums to ten terms of the A.P. and G.P.
whose first terms are —2+4...?
7 The sum of the second and fourth terms of an arithmetical progression is 15,
and the sum of the fifth and sixth terms is 25. Find the first term and the
common difference.
8 The second term of an arithmetical progression is three times the seventh,
and the ninth term is 1. Find the first term, the common difference, and
which is the first term less than 0.
266 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 13c

9 Ina geometrical progression, the sum of the second and third terms is 9, and
the seventh term is eight times the fourth. Find the first term, the common
ratio, and the fifth term.
10 The fourth term of an arithmetical progression is 15, and the sum of the first
five terms is 55. Find the first term and the common difference, and write
down the first five terms.
11 The sum of the first three terms of an arithmetical progression is 3, and the
sum of the first five terms is 20. Find the first five terms of the progression.
12 The sum of the first two terms of ageometrical progression is 3, and the sum
of the second and third terms is — 6. Find the first term and the common
ratio.
13 How many terms of the A.P. 15+ 13+11+... are required to make a total
of — 36?
14 Which is the first term of the geometrical progression 5+ 10+ 20+... to
exceed 400 000?
15 Find how many terms of the G.P. 1 +3+9 +... are required to make a total
of more than a million.
16 The sum of the first six terms of an arithmetical progression is 21, and the
seventh term is three times the sum of the third and fourth. Find the first
term and the common difference.
17 In an arithmetical progression, the sum of the first five terms is 30, and the
third term is equal to the sum of the first two. Write down the first five terms
of the progression.
18 Find the difference between the sums of the first ten terms of the geometrical
and arithmetical progressions which begin, 6+ 12+....
19 The sum of the first n terms of a certain series is n? + 5n, for all integral values
of n. Find the first three terms and prove that the series is an arithmetical
progression.
20 The second, fourth, and eighth terms of an A.P. are in geometrical
progression, and the sum of the third and fifth terms is 20. Find the first four
terms of the progression.
21 A man pays a premium of £100 at the beginning of every year to an
Insurance Company on the understanding that at the end of fifteen years he
can receive back the premiums which he has paid with 5% compound
interest. What should he receive? Give your answer correct to three
significant figures.
22 A man earned in a certain year £2000 from a certain source and his annual
earnings from this time continued to increase at the rate of 5%. Find to the
nearest £ the whole amount he received from this source in this year and the
next seven years. Give your answer correct to three significant figures.

Proof by induction
13.6 It sometimes happens that a result is found by some means which does
not provide a proof. For example, consider the following table:
 Series 267

n eae 4 5
Sum of the integers up to n 1 3 6 10 15
n> 1 8 27 64 125
Sum of the cubes of the integers up to n | | 9 36 100 225

Here the terms in the fourth row are the squares of the corresponding terms in
the second row. Thus it is natural to suppose that
1°4+234...4+ne?=(1424...
+n)?
Now 1+2+...+7 is an arithmetical progression whose sum is 4n(n + 1).
Therefore we should suppose that
1°+234...+n3 =1n?(n4+ 1)?
In proof by induction, it is shown that if the result holds for some particular
value of n, say k, then it also holds for n = k + 1. It is then verified that the result
does hold for some value of n, usually 1 or 2.

Example 9 Prove by induction that 1° + 274+... +n? =4n?(n + 1)’.

Suppose the result holds for a particular value of n, say k; that is,
194+234+...+k? =$k7(k + 1)
Then, adding the next term of the series, (k + 1)°, to both sides, we obtain

1742? +... ERO + (K+ 1)? =the

(k + 1)? + (K+ 1%
k?

=(k+ (Gtk 7

k?+4k+4
=(k + 1)? (oe)

713423 +... +(k + 13 =4(k+ 17k

+ 2)?
Now this is the formula with n = k + 1. Therefore if the result holds for n =k,
then it also holds for n=k +1; but if n=1,

LHS.=13=1 and» RHS.=}x1?x2?=1

Therefore, since the result is true for n = 1, it follows, by what has been shown
above, that it must also be true for n = 2. From this it follows that the result is
true for n = 3, and so on, for all positive integral values of n.

Exercise 13d
Prove the following results by induction:
11424... +n=jn(n+ 1).
212 4+ 2? +... +n? =in(n + 1) (2n'+1).
 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 13d
268

31X2S2«K34... nin + YF 2)
$ IN =sni
+ 7).
)(2n
41x34+2x44.. + n(n + 2)=sn(n +1)
53484... +t? —1)=4n(n— DQn+ 3):
1—r’
6 atart.. tae! =al )
1—r

i 1 Fe
Tergaryatinigepe
tt Ge aii eerie tier
1 ‘the Die
Six 2x47" * no) 4 ee
oF IEE TEs gallate platen
4 36 n7(n — 1)? ne
oe 1 wet
on
i
1 :
TK2R3
md Shey nick
1)(hal Sola re
11 sit = nx" ', [Use the formula for differentiating a product.]
x

12 17+374 57+... +(2n— 1)? =4n(4n? — 1).

13 Foro aah ideop. + (2n — 1)?
) = n?(2n? — 1).
14 474774107 +...+(3n
+ 1)? =4n(6n? + 15n
+ 11).
1 ‘ :
15 Show that (")+ ( : ) = ("‘ ),
and prove by induction that
r r— r

(1 + x)" =ta mbit (")x bata

n n! . PED AEs
where fait and r is a positive integer, less than or equal to n.
r n—r)!r!

Further series
13.7 Certain series can be summed by means of the results:
14+2+...4n=4n(n+ 1)
174+27+... +n? =4n(n+ 1)(2n+4 1)
124234... +n3 =4n?(n+ 1)?
which appear in the last section and exercise.
It should be noted that they may be used to sum the series to more or less than
n terms. For instance,

1° +29 +... +(2n + 1)? =4(2n+ 1)7{(2n +1) + 1}?

=4(2n + 1)?(2n + 2)?
=4(2n + 1)?4(n + 1)?
=(2n+ 1)?(n + 1)?
 Series 269
Qu.6 Find the sums of the following series:
(a) 1+2+...42n, (Dy 17 22 40 a + 1)?
(c) 1974 294+...4(n—1)3, (d) 14+2+...+(2n—1),
(ce) 17427.4 ..
(2n)?, (f) 1°+23+...4+(2n—1)3.

Example 10 Find the sum ofthe series 1° + 3° +53 +...4+(2n+1)

This series can be thought of as 1° + 27 + 334+ 43 +534... 4+(2n4 1) with
the even terms missing.
We found above that
1°42? +334 43459+...4(2n+ 1)? =(2n+ 1)?(n +1)
and so it remains to find the sum of the series

2 4 2 Gr 4h. On) 2? x 134-23 « 29-423 x 334 42? x 0?

= 819 + 23+ 334+...
+n)
= 8 x 4n?(n+ 1)? = 2n7(n+ 1)?
Therefore 1° + 3° + 53+... + (2n + 1)? =(2n+ 1)?(n + 1)? — 2n?(n + 1)?
= (n+ 1)?{(2n + 1)? — 2n?}
=(n+ 1)?(4n? + 4n+ 1 —2n?)
Therefore the sum is (n + 1)?(2n? + 4n +4 1).

Example 11 Find the sum of n terms of the series 2x 3+3x4+4x5+4....

The mth term of this series is (m + 1)(m+ 2), or m* + 3m-+ 2. Therefore we
require the sum of
17+3x1+2
4+274+3x2+4+2
+ 374+3x3+2

+n?4+3xn+2
Now the sums of the three columns are respectively
174+ 274 374... +n? =in(n + 1)(2n+ 1)
3(1 +2434... +n)=3n(n+4 1)
(24-2424 442)=2n
Therefore the sum of the series is

3
enn 1)(2n+ 1) + nln + 1) + 2n= Ff(n+ 1)(2n+ 1) + 9(n+ 1) + 12}

=F (2n? + 3nt+14+9n+9 + 12)

3 =(2n? + 12n + 22)

270 Pure Mathematics 1 13.7

1 3 nye
gnint 1)(2n+ 1)+ zntnt 1)+2n= FA +6n+ 11)

Therefore the sum of the first n terms of the series 2 x 3+3x4+4x5+... 18

4n(n* + 6n + 11).

The }° notation
13.8 It is useful to have a short way of writing expressions like
1742?4...4n?
This is done by writing

ym
which means, ‘the sum of all the terms like m?’. For extra precision, however,
numbers are placed below and above the }’, to show where the series begins and
ends. Thus

m? =174+2?4...+n?
“Ms

and
5
Y m(m+2)=2x44+3x54+4x64+5x7
2

Exercise 13e
1 Write in full:

(a) Ym’, 1
(b) ym?, (c) ¥ (m2 +m),
z

3 1 5 4

(d) eee era 1) ’ (e) 22 p) (f) » (- 1)"m?,

(2) Sm” 1 ‘
dh) SeS m ;
aT MAN ethn rife )

‘ n m
0) 4 m+ 1

2 Write in the }’ notation:

(ait
Bee Jaranein:
(b) 14+ 244... 4+n44(n+4 1),
(c) 14+34+5+23+4,
(d) 37+35 + 344 35,
 Series 271
(e:) 2x74+3x8+4x9+5x10+6x
11,

()l+s+o+a+e,
Mex SMD XxDAS 57 WEA x OD NS 1
(g)
4 + 6 + 8 + Hous Fldni
(h) -1+2—3+4-5+46,

G) 1—2+4—8
+ 16—32,

Cy) fe 3 — Ox 53 x 7 4 + 5 IT.

3 Use the results quoted at the beginning of §13.7 to find the sums of the
following series:
(a) 1+2+4+3+...+(2n+ 1),
(Bye eteo tenia 1)?
(cVie 223 ob oot (2n)>
(d )34+5+7+4+...+(2n+1),
(e)2+54+8+411+...,ton terms,
(f) 54+9+13+17+..., ton terms,
(g)2+5410+4+...+(n?
+1),
(h y)1x242x34+3x4+4+4x5+...,
ton terms,
(i) 1x3+2x4+3x5+4x6+...,
ton terms,
(j) 27 +4? + 674+... +(2n)?,
(k) 17 +374+574+...+(2n— 1)’,
(l) 2+10+ 30+...+(n? +n),
(m)2+12+36+...+(n? +n?)

Infinite geometrical progressions

13.9 Consider the geometrical progression

ee
ee AM, SURE Ai Dated

The sum of these n terms, obtained by the formula of §13.4, is given by

Tn 1\"
Aaa opog! -2(1-(5) )
Now as n increases, (4)" approaches zero; and (4)" can be made as close to zero
as we like, if n is large enough. Therefore the sum of n terms approaches 2, as
closely as we please, as n increases.
This is what is meant by writing that the infinite series

hasesi
eae oat aeagalaeay)
<=

The limit 2 is called its sum to infinity.

 1 13.9
Die Pure Mathematics

In general, the sum of the geometrical progression

1—-r'
a+ art ar +. tar =a )
1—-r

Ifr lies between —1 and +1, ie. |r| <1, assuming that r” approaches zero as n
increases, the sum to infinity of the series
a
a Har ar? GPS a a

Example 12 Express as fractions in their lowest terms: (a) 0.07, (b) 0.45.
(a) 0.07 means 0.0777 ..., which may be written

NE od aa
100 1000 10000 ~—
This is a geometrical progression, and in the notation of §13.4, a=7go and
r=75. Therefore

se (tae 100\ 1-75

Therefore the sum to infinity, S,,, is given by
vie col 7 Ea ond
100 (=) 100 9 90
Buss = = x —

: 'p
/. 0.07 = —
90
(b) 0.45 means 0.454 545 ..., which may be written
45 45 45
100 *10000 * 1000000 7
In thisj geometrical
j
progression,
;
a= 7¢5,
45
and r =745.

Ys 1 = Goo)"
" 100\ 1-75
aE) = 75 100 5
PONG Cae LU 100) eee TE
GOtkeeesi
Using this method, any recurring decimal can be expressed as a rational
number. (See §2.3.)

Exercise 13f
1 Write down the sums of the first n terms of the following series, and deduce
their sums to infinity:
 Series 273
(a) 14354 94+44..., (b) 12+6+34144...,

(c)
yr waycherie 3 (29. 18: 13
10 + 100’ + 1000 +* 10000 aE @)) =
‘) t00 * 10000 t 1000000+
(ec) 0.5+4+0.05 +0.005 +... (f) 0.54 + 0.0054 +0.000 054 +...
(g) 1-—44+4-44+..., (h) 54—18+6-—24....
Express the following recurring decimals as rational numbers:
(nO Sy) O12 (Cc) 3.2, ~(d) 2.69, "ey" FOGAMO™ FY 986,
If the sum to infinity of aG.P. is three times the first term, what is the common
ratio?
The sum to infinity of aG.P. is 4 and the second term is 1. Find the first, third,
and fourth terms.
The second term of a G.P. is 24 and its sum to infinity is 100. Find the two
possible values of the common ratio and the corresponding first terms.

Exercise 13g (Miscellaneous)

1 Find the sum of the integers between 1 and 100 which are divisible by 3
2 How many terms of the geometrical progression ;¢ ++4+ 4+... are needed
to make a total of 2'° —34?
3 Prove by induction that 1 x 4+2x5+4+...+n(n+3)=4n(n+ 1)(n +5).
4 Show that the sums to infinity of the geometrical progressions
34+¢+ie+... and 44+$4+78+...
are equal.
How many terms of the arithmetical progression 2+ 34+44$+... are
needed to make a total of 204?
An arithmetical progression has thirteen terms whose sum is 143. The third
term is 5. Find the first term.
The sum of n terms of a certain series in 3n? + 10n for all values of n. Find the
nth term and show that the series is an arithmetical progression.
Find the sum of the series 2+ 6+... +(n* —n).
Show that the sum of the first n odd numbers is | a perfect square. Show also,
that 572 — 13? is the sum of certain consecutive odd nuntbers, and find them.
What is the sum of the integers from 1 to 100, inclusive, which are not
divisible by 6?
Find the sum of the first n terms of the geometrical progression
5+15+45+..
What is the smallest number of terms whose total is more than 10°?
12 The sum to infinity of a geometrical progression with a positive common
ratio is 9 and the sum of the first two terms is 5. Find the first four terms of
the progression.
13 Show that, if log a, log b, logc are consecutive terms of an arithmetical
progression, then a, b, c are in geometrical progression.
274 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 13g

14 The eighth term of an arithmetical progression is twice the third term, and
the sum of the first eight terms is 39. Find the first three terms of the
progression, and show that its sum to n terms is 3n(n + 5).
15 Find the number n such that the sum of the integers from 1 to n — 1 is equal
to the sum of the integers from n+ 1 to 49.
16 Show that there are two possible geometrical progressions in each of which
the first term is 8, and the sum of the first three terms is 14. Find the second
term and the sum of the first seven terms in each progression.
17 Prove by induction that
Lary 1 1 1
Da Cah RENT
— ha n
18 Find the sum of the series 3+ 6+ 11+...+(n* +2).
19 If a and b are the first and last terms of an arithmetical progression of r + 2
terms, find the second and the (r+ 1)th terms.
20 The sum of n terms of a certain series is 4” — 1 for all values of n. Find the first
three terms and the nth term, and show that the series is a geometrical
progression.
21 A child wishes to build up a triangular pile of toy bricks so as to have 1 brick
in the top row, 2 in the second, 3 in the third and so on. If he has 100 bricks,
how many rows can he complete and. how many bricks has he left?
22 Show that the sum of the odd numbers from 1 to 55 inclusive is equal to the
sum of the odd numbers from 91 to 105 inclusive.
23 The second, fifth, and eleventh terms of an arithmetical progression are in
geometrical progression, and the seventh term is 4. Find the first term and
the common difference. What is the common ratio of the geometrical
progression?
24 A chess board has 64 squares. Show that ten thousand million people each
prepared to contribute a million pounds could not bring sufficient money to
put 1p on the first square, 2p on the second, 4p on the third, 8p on the fourth,
and so on for the 64 squares.
25 Prove that
log
a+ log ax
+ log ax? +... tonterms
=n log a + 4n(n— 1) logx
26 Given the series 1 + 2x + 3x7 + 4x34...,
(a) find the sum of the first n terms when x = 1,
(b) find, by multiplying by 1 — x, the sum of the first n terms when x is not
equal to one.
Chapter 14

The binomial theorem

Pascal’s triangle
14.1 It is well known that

(a+b)?
=a? + 2ab + b?
and it is the object of this chapter to show how higher powers of a+b can be
expanded with little difficulty.
Most readers will not be able to write down similar expressions for (a + b)?
and (a + b)* without doing some work on paper, and so the long multiplication
is given below. The reason for printing the coefficients in heavy type will appear
later.

la? +2ab + 1b? la? + 3a7b+3ab? +1b°

a+b a+b
ta? +2a7b + lab la* + 3a°b + 3a7b? + lab?
1a?b + 2ab? + 1b? lath + 3a7b? + 3ab? + 1b*
la? + 3a7b + 3ab? + 1b? la* + 4a°b + 6a7b? + 4ab> + 1b*

The results so far obtained are summarised below.

(a+b) = la*+ 2ab+ 1b?

(a+b)y>= 1a*+ 3a7b+3ab? +1b°
(a + b)* =1a* + 4a%b + 6a*b? + 4ab? + 1b*

It is clearer, however, if the coefficients are written alone.

The reader may be able to guess the next line and, more important, may be able
to see how the table can be continued, obtaining each line from the previous one.
To show the construction of the table of coefficients, the last three lines of the
long multiplications are written overleaf, leaving out the letters.

275
 1 14.1
276 Pure Mathematics

bezel Pass
1A 1 (93te3 a
Pes" 57 1 Leg 6 a?
Thus it may be seen that every coefficient in the table is obtained from the two
on either side of it in the row above. In this way the next line can be obtained:
1 4 6 4 1
JS 5 PO NB10LEB
1 10 5
ae Noes1
For completeness, it may be observed that
(a+b)°=1 and (a+b)'=1a+1b
Therefore the table of coefficients may be written in a triangle (known as Pascal’s
triangle, after the French mathematician and philosopher Blaise Pascal,
1623-1662) as follows:

When an expression is written as a series of terms, it is said to be expanded,

and the series is called its expansion. Thus the expansion of (a + b)? is
a4 3a*b 4+-3ab? 4+b*
Certain points should be noted about the expansion of (a + b)". They should
be verified for the cases n = 2, 3, 4, in the expansions obtained so far.
(a) Reading from either end of each row, the coefficients are the same.
(b) There are (n + 1) terms.
(c) Each term is of degree n.
(d) The coefficients are obtained from the row in Pascal’s triangle beginning 1, n.

Example 1 Expand (a + b)° in descending powers of a.

There will be 7 terms, involving
a, oh, £6 rb ge bt ab
each of which is of degree 6. Their coefficients, obtained from Pascal’s triangle,
are respectively

iy) yards, 15, 20, 15, 6, 1.

Therefore the expansion of (a + b)° in descenc ng powers of a is
a® + 6a°b + 15a*b? + 20a2b? + 15a7b* + 6ab> + b®
 The binomial theorem pa |
Example 2 Expand (2x + 3y)> in descending powers of x.
Here a=2x, b=3y, and so there will be four terms involving

(2x)*, (2x)?(3y), (2x) (3y)?,_ (3y)°.

Their coefficients, obtained from Pascal’s triangle are respectively

I; 35 33 ile
Therefore the expansion of (2x + 3y)°, in descending powers of x is

(2x)° + 3(2x)?(3y) + 3(2x) (3y)? + By)?

which simplifies to

8x> + 36x2y + Sd4xy? +27y9

Example 3 Obtain the expansion of (2x —+)*, in descending powers of x.
Here a = 2x and b = — 5, therefore the five terms ofthe expansion will involve

(Q2x\iran2x) Mad): xeric 3)ee(2x)(—4)?, (-3)*

and their coefficients will be respectively
1, 4, 6, 4, ib

”. (2x —4)* = (2x)* + 4(2x)?(— 3) + 6(2x)?( — 4)? + 4(2x)(— 3)? + (—4)*

= 16x* + 4(8x°)(—4) + 6(4x?) (4) + 4(2x)(-H4+4
Therefore the expansion of (2x —4)*, in descending powers of x, is
16x* — 16x? + 6x? —x +76
Note that terms are alternately + and —, according to the even or odd degree of
(ag).
Example 4 Use Pascal's triangle to obtain the value of (1.002)°, correct to six
places of decimals.
1.002 may be written (1 + 0.002), so that the expansion of (a+ b)° may be
used, with a= 1 and b=0.002.
The terms in the expansion will involve
1, (0.002), (0.002)?, (0.002)?, (0.002)*, (0.002)°

and their coefficients will be

f 5 10, 10, m4 ils

respectively. Now the last three terms will make no difference to the answer,
correct to six places of decimals. Therefore
(1.002)5 x 1 + 5(0.002) + 10(0.002)?
= 1 + 0.010 + 0.000 040
and so (1.002)° = 1.010 040, correct to six places of decimals.
 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 14a
278

Exercise 14a

This exercise is intended to give the reader some practice in using Pascal's triangle;
calculators should not be used in the numerical questions.

1 Expand:

(a) (a+b)°, (b) (x + y)°, (c) (x + 2y)%,

(rz (ec) (2x+3y)*, (ff) ( (42 +1)
(g) (a—b)°, (h) (a— 2b)’, (jel Pt 2a
! in?
G(x 3) tk) («= ~ |

(m) (a + b)’, (n) (a? = Te ie (0)

2 Simplify, leaving surds in the answers, where appropriate:

(a) (1+./2)° +(e 2), (b) (2+./3)*
+(2-3),
©) 0+ /2°—a ee, (d) 2+/6)*-2-J6),
(e) (/2+./3)* +(/2—/3), (f) (/6+./2)? —(/6—./2)°.
3 Write down the expansion of (2 + x)° in ascending powers of x. Taking the
first three terms of the expansion, put x = 0.001, and find the value of(2.001)°
correct to five places of decimals.
4 Write down the expansion of (1 +4x)*. Taking the first three terms of the
expansion, put x = 0.1, and find the value of (1.025)*, correct to three places of
decimals.
5 Expand (2 — x)° in ascending powers of x. Taking x = 0.002, and using the
first three terms of the expansion, find the value of (1.998)° as accurately as
you can. Examine the fourth term of the expansion to find to how many places
of decimals your answer is correct.

Introduction to the binomial theorem

14.2 In the last section it was shown how (a + b)”" could be expanded, for a
known value of n, by using Pascal’s triangle. If n is large, this may involve a
considerable amount of addition, and when (as is often the case) only the first
few terms are required, it is much quicker to use a formula that will be obtained
in the next section.
The last section began with the expansions of (a+b)? and (a+ b)?. Now,
consider the expansions of (a + b)(c + d) and (a+ b)(c + d)(e +f).
It is easily seen that

(a+ b)(c+d)=ac+ad+bce+bd
To obtain the expansion of (a + b)(c + d)(e + f),each term of ac + ad + be + bd
is multiplied by e and f, giving
ace + ade + bce + bde + acf + adf + bef + bdf
 The binomial theorem 279
Note that each term contains one factor from each bracket, and that the
expansion consists of the sum of all such combinations.
Now the expansion of (a+b)(c+d)(e+f)(g+h) would be obtained by
multiplying each term of the expansion by g and by h. So, continuing this
method of expansion, it follows that, if the product ofn factors is expanded, each
term contains one factor from each bracket, and that the expansion consists of
the sum of all such combinations.
The expansion of (a + b)° will be obtained by an argument making use of this
fact.

(a+b) =(a+b)(a+b)(a+b)(a+b)(a+b)
(a) Choosing an a from each bracket we obtain a?.
(b) The term in a* is obtained by choosing a b from one bracket, and a’s from the
other four. This can be done in °C, ways, giving °C,a*b.
(c) The term in a? is obtained by choosing b’s from two brackets, and a’s from
the other three. This can be done in °C, ways, giving °C,a*b?.
(d) Similarly, the terms in a? and a are °C3a*b? and °C,ab*.
(e) Choosing a b from each bracket we obtain b°.
“(a+b =a + 5C,a*b + °Coa°b* +°G,a*b°? + °C, ab* + b°

The binomial theorem

14.3 If nis a positive integer,
(a+ b)"=a"+"C,a""1b+...+"C.a" "b+... +5"
n!
where "C
r(n—r)irl
The expansion of (a+ 5)" is obtained as follows.
(a+b)"=(a+b)(a+b)...(a+b), ton factors.
(a) Choosing an a from each bracket we obtain a”.
(b) The term in a" ‘ is obtained by choosing a b from one bracket, and a’s from
the other n—1. This can be done in "C, ways, giving "C,a”~ 'b.
(c) The term in a" * is obtained by choosing a b from two brackets, and a’s from
the other n — 2. This can be done in "C, ways, giving "Ca" 7b’.
(d) The term in a"~’ is obtained by choosing a b from r brackets, and a’s from the
other n—r. This can be done in "C, ways, giving "C,a" "b’.
(ce) Choosing a b from each bracket we obtain b”.
This proves the theorem.
When only the first few terms of an expansion are required, the theorem is
used in the form
=1) _ n(n—1)(n—2) ,_ P
(a+ by =a" + nat 164 dar a 3p37 + ...+5
280 = Pure Mathematics 1 14.3
This follows immediately, since
n! — n(n— 1)
"Cy =n, "Ga = and
(n — 2)!2! 2

ice =
n! n(n— 1)(n
— 2)
(n — 3)!3! 3!
In case the name ofthe theorem is not understood, it may be helpful to remark
that an expression with one term is called a mononomial, one which has two
terms is a binomial, and one with three terms is a trinomial. Thus the theorem
about the expansion of a power of two terms is called the binomial theorem.

Example 5 Find the coefficient of x'° in the expansion of (2x — 3)'*.

The term in (2x)!°( — 3)* is the only one needed, and by the binomial theorem
it is
eM Pease |= 3

4!
Therefore the coefficient of x!° is Dt0i, 34
10!4!

It is important to note that we could equally well have written the term as

seh ts V2.0mo |week} &

because '*C,) = '*C,. This is clear if they are written in factorial notation:

14 wa 14! 14 ex 14!:
Satria arene rye
Alternatively, '*C, 9 is the number of ways of choosing ten objects from fourteen
unlike objects; but if ten are chosen, four are left, and so it must also be the
number of ways of choosing four objects from fourteen unlike objects, which is
14
OF

Qu.1 Show that "C,_,="C r’

It is useful to note in Example 5 that the numbers whose factorials appear in

the coefficient
14!
10!4!
are all indices. 14 is the index of 2x — 3, 10 is the index of 2x and 4 is the index of
—3. That this is always the case should be clear if the term in a"~"b" in the
expansion of (a+ b)" is written with factorial notation:

n n—rpr
(n—r)!r!
 The binomial theorem 281
Example 6 Obtain the first four terms of the expansion of (1 + 4x)!'° in ascending
powers of x. Hence find the value of (1.005)!°, correct to four decimal places.

Using the second form of the binomial theorem.

1 VA? x 10% OV alee 3c9x Bis

Aser
=1+5x+ 4 eae [Sx b

Now 3x = 0.005, if x = 0.01; so substituting this value of x,

(1.005)'° = 1 + 5(0.01) + 11.25(0.01)? + 15(0.01)3
=1+0.05 + 0.001 125 + 0.000 015
Therefore (1.005)'° = 1.0511, correct to four places of decimals.

Example 7 Obtain the expansion of (1 + x —2x*)®, as far as the term in x?,

(1 + x — 2x’)® may be written {1 +(x — 2x’)! which may then be expanded
by the binomial theorem.
{1 +(x —2x7)}8
5 Spe) ae OLX O).
=1+8&(x —2x eee)
3! ‘

= 1 + 8(x — 2x7) + 28(x? — 4x? + 4x*) + 56(x? + other terms) + ...

= 14 8x — 16x? + 28x? — 112x? + 56x? + terms in x* and higher powers
Si x 2x7) = 1 +.8x + 12%7>—"560 as far as the term in x’.

Exercise 14b

Calculators should not be used in this exercise.

1 Write down the terms indicated, in the expansions of the following, and
simplify your answers:
(a) (x + 2)®, term in x°; (b) (3u —2)5, term in uw;
(c) (2t —4)!?, term in t’; (d) (2x+ y)!!, term in x°,
2 Write down, and simplify, the terms indicated, in the expansions of the
following in ascending powers of x:
(a) (1 +x)’, 4th term; (b) (2 — x/2)'?, 4th term;
(c) (3+ .x)’, 5th term; (d) (x 1)7%, 3rd term.
3 Write down, and simplify, the coefficients of the terms indicated, in the
expansions of the following:
(a) (4t+4)!°, term int*; — (b) (4+ 4x)°, term in x
(c) (2x —3)7, term in x°; (d) (3 +3y)"', term in wee
 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 14b
282

4 Write down the coefficients of the terms indicated, in the expansions of the
following in ascending powers of x:
(ay) (1sx)*°, 3rd term: (b) (2 = x)7° 13th term;
(c) (3 + 2x)®, 4th term; (d) (2+43x)8, 5th term.
5 Write down the terms involving
2 3 1 6

(a) (4) : + ~ |:
(b) =(2) , in the expansion of («
x x 5

6 Write down the constant terms in the expansions of

Se 8 6

7 Find the coefficients of the terms indicated in the expansions ofthe following:
\* Pay ha eh
(a) |x + —], term in x’; (b) | 2x2e— ] , (ein nn
x x 93
2 8
(c) («_ =), term in x®.
x
8 Find the ratio of the term in x° to the term in x®, in the expansion of
(2x + 3)?°.
9 Find the ratio of the term in x’ to the term in x® in the expansion of
(3x +4)*”.
10 Find the ratio of the term in a’ to the term in a’*! in the expansion of
(a+ by)".
11 Write down the first four terms of the expansions of the following, in
ascending powers of x:
(a) (1+ x)2e ii fbi ox eieeeaiL—=xi,
(d) Ce 1) (6) (eX) eigen)
12 Use the binomial theorem to find the values of
(a) (1.01)'°, correct to three places of decimals;
(b) (2.001)'°, correct to six significant figures;
(c) (0.997)'?, correct to three places of decimals;
(d) (1.998)8, correct to two places of decimals.
13 Expand the following as far as the terms in x?:
(a) (1+x+x?), (b) (1 + 2x — x?)®,
(c) (1—x —x?)4, (d) (2+x+x?)%,
(e) (1—x
+ x?)§, (f) (2+x—2x?)’,
(g) (3 -—2x + x?)4, (h) (3+x+x3)*.

Convergent series
14.4 The series
V+oe+
x? + aS
is a geometrical progression, with common ratio x, and may be summed by the
 The binomial theorem 283
method of §13.4. In this way
a ie
[Pe Xe xe te =
l—x

. If x lies between —1 and +1, we will assume that x" approaches zero as n
increases, which makes the right-hand side of the identity approach 1/(1 — x).
Thus when we write

ee
re Se op a
l1—x
we mean that the left-hand side can be made to differ as little as we please from
the right-hand side, providing enough terms are taken. It must not be forgotten,
however, that we have taken x to lie between —1 and +1.
A series of terms, whose sum approaches a finite value as the number of terms
is increased indefinitely is called a convergent series, and the finite value is called
its sum to infinity.
Thus 1+x+x*+...+x" +... isa convergent series, provided x lies between
—1and +1, and its sum is 1/(1 — x).
To emphasise the necessity for the condition
—1<x<+1 (Ge. [xe t)
the behaviour of the series for other values of x is examined below.
(a) Ifx=1, 1+x+x?74+...+x" 1=n. Therefore as n increases, the value of
the series increases indefinitely.
(b) If x= —1,
1+x+x74+...¢x"7 '=1-14+1-...4+(-1)"!
which is equal to 1 or 0, according to whether n is odd or even.
(c) Ifx is greater than 1, x” is greater than 1, and can be made as large as we like,
if n is sufficiently large. Therefore the sum of the series, (1 — x")/(1 — x), can
be made as large as we like.
(d) When x is less than — 1, 1 — x is positive and x” is numerically greater than 1.
If n is even, x” is positive, therefore 1— x” is negative and so the sum
(1 —x")/(1 — x) is negative. If n is odd, x” is negative, therefore 1 — x” is
positive and so the sum is positive. Hence the sum is alternately positive and
negative.
It is beyond the scope of this book to give tests to discover whether any
particular series is convergent, but this section has been written to draw the
reader’s attention to the fact that series are not always convergent.

The binomial theorem for any index

14.5 It has been shown that
n(n — 1) n—2p,2 n
(a+ b)"=a"+na"
'b+ an nt b*+...+b

where n is a positive integer.

 Pure Mathematics 1 14.5
284

Now it will be assumed that

na), n(n—1)(n—2) ,
(l+x)"=1+ax+ 7 x’ + 31 LIAR0%

(the series being continued indefinitely), for any rational value of n provided
—1<x< +1, ie. |x| <1. The proof is beyond the scope of this book.
It should be remembered that, if n is a positive integer, there will only be a
finite number of terms (see §14.3).
For the sake of those who go on to read other books, it should be added that
the index, n, is often called the exponent.
: . n F
)
The coefficient of x” in the expansion of (1 + x)” is usually written (" , that 1s,

(")iat Sei Uae

4ior (asec nar §
fi ee

(It should be noticed that for each factor in the top line, there is a corresponding
factor in the bottom line.)
n a
Unlike "C,, the symbol ()may be used when n is not a positive integer.
r

Historical note. Pascal’s triangle was given by a Chinese author of the early
fourteenth century, but Pascal made considerable use of it in connection with
problems on probability, and it became associated with his name. From it he
obtained the theorem for positive integral indices. The series for fractional and
negative indices was given by Newton in 1676.

Example 8 Use the binomial theorem to expand 1/(1 — x) in ascending powers of

x, as far as the term in x?.
(This example has been chosen because the result has already been established
in §14.4.)
Since 1/(1 — x) may be written (1 — x) *, the binomial theorem may be used.
Thus

(1—x)"'=1+(—1)(—x)+ (— 1)(—2)
rT (—x)?+

Cale
Al 3)(—x)? +...
s 3!
1
spec 1+x+x?+x3+... provided |x| <1.

Example 9 Obtain the first five terms of the expansion of (1 + 2x) in ascending
powers of x. State the values of x for which the expansion is valid.
Since \/(1 + 2x) =(1 + 2x)"/?, the binomial theorem may be used.
 The binomial theorem 285
Desi 1a 1\p 3
(hy-h2x) Mi 4 + 52x) + GAD) 9,2 + CMEW=) 9,33 *
2! 3!
(ey aa Cee 5
yea ae =) ( 2) (oxy 4

al (ure x)= lx — tx 4x3 St 4

For the expansion to be valid, — 1 <2x < +1, ie. |x| <4.

Example 10 Expand 1/(2 + x)? in ascending powers of x, as far as the term in x3,
and state for what values of x the expansion is valid.
First it may be observed that 1/(2 + x)? =(2 + x)”. However, the binomial
theorem has been stated for (1 + x)". Therefore a factor must be taken out, in
order to leave the bracket in this form.

(2+x) *= {2(1+3x)}°7=2° 71 +4x)?

=k +40)?
and this may now be expanded.
ES 1
|Altemativety =4(1+4x)7 ‘
(Qt x8 1522(b+dx)?
1 io Naan 1 Xi (—2)(—3) /x\?

geet
Ge (5) +.
4)"

, 1 1 3 1
sopprg(inrtee pet]

For the expansion to be valid, —1<43x < +1, ie. |x| <2.

Exercise 14c
Calculators should not be used in this exercise.

1 Evaluate the following binomial coefficients:

2 3 @ (=4i
(a) es wo( a (c) (2

2 Expand the following in ascending powers of x, as far as the terms in x3, and
state the values of x for which the expansions are valid.
@ (+7 tH, © 1+)",
-3
(a)(1-2x)"”, @ (143) (iets ge
ee . 3 dices
(g) ian
!
(Hie lean), Dette).
286 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 14c

1 1
pp a ik ) a ax)
U) J + 2x)’ ) Tt xa’ () Yl —2x)

(m) ) J2-9 ©) JB+,

Jase)’
(p) Bic tiness (q ) Gx?’
: Teo)
(r) Dhaba

3 Use the binomial theorem to find the values of the following:

(a) ,/(1.001), correct to six places of decimals.

(b) (1.02)’ correct to four places of decimals.

(c) ,/(0.998), correct to six places of decimals.
(d) ~/(1.03), correct to four places of decimals.

r places of decimals.
-

J .98) correct to fou

eS (0
4 Find the first four terms of the expansions of the following in ascending
powers of x:
l+x x+2 1—x
Lert [acyeslhainn
bak anceglll atl
(d) Wis
* , [Multiply numerator and denominator by ,/(1 + x).]

(1 — x)? x+3
(©) =x+ 7
o/c
(f) 1+x
6 “outlay eect
(1 = 3x)
5 Find the first four terms of the expansion of (1 — 8x)'/* in ascending powers of
x. Substitute x = 799 and obtain the value of ./23 correct to five significant
figures.
6 Expand (1 — x)'/* in ascending powers of x as far as the fourth term. By taking
the first two terms of the expansion and substituting x = 7¢9, find the value of
</37, correct to six significant figures. [Hint: 27 x 37 = 999.]
7 Obtain the first four terms of the expansion of (1 — 16x)!/*. Substitute
x = 1/10 000 and use the first two terms to find ¥/39. To how many significant
figures is your answer accurate?

Exercise 14d (Miscellaneous)

Calculators should not be used in this exercise.

1 Write down the sixth term of the expansion of (3x

+ 2y)!° in ascending
powers of x, and evaluate the term when x =4 and y=4
 The binomial theorem 287
1 5
2 (a) Expand (>+ x) in descending powers of x.

(b) Simplify (./2 + ,/3)* — (2a 3)*

3 Write down the expansion of (a—b)° and use the result to find the value of
(95)° correct to the nearest 100.
4 (a) Expand (a+ b)"' in descending powers of a as far as the fourth term.
(b) Find the middle term in the expansion of (6x +4y)!°.
(c) Find the constant term in the expansion of (x? + 2/x)?.
5 Expand (x + 2)° and (x — 2)*. Obtain the coefficient of x° in the product of
the expansions.
6 Obtain the expansion of (x — 2)*(1 — x)® in ascending powers of x as far as
the term in x*.
7 (a) Expand (2 + 3x)* and simplify the coefficients.
(b) Obtain the first four terms in the expansion of (1 +2x +3x?)® in
ascending powers of x.
8 Find the first four terms in the expansions of
(a) (1 —x + 2x’), (b) 1+ x)“4,
in ascending powers of x.
9 (a) Write down the expansion of (1+.x)? as far as the term in x‘,
simplifying each term.
(b) Write down the first four terms of the expansion of (2+ 4x)!° 10 in
ascending powers of x. Hence find the value of 2.025!°, correct to the
nearest whole number.
10 (a) Find the middle term of the expansion of (2x + 3)8, and the value of this
term when x = 7.
(b) Find the first four terms in the expansion of (1 — 2x)”.
11 (a) Find the value of the fifth term in the expansion of (,/2 + ,/3)®.
(b) Give the expansion of (1+.x)!/* up to and including the term in x’.
Hence, by putting x =, calculate the cube root of 9, giving your answer
correct to three decimal places.
12 Obtain the first four terms of the expansion of (1 + 8x)!/* in ascending
powers of x. By putting x = ;45, obtain the value of ,/3, correct to five places
of decimals.
13 If x isso small that its fourth and higher powers may be neglected, show that
4(l+x)+7(1 —x)=a—
bx?
and find the numbers a and b.
Hence by putting x = 7 show that the sum of the fourth roots of 17 and of
15 is 3.9985 approximately. or
14 Find the first four terms of the expansion of (ix? in ascending powers
of x.
15 Show that, if x is small enough for its cube and higher powers to be neglected,
i—< ; ee
— —xX —
1+x 2

By putting x =4, show that ,/7 = 275%.

Chapter 15

Vectors
Introduction
15.1 Consider the following sentences:
(a) The temperature is 15°C.
(b) The journey lasted 2 hours.
(c) The plane is flying due East at 800 km/h.
(d) A horizontal force of 2 newtons was applied to the ruler at right-angles to its
length.
(e) Shift the piano 10 m to the right.

One does not have to be a scientist to see that the first two sentences differ from
the others in one very important respect: the first two are complete when the
magnitude ofthe quantity is given, but in the others it is necessary to define both
the magnitude and the direction. A quantity which is completely specified by its
magnitude alone is called a scalar quantity and one which requires both the
magnitude and the direction to be given is called a vector quantity. (Strictly
speaking, a vector quantity must also obey the triangle law of addition; see
§15.6.)
Let us consider sentences (d) and (e) in more detail. The effect of the force
applied to the ruler will be determined by the point at which the force is applied;
if it is applied to the end of the ruler, the ruler will start to rotate, but if it is
applied to the mid-point of the ruler, the ruler will start to slide without rotating.
So when we describe a force we shall have to give not only its magnitude and
direction, but we shall also have to state its line of action. (This is usually done
by describing a point through which the force passes.) Vectors which have a
definite line of action are called localised vectors.
On the other hand, when the piano in sentence (e) is shifted, then, as we can
see in Fig. 15.1, every point in the piano is shifted 10 m to the right. All the line
segments AA’, BB’, CC’, DD’ and PP’ are equal in length and they are parallel
to one another. Any one of them can be used to describe the shift which has been
applied to the piano.
Vectors which do not have a particular line of action are called free vectors; all
free vectors which have the same magnitude and direction are equivalent to one

288
 Vectors 289

Figure 15.1

another and, in the example above, we write AA’=BB’ = CC’ = DD’ = PP’.
In this chapter all the vectors described, with one important exception, will
usually be free vectors. The main exception is the position vector (see §15.7),
which must always start from the origin.

Displacement vectors
15.2 Looking at a map of England, we see that Cambridge is about eighty
miles from Oxford, and it is approximately North East of Oxford. This is an
example of a very common type of vector quantity, namely a displacement. The
displacement of one point from another can be defined, as in the example above,
by giving the distance and the direction. Alternatively, when using Cartesian
coordinates, the displacement can be defined by giving the increase in the
x-coordinate and the increase in the y-coordinate.

J;

Figure 15.2

In Fig. 15.2, A is the point (1, 2) and B is the point (8, 6), so the displacement
from A to B is ‘7 across and 4 up’. Obviously it is desirable to have a concise way
290 Pure Mathematics 1 U2

a
of making statements like this; the normal notation is ie). The upper number is

the increase in the x-coordinate, and the lower one is the increase in the
y-coordinate. It is also necessary to make it clear that the displacement goes

“-()
from A to B, and so we write

The displacement
from B to A is written BA, and, in the case we are considering,
—7
this is equal to ( a

Qu.1 Write down the displacement vector AB for each of the following pairs of
points:
(a) AG, 5), BG, 9), (b) AQ, 7), BU12, 4), _ (c) A(2, 5), BG, 4),
(d) A(2, 3), B(2, 5), (e) AG, 1), B&8, 1).
Fig. 15.3 illustrates the fact that the displacement from A(x,, y,) to B(x; y>) is

B(x, y2)

(4, Yi) x2 — X

Figure 15.3

Notice that the magnitude of the vector (i.e. its length) is given by

AB= Jie =x eye yi)"}

and that its direction is defined by the angle « which it makes with the x-axis
where

y2a-V1
tan «=
Ary br)
 Vectors 291
(note that this is the gradient of the line AB). The magnitude is never negative
and the angle is usually given in the range — 180° <a < + 180°; however, angles
outside this range may be used, provided the meaning is clear. In the special case
when x, =x,, tan x is not defined, because the denominator is zero. However
if a diagram is consulted, it is clear that in this case the vector is parallel to
the y-axis.

Example 1 Find the magnitude and direction of the displacement vector AB,
where A and B are the points (2, 1) and (8, 9) respectively. Find also the magnitude
and direction of BA, giving the angle correct to the nearest tenth of a degree.

Figure 15.4

. From Fig. 15.4, we can see that

*=(5-1)=(5)
= ae 8—2 6

.. AB? = 67 + 87 = 36 + 64 = 100

AB= 10
We can also see that the direction is given by

tan «= —
6
“, a= 53.1°, correct to the nearest tenth of a degree
 Pure Mathematics 1 152
292

Similarly,

fica bedor
5 D2 ARR —§6
BA = =

BA is inclined at — 126.9° to the x-axis

Qu.2 Find the magnitude and direction of each of the vectors in Qu. 1.

Unit vectors
0.6\ . ;
15.3. Any vector whose magnitude is 1, for example (oa is called a unit

1 0 :
vector. The unit vectors 0 and ; are especially important because they are

parallel to the x-axis and y-axis respectively; they are called base vectors, and the
letters i and j are reserved for them (i andj are always printed in bold type; in
manuscript they should be underlined).

Vy

A(cos @, sin @)

Figure 15.5

. cos @)\ . , i
The unit vector ae is very useful as it is inclined at an angle @ to the

x-axis (see Fig. 15.5).

Multiplication by a scalar
15.4 In Fig. 15.6, the displacement AB has been enlarged by a factor k, that is
AB’ = kAB. If AB = By then AP =a and PB=b. Also, since the triangles
APB and AP’B’ are similar, AB’ = kKAB, AP’ = ka and P’B’ = kb, and so

AB’ . ka

kb
 Vectors 293

: 20 2 5 1
S we can write ea ill (5) (5) a Etc,
In general

(5) =(ia)
v

Figure 15.6

Equal vectors
15.5 In Fig. 15.7, AB= e and DC = ey that is the displacement from A
to B is the same as that from D to C. In this sense we can say that the vectors AB

Figure 15.7
 1 SS
294 Pure Mathematics
e and
and DC are equal. Vectors are equal when they have the same magnitud
and BC are also equal; the figure ABCD is of course a
direction. Notice that AD
parallelogram.

= ——- 4
Example 2 Given that A is the point (1, 3) and that AB and AD are (msiand

2 B, C and D of the
a respectively, find the coordinates of the vertices

parallelogram ABCD (Fig. 15.8).

Figure 15.8

B is the point (1 + 4, 3 — 1) =(5, 2)

D is the point (1 + 2, 3 + 3) =(3, 6)

DC=AB=( |
hence

C is the point (3 + 4, 6 — 1) =(7, 5)

Example 3 Given the points A(1, 1), B(5, 4), C(8,9) and D(0, 3), show that
ABCD is a trapezium (Fig. 15.9).

xB=(5) and pe=(‘)

3 6

“,2AB=DC
Hence DC is parallel to AB (and twice as long). So ABCD is a trapezium.
 Vectors 295

Figure 15.9

Addition and subtraction of vectors

15.6 If we make the displacement e and follow this with the displacement

| then overall we shall have moved 7 units to the right and 4 units up. We

could also achieve the same result by making the displacement a first and the
2
displacement () second. We write

(3)*()-G)+G)-@)
3 1 1 3 4

and we say that we have ‘added’ the vectors. In Fig. 15.10, PQ= (3).

QR = (;)and PR = By Notice that PQ + QR =PR (this is the ‘triangle law

of addition’, which some readers may have met in physics). We could also say

that PO’ = e OR = (3)and that PO’ + QR = PR.

In general

G) +(e) =.)
b, b, 5, +5,

If AB= ({ then BA= (wl Notice that BA = —AB, and also that
 / 15.6
296 Pure Mathematics

Figure 15.10

fase ee S 0 :
AB+ BA = ar the vector ie)is called the zero vector and is denoted by 0.

: : 0 ae:
Any vector (a can be expressed as 4) + (ifand this in turn can be
y 0 ¥
. 1 0 ; Agus
written x 0 + 1 = X1+ Yj.

To subtract vectors, see Fig. 15.11, where C’ is the point on CB produced, such
that BC’ = CB.
AB —BC=AB +(—BC)
= AB + BC’
=AC’

(oe &

Figure 15.11

Thus

baie)
=(tae
It is frequently convenient to use a single letter to represent. a vector. When
 Vectors 297
this is done, a lower case letter (i.e. not a capital letter) is always used and it is
always printed in bold type (in manuscript it must be underlined). For example

0c) =()
we may write

(t re)
In i,jnotation, the statement above could be written

x=2i+j y=i+5j
x+y=3i+6j) and x—y=i-4j
This is especially useful for labelling diagrams. For example, Fig. 15.12 il-
lustrates the sum, a + b, and the difference, a — b, of the vectors a and b.

—b b

Figure 15.12

When using the single letter notation, an italic letter is always used to denote
the magnitude of the vector which is represented by the same letter in bold type,
e.g. if a= 31+ 4j, then a=5S.

Example 4 In Fig. 15.13 each set of parallel lines is equally spaced and it is
given that OP = p and OU =u. Express the following vectors in termsof p and u:
(a) OQ, (b) QW, () OW, (d)OM, () OS, (f) OA.

Figure 15.13
 Pure Mathematics 1 15.6
298

(a) OQ =2p, (b) QW =u,

(c) OW = 2p+u, (d) OM= — 2p,
(e) OS = OM+MS= —2p+u, (f) OA = —2p— 2u.

Example 5 In triangle OAB (Fig. 15.14), OA==a and (OB= b. Given that P and
Q are the mid-points of OA and OB, express PQaand AB in terms of a and b. State
the geometrical relationship between PQ and AB.

O Q B

Figure 15.14

Since P and Q are the mid-points of OA and OB, we can write

Now

PQ =P0+00
—ya+3
= 3(b—a)
AB =AO
+ OB
=—a+b
- AB =2PQ
In other words, AB is parallel to PQ and twice its length.

From a mathematical point of view, the beauty of this kind of argument is

that it does not depend upon the actual dimensions of the triangle.

Exercise 15a
3 4
1 Given that x = (3)and y= ( :)write down as column vectors:

(a) 2x, (b) 3y, (c) —y, (d) 3y,

(e) x+y, (f) 2x+3y, (g) x—y, (h) 3x — 2y.
2 Find the magnitude and direction of the vectors:
(a) 3i+ 4j, __.(b) —SIer Ter (c) —10j, (d) i—j.
3 The vector
or XY has magnitude 10 units and it is inclined at 30° to the x-axis.
Express xiv asa column vector.
4 The vector
or PQ has magnitude 5 units and is inclined at 150° to the x-axis.
Express PQ in the form ai+ bj, where a,b e R.
 Vectors 299
5A and B are the points (3, 7) and (15, 13) respectively. P is a point
on AB such
that AP = sAB. Write down the vector OP in terms of s. Find the coordina
tes
of P, when
@s=7 Pb) s=3 © s=-2.
6 In Fig. 15.15, OABC is a quadrilateral and P, Q, R and S are the mid-point
s of
the sides OA, AB, BC and CO, respectively. Given that OA = a, OB =b
and
OC =¢, express the following vectors in terms of a, b and e:
(2) PS. (b) AG, (Gj OR.
What can you deduce about the lines PS, AC and QR?

Figure 15.15

7 In No. 6 above, X is the mid-point of PR, and Y is the mid-point of QS.

Express OX and OY in terms of a, b and c. State clearly in words the
deduction which can be made from these expressions.

Position vectors
15.7 In the preceding exercise, the reader will have noticed that the vector from
the origin O to a point P is frequently required. This vector OP is called the
position vector of the point P; it is always denoted by the single letter p (similarly,
the position vectors of points A, B, C, ... would be written a, b, ¢, ...). It is
important to notice that position vectors are localised; they must start from the
origin.
x :
If the coordinates of P are (x, y) then p is the column vector (
alNotice that

the displacement vector PQ is related to the position vectors of P and Q, as

follows:
PQ =PO+0Q=-—p+a=4-P
Similarly, AB =b —a, XY = y—x and so on. Expressions like these are very
common in vector geometry and the reader is advised to commit the form of
them to memory.
 1 SRE
300 Pure Mathematics

Figure 15.16

In Fig. 15.16, R is a point on the line PQ, such that PR = tPQ.

Applying the results above to PR and PQ, we have
=—_—>-—=ns>Prvom>
PR.=¢PQ
hence

r—p=t(q—p)
..r=p+t(q—p)
=(1—t)p+tq

Since R lies between P and Q, 0 <t < 1. But if t= 1, then R will coincide with Q,
and if t = 0, then R will coincide with P. The position vector of a point such as S,
is given by a similar expression, e.g.
s=(1—t)p+tq
but here the number t is greater than 1. A point such as S’ can be obtained by
using a negative value for tf.

Example 6 In Fig. 15.17, OS= 2r and OQ = 3p. Given that OK = mQR and
PK =nPS, find two distinct expressions, in terms of p, tr, m and n, for OK. By
equating these expressions, find the values of m and n and hence calculate the ratios
QK:KR and PK:KS.
Q

Figure 15.17

QR = QO + OR
=— ptr
 Vectors 301
One expression for OK is given by

OK = 0Q + QK =00 + mQR
=3p+m(r— 5p)
Similarly, OK = OP + PK, hence

OK =p+n(—p+2r)

Equating the two expressions for OK, we have

2P+m(t—
3p)=p +n(—p + 2r)
and rearranging this gives

(5 — 3m-+n)p=(2n—myr
but since p and r are not parallel, the two sides of this equation cannot be equal
unless they are both zero. (The reader should think carefully about this
statement, and make sure he or she fully understands it. This argument is very
common when vectors are used in geometrical problems.) Hence
4—3m+n=0 (1)

and 2n—m=0 (2)

Substituting m = 2n in equation (1), we have

— 3n+n=0
2n=4
n=4
and hence

m=4
But QK = mQR (given) so OK =4QR and hence QK = KR. Therefore

QK:KR = 1:1
Also PK =nPS, so PK =4PS and hence
PK:KS = 1:3

Example 7 At noon, two boats P and Q are at points whose position vectors are
4i + 8j and 4i + 3j respectively. Both boats are moving with constant velocity; the
velocity of P is 4i + j and the velocity of Q is 2i + Sj, (all distances are in kilometres
and the time is measured in hours). Find the position vectors of P and Q, and PQ
after t hours, and hence express the distance PQ between the boats in terms of t.
Show that the least distance between the boats is ,/5 km.
 Pure Mathematics 1 13:7
302
After t hours the displacement of P from its starting point is t(41 +j), hence
p = (4i + 8j) + ¢(4i + j)
=(4
+ 4i+ (8+ Di
Similarly
q = (44 2t)i+ (3 + 5t)j

Hence

PQ =q—p= —2ti+(—54+40)j
PO? =(—21)* 4 (5 4-40)
= 20t? — 40t + 25
Hence the distance between the boats is given by
PQ = ,/(20t7 — 40t + 25) km
To find the least distance, consider
PQ? = 20(t? —2t+ 1)+5
= 20(t —1)? +5
Since (t — 1)? cannot be negative, its least value is zero and this is obtained by
putting t= 1. Hence the least value of PQ? is 5. (See §10.3.)
". The shortest possible distance between the boats is ,/5 km.

Exercise 15b
1 Given that A is the point (2,5) and that B is the point (10, — 1), find the
position vector of a point P_on AB, such that
(a) AP = PB, (b) 2AP= PB, (c) AP =4AB,
(d) AP: PB=2:3, (ec) AP:PB = 4:1, (f) AP:PB=mi:n.
2 Repeat No. 1 for A(—7, 3) and B(—1, — 15).
3 A, B, C are three collinear points whose position vectors are a, b and ¢
respectively and AC= 3AB. Express c in the form ¢=ma-+nb; find the
scalars m and n and verify that m + n= 1. Show also that if a = pb + qe then
p+q=l1.
da Repeat No. 3 given that AC = —2AB.

5 A stationary observer O observes a ship S at noon, at a point whose

coordinates relative to O are (20, 15); the units are kilometres. The ship is
moving at a steady 10 km/h on a bearing 150° (a bearing is measured
clockwise from North). Express its velocity as a‘column vector. Write down,
in terms of t, its position after t hours. Hence find the value of t when it is due
East of O. How far is it from O at this instant?
6 Find numbers m and n such that m(3) a n(7)= ety
1 9
7 In Fig. 15.18, OP =p and OR =r.
P is the mid--point of
of OQ and PX:XR= 1:3. Express x in terms of p and r.
Taking OY to be hOX, find OY iin terms of p,r and h and hence find the ratio
QY:YR.
 Vectors 303

Figure 15.18

8 In Fig. 15.19, OBC is a triangle and the line NL produced meets the line OC
produced at M.

O C M

Figure 15.19

Given that ON =20B and BL = 2BC, express the vector NL in terms ofb
and ¢, the position vectors of the points B and C with respect to the origin O.
Find an expression for the position vector of any point R on the line NL.
Hence express OM asa multiple of OC. Find the ratio CM/MO and verify
that

ONT BE CM
—1
NB “LC ~ MO
9 Ina triangle OAB, X is a point on OB such that OX = 2XB and Y isa point
on AB such that 2BY = 3YA. Express x and y in terms of a and b. Find the
position vector of any point on XY and hence find the position vector of the
point Z, where XY produced meets OA produced. Calculate the value of
AZ/OZ.
10 Prove that if a and b are the position vectors of points A and B, then the
position vector of a point P on AB, where AP:PB=min is given by
(m+n)p =na-+ mb.
11 Prove that if p=ha+kb represents the point P on the line AB, then
h+k=1.
12 Given that A, B and C are three collinear points whose position vectors
satisfy the equation «a + fb + ye = 0, prove that «+ B+y=0.
 Pure Mathematics 1 15.8
304

The ratio theorem

15.8 In Fig. 520, OA’ = ha, OB’ = kb and OC = ha + kb. We say that OC isa
linear combination of a and b. Any point C, whose position vector is a linear
combination of a and b, will be a point in the plane of O, A and B. (So far we
have only considered vectors in two dimensions; this last statement becomes
very important when we start to consider three dimensions.)

A! (€

O b B B’

Figure 15.20

However, if OC = ha + kb and h +k =1, it can be shown that C lies on the line

AB, as follows:

c=ha+kb
=(1—k)a+kb
=a+k(b—a)
Using the double letter notation this last equation becomes
OC =OA+kAB
hence
AC =kAB
so C is the point on AB such that AC = kAB (see Fig. 15.21).

O b B

Figure 15.21

Similarly BC = hBA. Hence AC:CB = k:h.

Conversely if we are given that C is a point on the line AB such that

AC:CB = m:n, then we can write
 Vectors 305
AC ein
CB on
i.e, nAC =mCB
*, n(c —a) = m(b—c)
nc — na = mb— me
me + nec = na + mb
(m+ n)c = na+ mb

emi n
m+n
Ja+( m
m+n
)p
This is usually called the ratio theorem. Notice that the sum ofthe coefficients
n/(m +n) and m/(m + n) is 1.

Example 8 Ifc=2a + 2b, show that C is a point on AB and that AC:CB = 3:2.
Since 2 + 2 is equal to 1, C lies on the line AB. Also,
AC:CB =3:4 = 3:2

The centroid of a triangle

15.9 In Fig. 15.22, ABC is any triangle and P is the mid-point of BC. G is the
point on AP such that AG:GP = 2:1. The origin is not shown in the diagram.

B P

Figure 15.22

Since BP:PC = 1:1,

p=3b+5e
and since AG:GP = 2:1,

g=3a+3p
= $a + 3(2b
+ 3¢)
=f(a+b+c)
This last expression is symmetrical in a, b and c (that is, the letters a, b and c
can be interchanged without altering g), so the same result could be obtained by
 1 15.9
306 Pure Mathematics

dividing the median from B to AC (or that from C to AB) in the ratio 2:1. Hence
the point G, whose position vector is given by
=3;(a+b+e)
is the point of intersection of the three medians. G is called the centroid of the
triangle.
Qu.3 Find the centroid of the triangle whose vertices are A(1, 2), B(3, 7) and
CQ, 3).

Menelaus’ theorem
15.10 In Fig. 15.23, OAB is any triangle and PQR is a straight line intersecting
the sides of the triangle as shown.

Figure 15.23

__Menelaus’ theorem can be stated as follows: if OP =«PA, AQ= BQB and

BR= yRO, then afy= —1. (Notice that since R is on OB produced, yisa
negative number.)
This famous theorem appeared in a treatise published by Menelaus in
100 AD, although it was probably known to Euclid almost 400 years earlier.
These great mathematicians would not, of course, have expressed the proof in
vector notation.
Menelaus’ theorem can be proved by vector methods, as follows:
OP = aPA, hence p= «(a — p).
‘(1+ «)p=aa (1)

AQ = BQB, hence q—a = f(b—q).

‘(1+ B)q=a+pb (2)

BR = yRO, hence r—b = — yr

(L+pr=b (3)

From equation (1) we have

ee l+a
 Vectors 307
and from equation (3),
b=(1+y)r
Substituting these expressions for a and b in equation (2) gives
L+o
(1+ f)q= (2 )p+an ye

Ci
(ta) P
Baty) r
a(1 + f) (1 + B)
However, Q is a point on PR, so, using the ratio theorem (see §15.8),

(140) Bl+y)_,
o(1+f) (1+8)
(1+ a«)+ «B(1 + y)=a(1
+ B)
L+ta+toaBp+oapy=a+a8
. apy =—-1
The result looks slightly more elegant, and it is perhaps easier to remember, if
the diagram is re-lettered as in Fig. 15.24.

CS

Figure 15.24

Menelaus’ theorem can then be expressed

AZ BX CY _
ZB eX YAS

Vectors in three dimensions

15:11 So far in this chapter, we have only considered vectors in two
dimensions, but the real world is three dimensional, so we must now consider
the problems which arise when vectors are used in three dimensions. One of the
is
great attractions of vectors is that the transition from two dimensions to three
very easy. First we will look at Cartesian coordinates in three dimension s. For
ular. They
convenience, the three axes Ox, Oy and Oz will be mutually perpendic
should be
cannot be drawn mutually perpendicular on a flat page, so Fig. 15.25
 1550
308 Pure Mathematics 1
in
viewed with the page held in a vertical plane so that the z-axis is vertical and
the plane of the page, the y-axis is horizontal and in the plane of the page, and
the x-axis is imagined to be horizontal, but coming out of the page at right
angles to the plane of the page. By convention, the three axes must form a ‘right-
handed set’. If the thumb, index finger and middle finger of the right hand are
stretched out so that they are mutually perpendicular, it should be possible to
make the thumb correspond to the x-axis, the index finger to the y-axis and the
middle finger to the z-axis. (In a ‘left-handed set’ the x-axis would go into,
instead of come out of, the page.)

xX

Figure 15.25

A point A(2, 3, 5) is located in the usual way, namely by starting from the
origin and moving 2 units along Ox, 3 units parallel to Oy and 5 units parallel to
Oz (see Fig. 15.26).

4
—hR—-4-—F

Figure 15.26
 Vectors 309

y
The position vector of this point A is written OA —|{ 3 |. Similarly the

displacement vector from A(2, 3, 5) to B(3, 6, 4) is written AB = 3

In general, if A is the point (x,, y,,z,) and B is the point (x5, y>, Z,) then we
. . .
=

write
Xy X92 Xz— Xj

a bevis: b=| y, and AB=| y.—y,

Z4 Z2 Za — 24

Figure 15.27

Fig. 15.27 represents a cuboid, in which AP is parallel to the x-axis, PQ is

parallel to the y-axis and QB is parallel to the z-axis. Hence

AP=x,—X,, PQ=y2.—y, and QB=z,—2,

The length of vector AB can be found, using Pythagoras’ theorem, as follows. In
the right-angled triangle ABQ,
AB? = AQ? + QB?
and, in the right-angled triangle APQ,
AQ? = AP? + PQ?
hence
AB? = AP? + PQ? + QB’
= (x2 —X4)? + (Y2— V1)? + (22 — 21)?
Multiplication of a vector by a scalar in three dimensions is defined by a
simple extension of the method used in two dimensions (see §15.4), that is,
x kx
310 Pure Mathematics 1 W517

Addition and subtraction are also defined by a similar method to that used
before, 1.e.
x X X,; +X
Vii) el avo ba Vecty2
Be Z> Lp 23
and
oe X> X1—X2
Va S22 elise aa a2
Z4 Z> Z; —2Z2

All the results described so far in this chapter [e.g. the centroid of a triangle
ABC is given by g=4(a+b-+c)] are equally valid in three dimensions.
The letter k is always used to represent the unit vector parallel to the z-axis.
x
Consequently in i, j, k notation the vector {| y } becomes xi+ yj + zk.
Z

Example 9 =If A and B are the points (1, 1, 1) and (13, 4, 5) respectively, find, in
terms of i, jand k, the displacement vector AB. Find also the unit vector parallel to
AB.
a=i+jt+k and b=13i+4j+5k
AB =b—a=12i+
3j+ 4k
., AB? = 12? + 32 + 42 = 169
/ AB=13

The magnitude of AB is 13 and so the vector 7;AB is a parallel vector of

magnitude 1. Hence the required unit vector is 441+ 4j+ 4k.
Example 10 Using the points A and B in Example 9, find the point P on AB such
that AP:PB = 1:3.
We are given that AP:PB = 1:3, so AP =14AB, hence
4(p — a) =(b—a)
4p=4a+b-—a
=3a+b
= 3(i + j +k) + (131+ 4j + 5k)
= 161+ 7j + 8k
“. p=4i+4j+2k
Hence P is the point (4, , 2).
Example 11 Show that the points A(1, 2, 3), B(3, 8, 1), C(7, 20, — 3) are collinear.

AB = (3i+ 8j + k) — (i+ 2j+ 3k)

= 2i+ 6j —2k
 Vectors 311
Similarly

BC = 4i + 12j — 4k
hence
BC = 2AB
consequently AB and BC are in the same direction and so ABC is a straight line.

Qu. 4 Find the centroid of the triangle whose vertices are A(1, 2, 3), B(3, 7, 4),
GiZ.07 5):
Qu.5 Prove that A(1, 2,1), B(4, 7,8), C(6,4,12) and D(3, —1,5) are the
vertices of a parallelogram.

The vector equation of a line

15.12 Given any two points A and B, with position vectors a and b, the
position vector of any point R on AB can be expressed as follows:
OR=OA+AR
Let AR = tAB, where t € R, hence
OR =OA +tAB
-.r=a-+t(b—a)
=(1—t)a+tb
The letter t in this equation represents any real number and, for all values of t, r
is the position vector of a point on AB. The equation r =(1 —t)a + th is called
the vector equation of the line AB. The number f is called the parameter; for any
value of the parameter, R is a point on AB.

Example 12 Find the equation of the line through the points A(1, 2,3) and
B(4, 4, 4) and find the coordinates of the point where this line meets the plane z = 0.
AB = 3i+ 2j +k
Let R be any point on AB, so that
OR = OA + tAB, where te R
“r= (i+ 2j + 3k) + ¢(3i+ 2j +k)
=(1+ 301+ (24+ 2t)j+(3+0k
This is the equation of the line.
The line meets the plane z = 0, where (3 + t) = 0. Thus the parameter at this
point is t= —3. Substituting this in the equation of the line, we have
r= —8i—4j+ 0k
so the line meets the plane at the point (— 8, —4, 0).

Any vector equation of the form r =a + fu, where a and u are given vectors,
represents the equation of a line passing through the point whose position
312 Pure Mathematics 1 1S12

xj
vector is a. The direction of the line is parallel to the vector u. Ifa=|[ y, } and
Z4
l
u={ m | then
n

%
If the point R has coordinates (x, y, z), thenr can be written | y | and hence the
A
last equation becomes
x

y = yy +tm

Zi

Thus the coordinates of R are x = x, + tl, y=y, + tm, z=z, + tn. These three
equations are frequently arranged in the form

BE SE =
See es
l m n

Example 13. Given the equation of the line in the form

X=. OVS eran
Et Rye:
express the equation in the form r =a + tu and show that the line passes through
the point (8, 14, 11).
x—-2 y-4 2-7
Let
e€ 3 = 5 = 5 = t, then

x—2=3t y—4=St z—7=2t

hence

Kee 24 3
y=44+5t
Zi) ot

that is, in vector form,

x 2+ 3t
y J=] 44+5t
g 74+2t
 Vectors 313
which can be written in the form r=a + tu as follows:

x 2 3
y }=1 4 I]4+tl 5
Ys 7 2

Compare this with the coordinates (8, 14, 11); when 2 + 3t=8, t=2. [Now try
this value of the parameter on the y- and z-coordinates.] When t=2,4+4 5t=14
and 7 + 2t=11. Hence the line passes through the point (8, 14, 11).

Qu.6 Find the unit vector which is parallel to the line a ap =

Qu.7 Show that the equations

x 2 4 x 10 —2
y J=| 3 J4+m Getand | y t= | 15 ln t-—3
Z 1 —2 Z —3 1
represent the same line.

Planes
15.13 If A, B and C are three given points it is always possible to find a plane
which contains all three of them. (Imagine the tips of the thumb and first two
fingers of the right hand as the three given points. A flat surface, say a book, can
then be placed on these three points to represent the plane passing through
them.) A fourth point, P, may or may not lie in the same plane. If it does, then, as
was shown in §15.8, the vector AP can be expressed as a linear combination of
AB and AG that is scalars m and n can be found so that

AP = mAB + nAC
hence
p—a=m(b—a)+n(c—a)
/. p=(1 —m—n)ja+
mb +ne
In other words, p can be expressed as a linear combination of a, b and c:
p=aa+ fb + ye
where a+ 6 +y =1 [since (1 -m—n)+m+n=1].
(It is interesting to compare this with the statement ‘if R is a point on the line
AB then r can be expressed as a linear combination of a and b, in other words
r= a+ub where A+ p=1’.)

Example 14 Given that A, B, C are the points (1, 1, 1), (5, 9, 0) and (3, 2, 1)
respectively, find the equation which must be satisfied by the coordinates (x, y, z) of
any point, P, in the plane ABC.
314 Pure Mathematics 1 15215

As P lies in the plane ABC, we may write AP = mAB + nAC. Then, since
4 2 Eo |
AB= |= 16|pAC=1 a0 and AP={ y—1 ],
= 0 z—1

x — 1 4 2
y—1l}]=m{[-—1 ]+n{ 1
Zool —1 0

Thus

x=1+4m+42n
y=1— m+ n (1)

ZZ = 1— mM

Eliminating n,
x—2y=—1+6m
and eliminating m,
X= ey + 625
This is the equation of the plane ABC.

In the equations (1), the scalars m and n are usually called ‘the parameters of
the plane’. For any values of m and n the coordinates (x, y, z) resulting from these
equations are the coordinates of a point in the plane ABC. In the two-
dimensional world of the plane ABC, we have two degrees of freedom; we can
choose a value for m and we can choose a value for n. (Compare this with the
one-dimensional world of the line, in §15.12, in which there is only one degree of
freedom; that is we can choose a value for the parameter t.)
Qu.8 Find the equation of the plane containing the points (1, 1, 0), (0, 1, 2),
(2, 3, — 8).
Qu.9 Find the equation of the plane which passes through the point (1, 2, 3)
ps 6
and which is parallel to the vectors 4 and {|—4
—10 2

The intersection of two planes

15.14 Two non-parallel planes will always meet in a straight line. If we are
given the equations of two such planes, say, 3x — Sy +z =8 and 2x — 3 yz = 3,
then the equation of the line of intersection can be found as follows.
For any point (x, y, z) which lies in both planes, the values of x, y and z fit both
equations simultaneously. Hence eliminating z from both equations (in this case
by subtracting the second equation from the first) we obtain
x—2y=5
 Vectors 315
There are infinitely many pairs of values of x and y which satisfy this equation,
but if we choose a value for x then the value of y is fixed and vice versa. (For
example, if x =7 then y = 1.)
Let y = 1, then x must be 5 + 2t and substituting these expressions for x and y
into the first of the original equations, we obtain
3(5 + 2t)—S5t+z=8
15+ 6t—S5t+z=8
..Z=—7-t
Thus
x af ot x 5 2
y= ele ie. leysl = 0] +t I
ve —7—t Z —7 —|

2
The latter is the equation of the line. It is parallel to the vector 1 } and it
—1
passes through the point (5,0, — 7). A typical point on the line can be written
(5 + 2t, t, — 7 —t) and it can easily be verified that, for all values of t, this point
lies in both of the planes. If we substitute its coordinates into the first equation,
we obtain
3x = Sy 2 = 356.421) —St+(— 7 —t)
=154+ 6¢—St—7-t
=§
and substituting in the second equation gives
SEE ass phBy iY arta ug pacar
=10+4t—3t-—7-t
=(3

Exercise 15c
1 Given the points A and B below, write down the displacement vector, AB, in
each case:
(a) A(1, 0, 2), B(3, 6, 4); (b) A(5, 0, 4), B(3, 0, 4);
(c) A(2, 1, 3), B(6, 4, 3); (d) A(5, 4, 7), B(2, 8, 1);
(e) A(k, 2k, 3k), B(3k, 2k, k).
2 For each part of No. 1, write down the position vector of the mid-point of
AB.
3 For each part of No. 1, write down the position vector of the point P, such
that AP = SAB.
4 Find the equation of the plane through the points (1, 2,0), (1, 1, 1) and
(0, 3, 0).
5 Find the equation of the plane through the point (1, 1, 1) parallel to the
vectors i+ 2j + 3k and i+j.
316 Pure Mathematics 1 Exelse

6 Find the coordinates of the point where the line

5 1 3
YA= V2 + the
Zz 1 4

7 Show that the line I No + > — lies in the plane

SS)
Ny
eg

2x +3y—5z=—-—7

8 Find the point of intersection of the lines

r=(1+mi+(2+m)j+
(4+ 2mk
and
r=(1 + 3n)i+ Snj + (3 + 7n)k
3 1 1 D
9 Show that the linesr={ 5 }+m{ 2 ] andr=| 2 }+n]{ 3 } donot meet.
i 1 3 5
(Non-parallel lines which do not meet are called skew lines.)
10 Given four points A, B, C and D, the point G, whose position vector g is
defined by g =4(a+b+c+), is called the centroid of A, B, C and D. Prove
that G lies on the line joining D to M, the centroid of triangle ABC. Find the
ratio DG:GM.
11 Find the equation of the line of intersection of the planes
4x + 3y+z=10
X+ y+z=6

12 Show that the three planes whose equations are

2x +3y+z=8
x+ y+z=10
3x + 5y+z=6
contain a common line.

The scalar product of two vectors

15.15 So far we have added and subtracted vectors, and vectors have been
multiplied by scalars, but we have not ‘multiplied’ one vector by another vector.
In vector work there are two kinds of ‘multiplication’; in one of them, the result
is a scalar quantity, so this is called scalar multiplication, while in the other the
result is a vector quantity. The latter kind, ‘vector multiplication’, is beyond the
scope of Book 1. (See Book 2, Chapter 21.)
 Vectors 317
Definition

Given two vectors a and b (see Fig. 15.28), whose magnitudes are a and b
respectively, the scalar product a.b is ab cos 6, where @ is the angle between the
vectors.
(The scalar product is always written with a very distinct dot between the a
and the b. It is quite common to call this the ‘dot product’ of a and b.)

|
I
I
l
|

O a M A

Figure 15.28

At first sight a.b = ab cos 6 might seem a rather odd definition to choose, and
one might reasonably ask why it should be this and not, say ab tan 0, or ab sin 0.
This particular definition, ab cos 0, is useful because it has many interesting
mathematical properties, some of which will appear in the next few sections.
Also, applied mathematicians and physicists find it a useful concept; in,
particular the ‘work done’ when the point of application of a force F (a vector)
undergoes a displacement x (a vector) is given by F.x (a scalar).
Notice that b.a = ba cos 0, which of course is the same as ab cos 6, so the
order of a and b in the scalar product does not matter, in other words scalar
multiplication is commutative. (This may seem to be a rather trivial remark,
nevertheless it is very important; in contrast vector multiplication is not
commutative). We shall frequently require the scalar products of the base
vectors i and j, so the following results should be memorised (bearing in mind
that cos 0° = 1 and cos 90° = 0):
li=jj =kkbomt
Lj=jk= kir=0
For any vector a, the scalar product a.a is equal to a’, and for any pair of
perpendicular vectors a and b the scalar product a.b is zero (because cos 90° is
zero). Conversely if we know that the scalar product of a pair of vectors is zero,
then we can deduce that the vectors are perpendicular (or one of the vectors is
zero).

Example 15 Given that OA = 6, OB = 4 and LAOB = 60°, calculate the value of

OA.OB.
= 6 x 4 x cos 60°
OA.OB
=6x4x0.5
a
318 Pure Mathematics 1 15315

There is an alternative form of this definition. Note that in_ Fig. 15.28
bcos 0 = OM:; the length OM is often called the projection of OB onto OA.
Consequently we can say that the scalar product, a.b, is the product of OA and
the projection of OB onto OA. The A and Bin this statement can, of course, be
interchanged.
Although a.b has been called a ‘product’ and the process has been called
scalar ‘multiplication’, it is necessary to establish that this ‘multiplication’ obeys
the same rules that we are familiar with, from working with real numbers.
We have already seen that the order ofa and b in the scalar product does not
matter, so the commutative* law, a.b = b.a, is obeyed.
Since a.b is scalar, it is impossible to attach any meaning to a triple product
(a.b).c; consequently there is no question of scalar products obeying the
associative* law. However (a.b)c could be taken to mean the scalar a.b
multiplied by the vector c, as in §15.4, so great care is needed.
It is, however, very important that we should be able to remove brackets from
a.(b +c) and obtain a.b + a.c. The law
a.(b +c) =a.b+a.c
is called the distributive* law and this is proved in the next section.

The proof of the distributive law

15.16 In Fig. 15.29, OA =a, OB=b, OC=c and OR=bice.
R

Figure -15.29

a.b=OA x OL (the product of OA and the projection of OB onto OA)

and similarly

a.c = OA x OM-
Adding,
a.b + a.c= OA x (OL + OM)
but since OC and BR are opposite sides of a parallelogram, the projection of
OC

*The termssccommutative, associative, . distributive ma y be new to some readers; the ined i

more detail in Chapter 25, ocho ea
 Vectors 319
onto OA is equal to the projection of BR onto OA. Hence OM =LN. Thus

a.b+a.c=OA x (OL + LN)=OA x ON

= OA.OR
=a.(b+c)
With this law proved, we may now proceed to remove brackets according to
the normal rules of algebra, e.g.

(a+ b).(c +d) =a.(c + d)+b.(e + d)=a.c +a.d + b.c + b.d

In particular, if we wish to form the scalar product of a and b, where

a=2i+3j+4k and b=5i+ 6j+7k

then, bearing in mind that i.i=j.j =k.k =1 and i.j =j.k =k.i=0, we have
a.b = (2i + 3j + 4k).(Si + 6) + 7k) =2x54+3x6+4x7=56
In general,

xy X92
Vr Jol vo P= Ori t+yj t+21k).(x21 + yoj + 22k) = XX. + Vi V2 + 2122
24 22

Example 16 Given that a= 4i+ 3) + 12k and b= 8i— 6j, find a’, b? and a.b.
Hence find the angle between the vectors a and b.
a@=a.a = (4i+ 3j + 12k).(4i + 3j + 12k)
=164+9+4144
= 169
Similarly, b? = 100.
Hence a= 13 and b= 10.
a.b = (41 + 3j + 12k).(8i—6j)
= 32-18
= 14
However, by definition, a.b = ab cos 0, where 6 is the angle between a and b,
consequently
14= 13 x 10cos0

14
Stcos) = 130

4 ODS

The angle between a and b is 83.8°, correct to the nearest tenth of a degree.

Example 17 Prove that p = 2i + 3j + 4k is perpendicular to q = 5i+ 2j — 4k.

p.q = (2i + 3j + 4k).(Si + 2j — 4k)
=10+6—16
=0
320 Pure Mathematics 1 15.16

Since neither p nor q is zero, we can deduce that

cos 0=0
where 0 is the angle between p and q, so 6 = 90°. Hence p is perpendicular to q.

Qu. 10 Given that a= 10 and b=15 and that the angle between a and b is
120°, calculate the value of a.b.
Qu. 11 Write down the condition for the vectors
a=x,i+y,jt+z,k and b=x,i+ y.j+2z.k
to be perpendicular.
Qu. 12 Find the angle between the vectors
p=i+2j+2k and q=2i+3j—6k
*Qu.13 The unit vector u makes angles «, f and y with the x-, y- and z-axes
respectively. By considering u.i, or otherwise, show that
u=cos «i+cos fj+cosyk
and prove that
cos? « + cos” B + cos? y= 1
(cos a, cos B and cos y are called the direction-cosines of u.)
Qu. 14 Find the direction-cosines of the unit vector parallel to 3i+ 4j + 12k
and calculate the angles this vector makes with the axes.
It is frequently convenient to have a symbol for the unit vector in the direction
of a given vector r; the normal symbol for this is f. So if we use r to represent the
magnitude of r, the unit vector f is given by
a
f=-r
r
e.g. if we are given that r = 3i + 4j, then r=5 and
an or...
‘eco ad

Postscript
15.17 This chapter has been concerned with vectors in two and three
dimensions, but there is no reason why we should stop at three! The only
problem is that it is rather difficult to draw a four-dimensional vector, especially
on a two-dimensional page! However, provided we are prepared to sacrifice the
luxury of drawing pictures of our vectors, we may still continue to use the
algebraic rules which have been developed for two and three dimensions. Thus if
1 3
a=
2 and b=
il
> 4
7 3
 Vectors 321
then

4 5) 5
1
a+b= 3 a—b= 3 and Sa= L0
9 1 25
10 4 35
We may even define the ‘magnitude’ of aas \/(1? + 2? + 5? + 77). Indeed it is
possible to define a ‘scalar product’, although in this context it is usual to call it
the ‘inner product’. If

xy Vy
x
p= ; and q= ee
x3 V3
X4 V4

the inner product of p and q is x,y, +X. +X3)3 + X44. Readers who wish to
know more should refer to a more advanced book on vector methods.

Exercise 15d (Miscellaneous)

1 ee
In 15.30, OABC and OPQR are parallelograms; OA=a, OC=c,
OP = 4a, OR = ze. Express the following
vectors in pay of a and ec:
(a) OB, (b+) AC, @) OD, (d) PR, @)RG
(f) AQ, (g) QC, (bh) PB, (i) PC, @) re
B

Figure 15.30

3 4 6
2 Find scalars h and k, such that H(5)+ K(5)= eh

3 Given two points A and B, with position vectors a and b, find, in terms of a
and b, the position vector of the point P, such that
(a) P is the mid-point of AB, (b) B is themid--point of AP,
(c) AP: PB == 3:7, (d) AP = 3 AB,
(e) PA= 2AB.
KZ 12
4 (a) Find the scalar product of a= a6 and b= as
 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 15d
322

(b) find the magnitudes of a and b,

(c) calculate the angle between a and b.
5 Given that P, Q and R are the points (8, 10), (6, 20) and (16, 16) respectively,
calculate the value of the scalar product PQ.PR. Hence calculate the size of
the angle QPR.
The points A, B and C have coordinates (4, — 1, 5), (8, 0, 6) and (5, — 3, 3)
respectively. Prove that the angle BAC is a right angle.
In Fig. 15.31, OB =b, OC = $b and AP= AB.
Cc

O
eer
eye A

Figure 15.31

Given that AQ = mAC and that OQ =nOP, calculate the values of m and n,
and the ratio AQ:QC.
Find the coordinates of the point P where the line
DG 2 1
y J={ 1 44+t[ 2
Zz 3 5

meets the plane 3x + 2y —2z+7=0.

Find the equation of the line through the points (2, 3, 7) and (3, 1, 4). Find
also the equation of the plane perpendicular to this line which passes
through the origin.
10 Find the equation of the plane containing the line
x6 2 —1
y }=| O J4+t 1
Z 1 0
and passing through the point (1, 0, 3).
11 Given the vectors a and b, where
a=xX,i+ yijt+7k
and
b=x,i+ y,j+z,k
prove that the vector

C= (Y12Z2 — Y2Z4)i + (212 — 22%1)§ + (X12 — X21)

is perpendicular to both a and b.
 Vectors 323
12 Prove that the planes
x¥—2y+z=5
3X —3y+z7=3
5x —4y+z=1
meet in a common line and find the coordinates of the point where this line
meets the plane z= 0.
13 A destroyer sights a ship travelling with constant velocity 5j, whose position
vector at the time of sighting is 2000(3i+j) relative to the destroyer,
distances being in m and velocity in ms '. The destroyer immediately
begins to move with velocity k(4i + 3j), where k is a constant, in order to
intercept the ship. Find k and the time to interception.
Find also the distance between the vessels when half the time to
interception has elapsed. (O & C)
14 The position vectors, relative to the origin O, of points A and B are
respectively a and b. State, in terms of a and b, the position vector of the
point T which lies on AB and is such that AT = 2TB. (Give reasons.)
Find the position vector of the point M on OT produced such that BM
and OA are parallel.
If AM is produced to meet OB produced in K, determine the ratio
OB:BK. (O& C)
15 The point A has coordinates (2,0, — 1) and the plane m has the equation
x +2y—2z=8. The line through A parallel to the line = =y=- ;

meets 7 in the point B and the perpendicular from A to x meets 7 in the point
GC:
(a) Find the coordinates of B and C.
(b) Show that the length of AC is 4/3.
(c) Find sin LABC. (O & C: MEI)
16 Of the following equations, which represent lines and which represent
planes?

(b) x +2y—z=1,

xe 2 1
(Oy lee a eed eae
Zz 3 —1

Describe, or show in a clear diagram, how these lines and planes are related
to each other. (O & C: SMP)
17 Points P, Q and R have position vectors p, q and r. If p=(1 — «)q + ar, for
some number «, describe the position of P relative to Q and R.
OABC are four non-coplanar points in space. A, B, C have position
vectors a, b, ¢ relative to O. The position vector of V is 2a —c, and of W is
324 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 15d

—2a + 3b. If VW meets the plane OBC in U, find the position vector of U
and show that U is on BC.
Use scalar products to show that if V is in the plane through O
perpendicular to OB, and W is in the plane through O perpendicular to OC,
- then U is in the plane through O perpendicular to OA. (O & C: SMP)
18 The vertices A, B and C of a triangle have position vectors a, b and
¢ respectively relative to an origin O. The point P is on BC such that
BP:PC = 3:1; the point Q is on CA such that CQ:QA = 2:3; the point R is on
BA produced such that BR:AR = 2:1. The position vectors of P, Q and R are
p, q and r, respectively. Show that q can be expressed in terms of p and r and
hence show that P, Q and R are collinear. State the ratio of the lengths of the
line segments PQ and QR. (JMB)
19 The position vectors of the points A, B and C are given by a = 2i + 3j — 4k,
b = 5i—j + 2k, c= 11i+ Jj + 14k. Find
(a) the unit vector parallel to AB,
(b) the position vector of the point D such that ABCD is a parallelogram,
(c) the value of 4 if A, B and C are collinear,
(d) the position vector of the point P on AB if AP:PB = 2:1. i)
20 A tetrahedron (OABC with vertex O at the origin is such that OA =a,
OB = b and OC =c. Show that the line segments joining the mid-points of
opposite edges bisect one another. Given that two pairs of opposite edges are
perpendicular prove that
a.b=b.c=c.a

and show that the third pair of opposite edges is also perpendicular. Prove
also that, in this case,

OA? + BC? = OB? + AC? (L)

Chapter 16

The general angle and Pythagoras’

theorem
The general angle
16.1 Consider a wheel which is free to rotate about a fixed axis, and suppose
that one spoke is marked with a thin line of paint. If the wheel starts from rest
and makes one revolution, the marked spoke turns through 360°, and if the
wheel makes another revolution the spoke turns through 360° again. Thus we
may say that the wheel has turned through a total of 720°, and by using angles
greater than 360° the number of revolutions may be specified, as well as the
position of the marked spoke.
Now on the x-axis of a graph the positive direction is usually taken to the
right and the negative direction is opposite to this. Similarly, if the wheel
mentioned above was rotating anti-clockwise, we could take that sense to be
positive, and then a clockwise rotation would be considered negative. Angles
measured from the x-axis in an anti-clockwise sense are positive, and those
measured in a clockwise sense are negative (see Fig. 16.1).

positive

negative

Figure 16.1

325
 1 16.1
326 Pure Mathematics
on
Trigonometrical ratios of angles of any magnitude are required in connecti
in physics they arise in
with oscillating bodies and rotation about an axis, and
connection with such topics as alternating currents. But as the reader may only
have had the six ratios defined for a limited range of angles, we will now give a
general definition.
The axes divide the plane into four quadrants, and, as angles are measured in
an anti-clockwise direction from the x-axis, the quadrants are numbered as in
Fig. 16.2. For the present, a point P(x, y) and its coordinates will be given a suffix
corresponding to the quadrant it lies in.

J,

second first
quadrant quadrant

third fourth
quadrant quadrant

Figure 16.2

For an acute angle 6, (see Fig. 16.3),

; x
dnd, == cos 0, = —, tan 0, ree
r r 1

In each case, r is the length of the vector OP, and, as in the previous chapter, it
should always be taken to be positive. Now

sin@; — y,/r es!

= = —=tan@
cos 6; -xair. x, ;
so for an angle @ of any magnitude we shall define the six trigonometrical ratios
as follows: ;
sind=~, ose tan 0 = sin 6
r r cos 0

cosec 0 SS ‘ Sec 0 = A 3 =
sin 0 cos 0 coe tan 0
For an angle @, in the second quadrant (see Fig. 16.3), y, is positive
 The general angle and Pythagoras’ theorem 327

P4(Xq, Y4)

Figure 16.3

(abbreviated + ve) but x, is negative (abbreviated — ve), therefore

sin @, is +ve, cos @, is —ve, tan@, is —ve
In the third quadrant, x, and y, are both negative, hence
sin 8, is —ve, cos@; is —ve, tan 6, is +ve
For an angle 0, in the fourth quadrant, x, is positive, and y, is negative, hence
sin 0, is —ve, cos 0, is +ve, tan 04 is —ve
These results can be summarised by writing which ratios are positive in each
quadrant:

Figure 16.4

The signs of the ratios can be worked out as above quite easily, but for those
who like them, there are mnemonics for the first letters in the four quadrants of
Fig. 16.4. One such is All Silly Tom Cats. The signs of cosec 0, sec 0, cot 0 are, of
course, the same as their reciprocals.
A useful point to note is that angles for which OP is equally inclined to the
positive or negative x-axis have trigonometrical ratios of the same magnitude,
their signs being determined as above. Thus the ratios of 150°, 210°, 330° are
numerically the same as the ratios of 30°, since in each case the acute angle
between OP and the x-axis is 30°, as shown overleaf.
328 Pure Mathematics 1 16.1

sin 150° = + sin 30°

cos 150° I= — cos 30°
tan 150° =—tan 30°

sin 210° = —sin 30°

cos 210° = — cos 30°
tan 210° = + tan 30°

sin 330° = —sin 30°

cos 330° = + cos 30°
tan 330° = — tan 30°

Qu. 1 Express in terms of the trigonometrical ratios of acute angles:

(a) sin 170°, (b) tan 300°, (c) cos 200°,
(d) sin (— 50°), (e) cos (— 20°), (f) sin 325°,
(g) tan (— 140°), (h) cos 164°, (i) cosec 230°,
(j) tan 143°, (k) cos (— 130°), (1) sin 250°,
(m) tan (— 50°), (n) cot 200°, (0) cos 293°,
(p) sin (— 230°), (q) sec 142°, (r) cot 156°,
(s) cosec (— 53°), (t) sec(—172°).

Graphs of sin 6, cos 0, tan 0

16.2 It is instructive to draw the graphs of sin @, cos 6, and tan 6. Fig. 16.5
shows how the graph of sin 6 may be drawn from the definition. Construct a
circle of unit radius, then sin @ = y. Dotted lines show this for 6 = 30°, 60°, 90°,
and the rest of the figure is drawn similarly.

60° 420° ——

2v
360° 540° 720°

Figure 16.5

It will be seen that the graph of sin @ repeats itself at intervals of 360°. (That
this is so should be clear from the way it was drawn, because points on the graph
separated by 360° correspond to the same point on the circle.) If a function
repeats itself at regular intervals, like sin 0, it is called a periodic function, and the
interval is called its period (see §2.15).
The graph of cos 6 may be drawn in a similar way to that of sin 0. In this case,
since cos @ = x/r, the values of x are used instead of y.
The graph of tan @ may also be drawn from a unit circle, but in this case a
 The general angle and Pythagoras’ theorem 329
tangent is drawn at the point (1, 0) (see Fig. 16.6). If P is any point on the circle,
and OP meets the tangent at Q, then the y-coordinate of Q is equal to tan 0.

tan 0

Figure 16.6

Qu. 2 Complete the graph of tan @ up to’@ = 720°.

Qu. 3 What are the periods of cos @ and tan 6?

Trigonometrical ratios of 30°, 45°, 60°

16.3 The trigonometrical ratios of 30°, 45°, and 60° are frequently needed, and
they may be obtained from two figures. Fig. 16.7 represents an equilateral
triangle with an altitude constructed. The sides ofthe triangle are 2 units, and so,
by Pythagoras’ theorem, the altitude is ,/3 units. The ratios of 30° and 60° may
now be read off. Fig. 16.8 represents a right-angled isosceles triangle with two
sides of unit length. By Pythagoras’ theorem the hypotenuse is ,/2 units, and so
the ratios of 45° may be read off.

V2

Zs) z
_ Figure 16.7 Figure 16.8

Qu. 4 Write down the values of (a) sin 30°, (b) cos 30°, (c) cos 45°, (d) tan 30°,
(e) sec 60°, (f) cosec 60°, (g) tan 45°, (h) cosec 45°.
 Pure Mathematics 1 16.4
330

Trigonometrical equations
16.4 Most equations in algebra have a finite number of roots, but in many
cases trigonometrical equations have an unlimited number. For instance, the
equation sin @=0 is satisfied by 6=0°, +180°, +360°, +540° and so on,
indefinitely. In this book it will be specified for what range of values the roots are
required.

Example 1 Solve the equation sin @= —4 for values of @ from 0° to 360°

inclusive.
The acute angle whose sine is 4 is 30° and Fig. 16.9 indicates the angles
between 0° and 360° whose sines are +4. But sin 6 is negative only in the third
and fourth quadrants. Therefore the roots of the equation in the required range
are 210° and 330°.

150°

210°
330°

Figure 16.9

Example 2 Solve the equation cos 20 = 0.6428, for values of 0 between — 180°
and + 180°.

[Note that since @ must lie between — 180° and + 180°, 20 may lie between
— 360° and + 360°.]
From a calculator or tables it can be seen that the acute angle whose cosine is
0.6428 is 50° (see note on accuracy after the Preface), and since cos 26 is positive
only in the first and fourth quadrants
20 = —310°, —30°, 50°, 310°
OS here yh ie Siew Riek

Example 3 Solve the equation* 2 sin* 6 = sin 0, for values of 0 from 0° to 360°
inclusive.

*In order to avoid brackets (sin 0)? is written sin? @.

 The general angle and Pythagoras’ theorem 331
[This equation is a quadratic equation for sin 0, and may be solved by
factorisation.]

2 sin? 0—sin@=0
.. sin 8 (2 sin @— 1)=0
“sin@=0 or sind=4
If sin 6=0, 6 =0°, 180°, 360°. If sin 9=4, 6 = 30°, 150°.
Therefore the roots of the equation, from 0° to 360° inclusive are 08071507,
180°, and 360°.
(Note that if we had divided both sides of the equation by sin 0, giving
2 sin 6=1, we should have lost some of the roots, namely those for which
sin 0 = 0.)

Example 4 Solve the equation tan 0 =2 sin 0, for values of 0 from 0° to 360°
inclusive.

[Equations are often solved by factorisation, so look for a common factor.]

Remembering that tan 6 = sin 6/cos 0 we may write

ont =2sin 0

.. 2 sin 86cos 6 =sin 0

.. 2sin. @.cos.6—
sin. d= 0
., sin 8 (2 cos d— 1)=0
“sindi=0 or cos 0=4
If sin 0=0, 6 =0°, 180°, 360°. If cos 0=4, @ = 60°, 300°.
Therefore the required values of 6 are 0°, 60°, 180°, 300°, and 360°.

Exercise 16a
1 Write down the values of the following, leaving surds in your answers
(calculators should not be used in this question):
(a) cos 270°, (b) sin 540°, (c) cos (— 180°),
(d) tan 135°, (e) sin 150°, (f)dicos.210°,
(g) tan 120°, (h) cos (— 30°), (i) sin(—120°),
(j) sin 405°, (k) cos(— 135°), (ly tisin 225%,
(m) tan (— 60°), (n) sin (— 270°), (o) tan 210°.
2 Sketch the graph of sin 0, for values of 0 from — 360° to 360°.
3 Sketch the graph of cos 0, for values of 0 from 0° to 720°, and state its period.
4 Draw the graph of tan 0, for values of @ from 0° to 720°. (This has been
started in Fig. 16.6.) What is the period of tan 6?
30, (d) cos (0 + 60°),
5 Sketch the graphs of (a) cos 20, (b) sin}0, (c) sin
(e) sin (9 — 45°), for values of @ from 0° to 360°, stating the period of each.
332 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 16a

6 Find the values of 0 from 180° to 360°, inclusive, which satisfy the following
equations:
(a) cos 0=—4, (b) tan 0 =1,
(c}cosec d= 2, (d) sin 6 = —0.7660,
(e) cos 0 = 0.6, (f) tan d= —./3,
(g) cos (8 + 60°) =0.5, (h) sin (9 — 30°) = — /3/2.
sa Solve the following equations for values of @ from 0° to 360°, inclusive:

(a) sin? 6=4, (b) tan? 0=4,

(c) sin 20 =3, (d) tan 20= —1,
(e) cos 36'= /'3/25 (f) sin 30= —1,
(2) sin? 202 (h)seci20i=3;
(i) tan? 36 =1, (j) 4cos 20=1,
(k) sin (26 + 30°) = 0.8, (1). tan (30
— 45°) =4.
Solve the following equations for values of 6 from — 180° to + 180°,
inclusive:
(a) tan’ 6+ tan 0 =0, (b) 2 cos? @=cos 0,
(c) 3 sin? 6+sin 0=0, (d) 2 sin? @—sin d—1=0,
(e) 2cos? 0+ 3 cos 0+ 1=0, (f) 4.cos*?.@=cos 8,
(g) tan 6 =sin 0, (h) sec 0 =2 cos 8,
(i) cot@=5.cos 0, (j) 4sin? 6 =3 cos? 6,
(k) 3cos 0=2 cot 0, (l) tan €=4 cot 6 +43,
(m)5 sin 6 + 6 cosec 6 = 17, (n) 3cos8+2sec0+7=0.
‘© Write down the maximum and minimum values of the following expressions,
giving the smallest positive or zero value of 6 for which they occur:
(a) sin 0, (b) 3 cos 6, (c) 2.cos 48,
(d) —4sin 20, (e) 1—2 sin 0, (f) 3+2cos 38,
1
Rcat. hye Oe eh 3
(8) 2+sin 0’ ( a aia ey cg sth

(j) tan? @ (k) ——————_ (1) ee

1 +cosec 0’ 3—2 cot 0’
cos0
a cos 0+ sin 0

10 State, with reasons, which of the following equations have no roots:

(a) 2. sin. 2.2 3, (b) sin 8+ cos @=0,
(c) sin@+ cos 0=2, (d) 3 sin 8 + cosec 0 =0,
(e) 4cosec? 6—1=0, (f) cosec @= sin 6,
(g) sec @=sin 0.
11 Sketch on the same axes, for values of 0 from — 360° to 360°, the graphs of
(a) sin 0, cosec 6; (b) cos 0, sec 8; (c) tan 0, cot 0.
12 Sketch the graphs of the following functions and state the period in each
Case:
(a) y =sin 2x, (b) y= cos (x/3), (c) y=tan 3x,
(d) y = tan (x/2), (e) y=sin (2x/3).
 The general angle and Pythagoras’ theorem 333
Trigonometrical ratios of — 0, 180 + 0,90+0
16.5 The reader who has drawn the graphs ofy= sin 0 and y =
cos 0 may have
noticed that they are the same, except for the positions of the y-axes
relative to
the curves.
Fig. 16.10 suggests that, for any angle a,

cos a = sin (90° + a)

Figure 16.10

and other relationships of this sort may be found from the graphs. Some people
find the graphs help them to remember such relationships, but now it will be
shown how they may be obtained from first principles. a
For any value of 0, in the notation of §16.1 we have by definition

: y igi”
sinfd=-_, cos
= —
r r

Consider: .
(a) ratios of —@. In Fig. 16.3, p. 327, the angle —@ is obtained by replacing
(x, y) by (x, —y),

“. sin(—6)= —— = —sin0
tle
 Pure Mathematics 1 16.5
334

cog = = = cos 0
r

ie. sin @ is an odd function and cos @ is an even function (see §2.14).
(b) ratios of (180° — 0). Replace (x, y) by (— x, y), hence

sin (180° — 0) == =sin 0

x
cos (180° — #) = aa —cos0

(c) ratios of (180° + 0). Replace (x, y) by (—x, —y), hence

sin (180° + 0) = == in

cos (180° + 6) = -== —cos 0

[Note that in all these cases above, OP is inclined at an angle 6 to the positive
or negative x-axis, the ratios of these angles have the same magnitude as those of
9, and their signs are determined as on page 327 if @ is acute.]
(d) ratios of (90° — @). Replace (x, y) by (y, x), hence
x
sin (90° — 0) = — = cos 0
r

cos (90° — 6) = Le sin 0

Sa

(e) ratios of (90° + @). Replace (x, y) by (— y, x), hence

sin (90° + 0) = =cos 0

cos (90°
+ 6) = — = —sin 0

Qu.5 Express the following in terms of the trigonometrical ratios of 0:

(a) tan (90° — 6), (b) cosec (180° — 6), (c) sec (90° + 8),
(d) cot (90° + 6), (e) sec (— 8), (f) cosec (180° + 6),
(g) cos (270° — 6), (h) sin (360° + 6), (i) tan (—9),
(j) sin (0 — 90°), (k) cos (@ — 180°), (l) sec (270° + 6).

Pythagoras’ theorem
16.6 The reader will be familiar with Pythagoras’ theorem, and will have found
that itis a very useful one. In trigonometry it retains its importance and provides
relations between trigonometrical ratios.
 The general angle and Pythagoras’ theorem 335

Figure 16.11

In Fig. 16.11, the triangle is right-angled and so, by Pythagoras’ theorem,

x24 y2=/7?

But cos @ = x/r and sin 0 = y/r, so we divide by r? obtaining

x2 y?

er
’ cos’ + sin?0 = 1
(If P is not in the first quadrant, OP? is still x? + y? by the distance formula of
§1.8 and the proof continues as before.)
The = symbol is used to stress that the relationship is an identity, i.e. it holds
for all values of 0.
Two similar identities can be deduced from this. Dividing through by cos? 0,

Cos; 0. €OS" 0
but tan 0 = sin 6/cos @ and sec 0 = I/cos 0, therefore
1 + tan? 0 =sec’ 0
Dividing the original identity by sin? 6,
cos? 0 1
sin?0 "sin? 0
but cos 0/sin @ = cot @ and 1/sin 6 = cosec 0, therefore
cot? 6 + 1 =cosec’ 0
Historical note. The equivalent of the identity
cos?.6 + sin? 6=1
is found in the Syntaxis written during the first century A.D. by Claudius
Ptolemy. Instead of sines and cosines, he used chords. (If a chord subtends an
angle 20 at the centre of a circle, the ratio of the chord to the diameter of the
circle is sin 0.)
 Pure Mathematics 1 16.6
336

Example 5 Solve the equation 1 + cos 6 =2 sin? 0, for values of 0 between 0°

and 360°.
[The square on the right-hand side indicates that the equation is a quadratic,
and to solve it, we must write it in terms of either cos @ or sin 0.] We know that
cos? 6+sin? 6=1
hence sin? 9 = 1 —cos* 0
so substituting 2— 2 cos? @ for 2 sin? 0, we obtain
1+cos
0 =2—2 cos? 0
This quadratic for cos 0 is solved by factorisation:
2 cos? 0+cos @—-1=0
.. (2cos 6— 1)(cos 8+ 1)=0
“.cos0=4 or —1
If cos 6 =4, 6 = 60°, 300°. If cos 0= —1, 0 = 180°.
Therefore the roots of the equation between 0° and 360° are 60°, 180°, and
300°.

Example 6 Simplify 1/,/(x? — a”) when x =a cosec 0.

Substituting x =a cosec 0, we obtain
1
J (a? cosec? 6 — a?)
But the cosec? @ in the denominator suggests the use of the identity
cot? 0+ 1 =cosec? @
With this the expression (a? cosec? 6 — a*) may be simplified, giving
a” cosec” @ — a* = a?(cot? 0 + 1) — a? = a? cot? 0
Thus the original expression becomes
1 1 1
/(a? cot? 0) acot 0 aes :
Example 7 Eliminate 0 from the equations x =a sin 0, y = b tan 0.
[Since sin @ and tan @ are the reciprocals of cosec @ and cot @ we use the
identity cosec? 6 = cot? 6+ 1.]
a b
cosecO=— and cot@=—
%

Substituting into the identity cosec? @ = cot? 6 + 1,

 The general angle and Pythagoras’ theorem 337
Exercise 16b
1 If s=sin 0, simplify:

§ l—s
(a) Vd 87); (b) Jd —s?)’ (Cc)

2 If c=cos 0, simplify:

(a) Wilic?); wyVo")

ae
P R(C)

3 If t=tan 0, simplify:

(ale 1+ (it)t7), 7 (b)

b i(l 2”),
2 ©) eae
Ta:
4 If c=cosec 0, simplify:

Eyfetely) Sea ie) Sax

oon

5 If x =a sin 0, simplify:
1 a? — x?
@a-x,
a Dee ; 2
Way
ee

6 If y=b cot 6, simplify:

y
(a) b* +’, (b) y./(b? + y’), (c) Bla i

7 If z=a sec 0, simplify:

2: 2, b
1 J(z? —a’)
ot

In Nos. 8—13, solve the equations, giving values of 6 from 0° to 360° inclusive.
8 3—3 cos 0=2 sin’ 0.
9 cos? 64+sin0+1=0.
10 sec? 6=3 tan @—1.
11 cosec? 0 =3 +4 cot 0.
12 3 tan? @+5=7 sec 0.
13 2 cot? 0+8=7 cosec 0.
14 If sin 6 =3, find without using tables or calculators, the values of (a) cos 0,
(b) tan 6.
15 If cos 0 = —;&, and 0 is obtuse, find without using tables or calculators, the
values of (a) sin 0, (b) cot 6.
16 If tan@=34 and @ is reflex, find without using tables or calculators, the
values of (a) sec 0, (b) sin 0.
338 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 16b

Prove the following identities:

17 tan 0+cot 6= 1/(sin @ cos 8).
18 cosec 0 + tan @ sec 6 = cosec @ sec? 0.
19 sec? 6 — cosec” @ = tan” 0 — cot? 6.
20 cos* @ —sin* 6 = cos? 0 — sin? 0.
21 (sec 0 + tan 0) (sec 0 — tan 6) = 1.
22 2cos? 6—1=1—2 sin? 0 =cos* 6 —sin? 0.
23 sec? @ + cosec” @ = sec” @ cosec? 0.
ae 4 2
Pee ie _ sin 6 —=cos* 6
24 sec* @ —cosec” 0 ee ery

1 i: 1 oF
tan27@-+1 coPO+1 fy)
26 (sec? @ — 1)(cosec? 6 — 1)=1.
27 ./(sec? 6 — 1) + ,/(cosec” @ — 1) = sec 6 cosec 8.
28 ,/(sec? 6 — tan? 0) + ,/(cosec” 6 — cot? 6) = 2.
fec0s
=] in? 0.
sec? 9 —1 sa
sec 9 — cosec 0 _ tan 6+ cot é
tan@—cot@ sec@+cosec0°
cos 6 sin 0
1 aie
: J(i + tan? 8)" J(1+ cot? 0)

Eliminate 6 from the following equations:

32 x=acos
0, y=b sin 8.
33 x =a cot 0, y=b cosec0.
34 x=a tan 0, y=b cos 0.
35 x=1-sin
6, y=1+ cos 0.
36 x=a sec 0, y=b+c cos 0.
37 ‘X= a coste @) y= b'secGV.
38 x =1+tan 0, y=cos 0.
39 x =sin 8+ cos 0, y=sin 0 —cos 0.
40 x =sec 0+ tan 0, y=sec 6 — tan 0.

Exercise 16c (Miscellaneous)

1 Express in terms of the ratios of acute angles:
(a) cos 205°, (b) tan 153°, (c) sec 309°,
(d) sin (— 215°), (e) cot 406°, (f) cosec 684°.
2 Find the values of the following, leaving surds in your answers:
(a) sin 270°, (b) cos 150°, (c) cot 210°,
(d) cos 315°, (e) cosec 240°, (f) sec 585°,
(g) tan (— 225°), (h) sin (— 690°), (i) cos (— 300°).
 The general angle and Pythagoras’ theorem 339
3 Solve the following equations for values of @ from 0° to 360° inclusive:
(a) 2sin 6 = 1, (b) tand+1=0, (c) cos 9=0.8,
(d) tan 20= 1, (e) sec 20 = 4, (f) sinZ6=4,
(g) 3 cos (6 — 10°) = 1, (h) sin (6 + 30°) = 0.7, (i) “cot 40 = 0,9.
4 Solve the following equations for values of 6from — 180° to + 180° inclusive:
(a) 2 sin? 0+ sin @=0, (b) 3 cos? @=2 sin @ cos 8,
(c) 2 sin? 6+ 1=3 sin 8, (d)-3 cos? 6 =7 cos 0 + 6,
(ec) 4 sin 0+ cosec0 = 4, (f) 10 cos 6+ 1=2 sec 8,
(g) tand+2 cot @=3, 0 =2.
(h) 10 sin @ cos €—5 sin 8+ 4 cos
5 Find the maximum and minimum values ofthe following functions of 6. Give
the smallest non-negative values of. for which they occur.
(a) 3+2sin 0, (b) 1 —3 cos 8, (c) 4 sin 30,
1 1
d) 3 sin? 4 oo ne
MEM aerarg Ola ary
an50
6 Express in terms of the trigonometrical ratios of 0:
(a) cot (90° — 0), (b) sin (90° + 9), (c) cos (270° + 6),
(d) tan (90° + 6), (e) cosec (360° — 6), (f) sec (180° — 6),
(g) sin (9 — 180°), (h) tan (— 9), (1) cos (450° — 6).
7 If s=sin 0 and c =cos 0, simplify:
1—s? SC
(a) 1—c2’ (b) Ja 57)" ( ) C2 he

Ose
cr — s*
Ora
s,/(1 —s?)
OF
Cas

8 Solve the following equations for values of 6 from 0° to 360° inclusive:

(a) 2cos* 0+ sin@=1,
(b) 5 cos = 2(1 +2 sin? 6),
(c) 2 tan? 6+sec 0=1,
(d) 4 cot? 6 + 39 = 24 cosec 8,
(e) 5sec @—2 sec? O=tan? 6—1,
(f) sec 8 +3 =cos 6+ tan 0 (2 + sin 6).
(g) 3 sin? 6 —sin 0 cos 0—4 cos” 0 =0.
9 Find, without using tables or calculators, the values of
(a) sin 0, tan 0, if cos 0 = and @ is acute.
(b) sec 0, sin 0, if tan 0 = — 7 and @ is obtuse.
(c) cos 0, cot 0, if sin 0 = +43 and @ is acute.
(d) sin 0, sec 0, if cot 0 = 3? and @ is reflex.

Prove the following identities:

10 sec 6 + cosec @ cot 0 =sec 8 cosec? 0.
11 sin? 6 (1 + sec” 0) = sec? 0 — cos? 0.
1—cos 0 ) 1
sind cosec@+cot 0
340 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 16c

tan 0+ cot 0 1
13
sec0+cosec@ sinO+cos@
; cosec 0
14 sec* 9=
~ cosec 6 — sin 0
in 0
15 dob 1G = (sec 0 + tan 6)?.
1—sin 0

tan? 0+ cos? 0
16 sec 0 — sin 0 =
sec 0+ sin 8

1—sinO+cos@ 1+sin@+cos@.
17
1 —sin 0 La cos 0 é

Eliminate 0 from the following pairs of equations:

18 x=a sec 0, y=b tan 0.

19 x=1-—cos0, y=1+sin0.
20 x=acot 0, y=bsin 0.
21 x =a-seci0, y=b cot 0.
22 x =atan0, y=b sin 0.
23 x = cosec 0 — cot 6, y=cosec 6 + cot 0.
24 x =sin 6+ cos 0, y=tan60.
25 x =cos 0, y=cosec 0 — cot 0.
26 Plot the graph of y=sin x + cos x for values of x from — 180° to 180° at
intervals of 30°. Find from your graph the maximum and minimum values of
sin x + cos x, and the values of x for which they occur.
27 Plot the graph of y=sin x +2 cos x for values of x from — 180° to 180°
at intervals of 30°. Find from your graph the roots of the equation
sin x + 2 cos x = 1 which lie between —180° and +180°.
28 Plot the graphs of y = sin 2x and y = cos 3x on the same axes for values of x
from 0° to 90°. Find from your graph the root of the equation sin 2x = cos 3x
which lie between 0° and 90°.
29 Solve the simultaneous equations

sin x +9) =

cos 2x = —4
for values of x, y from 0° to 360° inclusive.
30 State whether the following functions are odd, even or neither, and state the
range of each function. Sketch the graph of each function.
(a) y=1+sin x, (b) y=2+3 cos x,
(c) y=Ssinx+10, (d) y=1—cosx.
Chapter 17

Trigonometrical identities
The formulae for sin (4 + B), cos (A + B)
17.1 Place a rectangular piece of cardboard PQRS in a vertical plane with two
edges horizontal, and then turn it through an angle B (see Fig. 17.1). Take the
diagonal PR as the unit of length and let angle RPQ be A.

Figure 17.1

What is the height of R above P?

One way to find this out is to drop a perpendicular RU from R to the
horizontal through P, then from the triangle RPU, RU =sin (A + B).
Alternatively, since RQ = sin A, PQ=cos A and angle QRU = B, the height
of R above P can be found in two parts. First, the height of R above Q,
RT=sin A cos B (from triangle RTQ). Secondly, the height of Q above P,
QV =cos A sin B (from triangle PQV). Thus, equating the height of R above P

341
342 Pure Mathematics 1 7a

obtained in the two ways,

sin( A A cos
+ B)=sin B+ cos A sin B

How far to the right of P is R?

In triangle RPU, PU =cos (A + B).
Alternatively, the distance of Q to the right of P, PV =cos A cos B (from
triangle PQV), and the distance 9f R to the left of Q, QT= sin A sin B (from
triangle RTQ). So, equating the distance of R to the right of P obtained in these
two ways,
cos (A + B)=cos A cos B—sin
A sin B

Figure 17.2

Consider now what happens if PQ is tilted through an angle B below the

horizontal, as in Fig. 17.2. The height of R above P is now sin(A — B). R is a
distance sin A cos B above Q, but Q is a distance cos A sin B below P, therefore
sin (A — B) =sin A cos B—cos A sin B

Further, R is a distance cos (A — B) to the right of P. Q is a distance cos A cos B

to the right of P, but R is now a distance sin A sin B to the right of Q, therefore
cos (A — B)=cos Acos B+sin A sin B
The four identities just obtained have many applications apart from their use
in trigonometry. They, or identities which will be derived from them, are needed
in calculus, coordinate geometry and mechanics. Some applications are found in
Chapters 19 and 22.
The outline of a good general proof of the identities (which may be taken on
second reading) may be found in §17.6. For the present it will be assumed that
they hold for all values of A and B.
Historical note. The equivalents of the identities for cos (4 + B) and
sin (A — B) were known to Ptolemy of Alexandria, almost 2000 years ago.
 Trigonometrical identities 343
The formulae for tan (A + B)
17.2 Two more identities will be deduced from the four just obtained. They
give tan (A + B) and tan (A — B) in terms of tan A and tan B.

sin (A + B)
tan (A + B) =
cos (A + B)
Therefore, using the formulae for sin (A + B) and cos (A + B),

sin A cos B+ cos A sin B

tan (A+ B)=
( ) cos A cos B—sin A sin B

Dividing numerator and denominator of the right-hand side by cos A cos B,

sin AcosB cosAsinB

cos AcosB cos AcosB
tan (A + B)=
cos AcosB sinAsinB
cos AcosB cosAcosB
sinA sinB
cos A ancos B
sinA sinB
cos A 5 cos B

. A —
tan A+tan B
gets otB) 1 —tan A tan B

Similarly,
a6 f= B)= tan A — tan B
1+ tan A tan B
For convenience, the six identities are printed together:
cos (A + B)=cosA cos
B— sin A sin B
cos(A — B)=cos A cos B+sinA sinB
sin(A + B) =sin A cos B+ cosA sin B
sin
(A — B) =sin A cos B—cos A sin B
Spy tan A + tan B
dh Be Fa tan tall

dis By tan A —tan B

punt yeaa tan

These are usually called the addition formulae; when memorising these, note
the following:
(a) the formulae for the ratios of (A — B) are the same as those for (A + B),
except for the changes in signs,
344 Pure Mathematics 1 172

(b) the signs on the two sides of each ofthe sine formulae are the same, but in the
cosine formulae they are different,
(c) in the tangent formulae, the signs in the numerators are the same as in the
corresponding sine formulae, and those in the denominators are the same as
in the cosine formulae.

Example 1 Find, without using tables or calculators, the value of

sin (120° + 45°)
leaving surds in the answer.
Using the formula for sin (A + B),
sin (120° + 45°) = sin 120° cos 45° + cos 120° sin 45°

Reference to Figs. 16.7 and 16.8 on page 329 should remind the reader how to
obtain the ratios of 30°, 45°, and 60°. Thus we have

sin 120°= sin 66 = we

cos 120° = —cos 60° = —4

COS 45— sin) = cs = v2

“ sin (120° + 45°) = 93eae +(-5) ial2

*, sin (120°
+ 45°) = Ie(fae 1)

Example 2 [fsin A =3 and cos B = +45, where A is obtuse and B is acute, find the
exact value of sin(A + B).

sin (A + B)=sin Acos B+cos A sin B

So it is necessary to find the values of cos A and sin B, and Figs. 17.3 and 17.4
indicate the method. In Fig. 17.3, the third side of the right-angled triangle
is 4 (by Pythagoras’ theorem), hence the x-coordinate of P is —4, therefore
cos A sa Similarly, in Fig. 17.4, the y-coordinate of P is 8, and therefore
sin B= 17:

17 5 2
|
eASvoBa
RSLS
13
“. sin(A + B)= no
 Trigonometrical identities 345
y

Figure 17.3. Figure 17.4.

Example 3 [f sin (x + ~) =cos (x — f),find tan x in terms of « and B.

Since sin (x + «) = cos (x — B), we have

sin X COS a + COs x sin a= cos x cos f + sin x sin B

[Now tan x = sin x/cos x, so collect terms in sin x on one side of the equation,
and terms in cos x on the other.|
Thus

sin xX cos « — sin x sin B = cos x cos fb— cos x sin «

., sin x (cos « — sin B) = cos x (cos f — sin «)
_ sinx cos f—sin«
“cosx cosa—sinf

Exercise 17a

The questions in this exercise are intended to give the reader practice in using the
trigonometrical identities introduced in the preceding section. Do not use a
calculator or tables in this exercise; to every question it is possible to give an exact
answer. Leave surds in the answers where appropriate.

1 Find the values of the following:

(a) cos (45° — 30°), (b) sin (30° + 45°), (c) sin (60° + 45°),
(d) cos 105°, (e) cos (120° + 45°), (i ssiny 165°,
(g) sin 15”, (h) cos 75°.
2 Ifsin A =2and sin B = 7, where A and B are acute angles, find the values of
(a) sin (A + B), (b) cos (A + B), (c) cot (A + B).
3 If sin A =4 and cos B = 43, where A is obtuse and B is acute, find the values
of
(a) sin(A — B), (b) tan (4 — B), (c) tan (A + B).
346 Pure Mathematics 1 Bxal#a

4 If cos A =2 and tan B=22, where A and B are both reflex angles, find the
values of
(a) sin (A — B), (b) tan (A — B), (c) cos (A + B).
If tan (x + 45°) = 2, find the value of tan x.
If tan (A + B) =4 and tan A = 3, find the value of tan B.
If A and B are acute, tan A =4 and tan B=, find the value of A + B.
Iftan A = —4and tan B =3, where A is obtuse and B is acute, find the value
SrIUNnAmM
of A—B.
Express as single trigonometrical ratios:
1 bags aoe 1
(a) 5 cos xX — sesin x, (b) wD sin xX + 7 COS Xx,

Gucci (d)-cos 16° sin 42° — sin 16° cos 42°,

1 —,/3 tan x
1 1 a
f) = 75° + ~— Tae
(©) cos 24° cos 15° — sin 24° sin 15°’ (t) aes $A oe
10 Find the values of
(a) cos 75° cos 15° + sin 75° sin 15°, (b) sin 50° cos 20° — cos 50° sin 20°,

tan 10° + tan 20°

(c) (d) cos 70° cos 20° — sin 70° sin 20°,
1 — tan 10° tan 20°’

1 La 3 Ss
ap:
(e) —~cos 15°
— —~sin
2 15°,
2
(f) a3 xg 15"— 5 sin 13°,

1 — tan 15°
(h) cos 15° + sin 15°.
(8) tan 15°”
11 Find the value of tan A, when tan (A — 45°) =4.
12 Find the value of cot B, when cot A = 4 and cot (A — B) =8.
13 From the following equations, find the values of tan x:
(a) sin (x + 45°) = 2 cos (x + 45°);
(b) 2 sin (x — 45°) = cos (x + 45°);
(c) tan(x — A) =#, where tan A =2;
(d) sin (x + 30°) = cos (x + 30°).
14 If sin (x + a) = 2 cos (x — a), prove that

Beez 2) 2—tana
1—2 tana

15 If sin (x — x) =cos(x +), prove that tan x = 1.

16 Solve, for values of x between 0° and 360°, the equations:
(a) 2 sin x =cos (x + 60°),
(b) cos (x + 45°) =cos x,
(c) sin (x — 30°) =4 cos x,
(d) 3 sin (x + 10°) = 4 cos (x — 10°).
 Trigonometrical identities 347
Prove the following identities:
17 sin(A + B)+sin— B) =2 sin
(A A cos B.
18 cos (A + B)—cos
(A — B) = —2siAn sin B.
sin (A + B)
19 tan A+tan
B= :
cos AcosB

tan A + tan B+ tan C — tan A tan B tan C

20 tan(A+B+C)=
1 — tan B tan C — tan C tan A —tan A tan B’
Hence prove that if A, B, C are angles of a triangle, then

tan A+ tan B+ tan C = tan A tan B tan C

The double angle formulae

17.3. The special cases of the identities on page 343, when A = B, are even more
useful than the identities themselves. For convenience of reference, they are
given together, below.
cos 2A = cos’ A — sin? A
=2cos* A—1
=1—2sin’ A
sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A

2 tanA
tan 2A SVLeay
ea

Further, it is useful to remember that

cos? 4 = 4(1 + cos 2A)
sin? A =5(1 — cos 2A)
To prove the identities concerning cos 2A, we put B= A in the identity
cos (A + B)=cos A cos B—sin A sin B
which gives
cos 2A =cos” A—sin? A
Now cos? A + sin? A = 1, so substituting sin? A = 1 — cos” A, we obtain
cos 2A = cos? A —1+ cos? A
. cos 2A =2 cos? A—1
If we had substituted cos? A = 1 — sin’ A in the identity
cos 2A =cos? A —sin? A
~ we should have obtained
cos 2A =1—sin? A—sin? A
“, cos 2A =1—2sin? A
348 Pure Mathematics 1 eS

The expressions for cos? A and sin’ A are obtained by changing the subjects
in the formulae
cos 2A =2cos?
A—1 and cos2A=1-—2sin? A

The identities for sin 2A and tan2A are obtained immediately, when the
substitution B = A is made in the formulae for sin (A + B) and tan (A + B).

Example 4 Solve the equation 3 cos 20 + sin @=1, for values of 0 from 0° to
360° inclusive.
[The quadratic equation is liable to occur in various disguises. Here, sin 0
suggests that the equation may be a quadratic in sin 8, so we-express cos 26 in
terms of sin @.]

We have cos 26 = 1 — 2 sin? 6, so, substituting in the equation

3 cos 20+ sin 0= 1
it follows that
3(1 — 2 sin? 0)+sin 0=1
This is a quadratic equation for sin 0, and it is solved by factorisation.
3—6sin? 0+sin@=1
.. 6sin? @—sin@-2=0
- Bsin 6—2)(2
sin 0+1)=0
“.sind=% or sin@=—4
If sin 0 =3,
0=41.8° or 180°—41.8°, correct to one decimal place.
If sin 0 = —4,
0 = 180° + 30° or 360° — 30°
Therefore the values of 6 between 0° and 360° which satisfy the equation are
41.8°, 138.2°, 210°, and 330°.

Example 5_ Prove that sin 3A = 3 sin A —4 sin? A.

The left-hand side of the identity may be written as sin(A + 2), so by using
the formula for sin (A + B) we have
sin (A + 2A)=sin A cos 2A + cos A sin 2A
But the right-hand side of the identity to be proved is in terms of sin A, and this
suggests that cos 2A should be expressed in terms of sin A. (We have only one
formula for sin 2A, so it must be used.) Therefore
sin 3A = sin A(1 — 2 sin? A) + cos A(2 sin A cos A)
= sin A —2 sin? A +2 sin A cos? A
 Trigonometrical identities 349
now cos? A must be expressed in terms of sin A by means of the identity
cos? A =1—sin? A, therefore
sin 3A =sin
A —2 sin? A +2 sin A(1 —sin? A)
=sin A—2 sin° A +2 sin A —2 sin? A
.. sin 3A =3 sin A — 4 sin? A
A formula for cos 3A in terms of cos A may be obtained from the expansion of
cos (2A + A). The proof is left as an exercise.

cos 3A = 4cos* A —3 cos A

Exercise 17b (Oral)

Express more simply:

2 tan 30°
1 2 sin 17° cos Wipar aans0”
2 ——.—— 3 2cos242°
242° —
— 1 1,

; P 2 tan46
4 2sin46@
cos 40. 5 1—2sin? 224°. 1—tan? 46°
7 cos? 15° — sin? 15°. 8 2 sin 2A cos 2A. 9 2cos? 46-1.
tan 20
10 1—2sin? 30. rf Tomer 12 sin x cos x.
1—
coe ees
tan? 20° 14 sec 0 cosec 0. 15 1—2sin? 40.
tan 20°

Exercise 17c
Nos. 1—6 in this exercise are intended to give the reader practice in using the
trigonometrical identities introduced in this chapter. Do not use a calculator or
tables in these questions; in each case it is possible to give an exact answer. Leave
surds in the answers where appropriate.

1 Evaluate:
na 15° 15° 2 tan 225°
(a) 2 sin 15° cos 15", ( T tan? 224°”

(c) 2 cos? 75° — 1, (d)_ 1.—2 sin? 673°

29910 _ —sin*
oin2 225°,
5910 1—tan? 15°
(e) cos? 223° (f) mre

f— 2 cos? 25.
(h) sec 224° cosec 223°.
(8) 7 sin? 65°’
2 Find the patecs of sin 20 and ‘aise20 when
(a) sind=3, (b) cos0=43, = (c) sin @ = —,/3/2.
350 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 17c

3 Find the value of tan 20 when

(a) tan@=a, (b) tan d= 7, (c) cos 0 = — 75.
4 Find the values of cos x and sin x when cos 2x is
(ahs; (b)'5, (C) tes,
5 Find the values of tan +0 when tan @ is
ages ib) pelea
6 Afit=tan 225°; use the formula for tan 20 to show that t? + 2r—1=0.
Deduce the value of tan 223°.

Solve the following equations for values of @ from 0° to 360° inclusive:

7 cos 20+cosé0+1=0. 8 sin 20 =sin 0.
9 cos 20 =sin 0. 10 3cos 20—sin0d+2=0.
11 sin 20 cos 6 +sin? 6=1. 12 sin 0 =6 sin 20.
13 2 sin 0 (5 cos 20+ 1) =3 sin 20. 14 3 tan 0 =tan 20.
15 3 cot 20+ cot d=1. 16 4 tan 6 tan 20 = 1.
17 Eliminate 6 from the equations:
(a)_x = cos @,..y.= cos. 20; (b) x=2 sin 6, y=3 cos 20;
(c) x=tan 0, y = tan 26; (d) x= 2:sec.6, y =‘cos 280.

Prove the following identities:

cos 2A 4 eed sinA cosA_ 2sin(A +B)
———_—— = cos A —sin A. 19 :
cos
A+ sin A sinB cosB sin 2B

cosA sinA 2cos(A+B)

20 21 tan A+cot A =2 cosec 2A.
sinB cosB sin 2B

22 cot A—tan A =2 cot 2A.

1 1
= tan 2A cosec A.
cosA+sinA cosA—sinA
sin'2A)" 9.” vite h=cos'2A 35 : :
1+cos2A — pen See cos 3A=4 cos"A—3 cos A.
26 cosec 2x — cot 2x = tan x. 27 cosec 2x + cot 2x = cot x.

sh tan [poe 29 sin 2x = ———_—_,

2tanx
1+ cos 2x 1+ tan* x
ul ake
Acetate ee
1+ tat? x

The t-formulae
17.4 In the preceding section the following formulae for sin 2x and cos 2x were
introduced:

sin 2x =2 sin x cos x

cos 2x = cos? x — sin? x
 Trigonometrical identities Sot
It is possible to express both sin 2x and cos 2x in terms of tan x and there are
many occasions when this is a very useful technique.
In the case of sin 2x we start by deliberately introducing a factor sin x/cos x,
which is equal to tan x.

sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x

= 2 tan x cos? x

== 2)(BM
38 Se
sec? x
This last step may seem rather peculiar; its purpose is to enable us to replace
sec* x by 1 + tan? x (see §16.6). Hence
2 tan x
Sin Qe = —
1 + tan?x
This identity is most frequently used in the form obtained by substituting 6 for
Dede:
2 tan46
ao, @) = =
1+ tan? 40
2t
“. sin @ = aie (where t = tan $6)

This is usually called the t-formula for sin 6. The corresponding t-formulae for
cos § and tan @ are left as exercises for the reader.
1—?
Qu.1 Prove that, in the usual notation, cos 0 =
1+?t
2t
Qu.2 Prove that tan 6 =
1—t?
Qu.3 Use the t-formulae to solve the following equations, giving values of @
from 0° to 360° inclusive:
(a) 2cos8+3sin0—2=0, (b) 7cos 80+sin @—5=0,
(c) 3cos@—4sin#6+1=0, (d) 3cos80+4sin 0 =2.
In due course the reader will find that the t-formulae can be a useful means of
tackling certain integrals (see Book 2, §13.3).

The form acos 0+ bsin 0

17.5 Two applications of the identities of §17.2 follow in the next examples.

Example 6 Solve the equation 3 cos 0 + 4 sin 0 = 2, for values of @ from 0° to

360°, inclusive.
B52 Pure Mathematics 1 1/25

The solution is obtained by dividing both sides of the equation by some

number, so as to leave it in the form
cos « cos § + sin a sin 0 = constant
Comparing this with
3cos0+ 4sin0=2
it follows that
cosa sin a ee 4
ie. tan
a =—
3 an 3
From a calculator or tables we find that « = 53.13°, and from Fig. 17.5 it follows
that sina =+ and cosa=2. Therefore we divide the original equation by 5,
giving
2cos0+4#sin@=2
". cos #cosa+sin #sina=0.4
‘cos (0 —«)=0.4

10 53.13" 66.422" Gore 293.58"

Therefore the roots of the equation in the range from 0° to 360° are 119.6° and
346.7°, correct to the nearest tenth of a degree.*

(5)

Figure 17.5

Qu.4 What advantage is there in using the formula for cos (A — B), rather
than that for sin (A + B) in Example 6?

Example 7 Find the maximum and minimum values of 2 sin 0 — 5 cos 0, and the
corresponding values of 0 between 0° and 360°.
This will be solved by writing
2 sin 0 — 5 cos 0 = k(cos « sin @ — sin « cos 8)

*The figure in the second decimal place should be included in the intermediate working, in order to
avoid errors due to premature approximation.
 Trigonometrical identities 353
where k and « are to be found. Comparing the two forms of the expression,

Sima)
=-, ie. tana=2.5
cosa 2

From a calculator or tables it is found that «= 68.20°; and from Fig. 17.6, it
follows that cos a = 2/,/29, and sin « = 5/,/29. So we may write

2sin 0 Se0s 0=,/29( 55sin @ — =.cos 0)

J29 29
= ,/29(sin 0 cos « — cos @ sin a)
= ,/29 sin (0 — a)
Now the greatest value of sin x is 1, and this occurs when x = 90°, and the least
value of sin x is — 1, when x = 270°. (Values of x less than 0° or greater than 360°
have been ignored.)

(V29) 5

- Figure 17.6 .

Therefore Bi29 sin (0 — a) has a maximum value of ,/29 when 6 — w = 90°; and
it has a minimum value of —,/ 29 when 0—a= 270°.
Therefore the maximum and minimum values of

2 sin 8—Scos 0

are ,/29 and —,/29, and are given by

6=90° +a=158.2° and 6=270° + « = 338.2° respectively.

Exercise 17d

Solve the following equations for values of # from 0° to 360° inclusive.

1 /3cos#+sin0=1. 2 5sin@—12cos0=6.
3 sin 0+ cos 0 =3. 0=2.
4 cos 9—7sin
5 2sin0+7cosd=4. 6 3tan@—2sec0=4.
7 4cos @sin 0 + 15 cos 20 = 10. 8 cos @ + sin @ = sec 0.
9 Prove that cos 0 —sin 9 = ,/ 2 cos (0 + 45°) = —,/2 sin (0 — 45°).
354 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 17d

10 Show that ,/3 cos @—sin 6 may be written as

2 cos (@+ 30°) or 2sin 60° — 80)
Find the maximum and minimum values of the expression, and state the
values of @ between 0° and 360° for which they occur.
11 Show that 3cos@+2sin@ may be written in the form ,/13 cos (@—),
where tana =%. Hence find the maximum and minimum values of the
function, giving the corresponding values of 6 from — 180° to + 180°.
12 Show that 3 cos @ + 4 sin @ may be expressed in the form R cos (6 — a), where
a is acute. Find the values of R and «.
13 By expressing cos @ + 2 sin 0 in the form R sin (6 + a), where « is acute, find
the maximum and minimum values of the expression, giving the values of @
between — 180° and 180° for which they occur.

Find the maximum and minimum values of the following expressions, stating
the values of 0, from 0° to 360° inclusive, for which they occur.
14 cos 0+ sin 0. 15 4sin0—3cos@. 16 ,/3sin@+
cos 0.
17 8 cos @— 15 sin 8. 18 sin 0—6cos @. 19 cos (8 + 60°)
—cos @.
20 3/2 cos (0+ 45°) +7 sin 0.

Proof of the addition formulae, using vectors

17.6 In this section we shall use vectors, and in particular the scalar product of
vectors (see §15.15), to give a more general proof of the formula
cos (A — B)=cos A cos B+sin A sin B
The diagram (Fig. 17.7) shows A and B as acute angles, but the subsequent
working is valid for angles of any magnitude.

P(cos A, sin A)

Figure 17.7
 Trigonometrical identities 555
In the diagram, OP and OO are unit vectors, i.e. they are vectors whose length
is one unit. OP is inclined at an angle A to the x-axis, and O° isi inclined at
an
angle B to the x-axis. Consequently the coordinates of the points P and Q are
(cos A, sin A) and (cos B, sin B) respectively and the vectors OP and OQ can be
written
OP =cos A i+sinAj and OQ=cos Bi+sin Bj
Taking the scalar product of these vectors, we have

OP.OO =(cos Ai+sin A j).(cos Bi+sin Bj)

=cos A cos B+sin A sin B
But, from the basic definition of the scalar product, we know that

OP.OQ =OP x OQ cos 1 POQ=!1 x 1 x cos (A— B)=cos (A—B)

Equating these two expressions for OP.OQ, we obtain

cos (A — B)=cos A cos B+sin A sin B (1)

To obtain the corresponding identity for cos(A + B), it is only necessary to

replace B by — B, giving

cos (A —(— B)) =cos A cos (— B) + sin A sin

(— B)
and hence
cos (A + B)=cos A cos B—sin A sin B

(Alternatively the proof above could be repeated with the angle B drawn in the
fourth quadrant.)
The formulae for sin (A + B) can be obtained by replacing 4 in identity (1) by
90° — A, which gives
cos {(90° — A) — B} = cos (90° — A) cos B + sin (90° — A) sin B
. cos {90°— (A + B)} =cos (90° — A) cos B + sin (90° — A) sin B
But sin (90° — 0) = cos @ and cos (90° — 6) = sin 6, so
sin (A + B)=sin A cos B+ cos A sin B
The corresponding identity for sin (A — B) can then be obtained by replacing B
by —B.

Introduction to the factor formulae

17.7. Factors are very useful, in algebra, for solving equations and simplifying
expressions, and when dealing with trigonometrical ratios, it is often convenient
to be able to factorise a sum of two terms. On the other hand, it is sometimes
useful to express a product as a sum or difference of two terms, and it is to this
that we turn first.
 Pure Mathematics 1 17.7.
356

In §17.2 it was shown that

cos (A + B)=cos A cos B—sin A sin B
cos (A — B)=cos A cos B+sin A sin B

Adding,
cos (A + B) + cos(A — B)=2 cos A cos B

and subtracting,
cos(A + B) —cos(A — B) = —2 sinA sin B
Now, keeping the formulae for cos (A + B) and cos (A — B) in mind, work
through the next exercise.

Exercise 17e (Oral)

Express as a sum or difference of two cosines:
1 —2sin x sin y. 2 2 cos x cos y.
3 2cos 36 cos 0. 4 —2sin(S+ T) sin (S — T).
52. Sit Sasi 3x. 6 2 cos (x + y) cos (x — y).

A+B A—B . B+C., B—-C

Le aS ee 8 —2sin 5 sin

9 —2 sin (x + 45°) sin (x — 45°). 10 2 cos (2x + 30°) cos (2x — 30°).

Following the same method as before, we have

sin (A + B)=sin A cos B+ cos A sin B
sin (A — B)=sin A cos B—cos A sin B
Adding,
sin (A + B) + sin(A — B)=2 sin A cos B
and subtracting, |
sin (A + B)—sin(A
— B)=2 cos A sinB
Again, keeping the formulae for sin(A + B) and sin(A — B) in mind, work
through the next exercise.

Exercise 17f (Oral)

Express as a sum or difference of two sines:

1 2sin xcos y. 2 2cos xsin y.

3 2 sin 30 cos 0. 4 2 sin (S + T) cos (S — T).
5° 2'cos 5x sin 3x; 6 2 cos (x + y) sin (x — y).
 Trigonometrical identities B57
A+B A—B
7 —2 cos 4x sin 2x. 8 2 sin cos
2 2
A+B , A—B Re) R+S
92 cos 5 sin 5 ; i
10 2 sin 5 cos ae

The factor formulae

17.8 We may now proceed to the question of factorising a sum or difference of
two cosines or sines. The last section has indicated the method, for it was shown
that

cos (A + B)+cos (A — B)=2 cos A cos B

cos (A + B)—cos (A — B)= —2 sin A sin B
sin (A + B)+sin(A—B) =2sin Acos B
sin (A + B)—sin(A—B) =2cosA sin B

Here, the right-hand sides of the identities are in factors, but it would be more
convenient if the left-hand sides were in the form cos P + cos Q, etc. Therefore let
P=A+B and Q=A-B
Adding,

Bee OreDd t A=-t

Subtracting,

P—Q=2B .. pais

Substituting into the four identities above,

P+ P—
cos P + cos Q =2 cos © cos ae

piesa k sx
cos P —cos Q = —2sin 2 sin g
2 2
P+ P—
sin P+sinQ =2sin S08 v
2 2
P+O ,.P-—
sin P—sin Q =2 cos Te sin ae

Remember how these identities were obtained: this will make it easier to
remember them. Many people find it helpful to remember them in the form,
‘cos plus cos, equals two cos semi-sum, cos semi-diff.’

Example 8 Solve the equation sin 3x + sin x = 0, for values of x from — 180° to
+ 180°, inclusive.

sin 3x + sin x =0
358 Pure Mathematics 1 17.8

therefore, using the formula for sin P + sin Q,

2 sin 2x cos x = 0
’ sin2x=0 or cosx=0

Now x may lie in the range from — 180° to 180°, therefore 2x lies in the range
from — 360° to 360°.
If sin 2x =0,

2x = — 360°, — 180°, 0°, 180°, 360°

“. x= —180°, —90°, 0°, 90°, 180°
lécos x =0,x =. — 90%, 90%

Therefore the roots of the equation between — 180° and + 180°, inclusive, are
— 180°, —90°, 0°, 90° and 180°.

Example 9 Solve the equation cos (x + 20°)—cos (x + 80°)=0.5, for

O-< x= 300.
(The difference of the two cosines suggests using one of the above identities.)
cos (x + 20°) — cos (x + 80°) =0.5
— 2 sin (x + 50°) sin (— 30°) = 0.5
But sin (— 30°) = —sin 30° = — 4.
sin (x + 50°) =0.5
Kt 50% = 305, 450° 4390°, 510%. Ss
x= = 20°, 100", 3407...

Therefore the roots of the equation between 0° and 360° are 100° and 340°.

Example 10 Solve the equation sin (x + 15°) cos (x — 15°) = 0.5, for values of x
from 0° to 360° inclusive.
(The product of a sine and a cosine suggests that the left-hand side may be
expressed as the sum of two sines.)
sin (x + 15°) cos (x — 15°) =0.5
.. 2 sin (x + 15°) cos (x — 15°) =1
.. sin 2x + sin 30° = 1
., sin 2x = 1 — sin 30°
= (),5
.. 2x = 30°, 150°, 390°, 510°, ...
Hence the values of x required are 15°, 75°, 195°, 255°.

Example 11 Prove the identity

cos” A —cos? B=sin(A + B) sin (B— A)
[A neat method is to use cos” A = 3(1 + cos 2A), cos? B=4(1 + cos 2B).]
 Trigonometrical identities 359
cos* A — cos? B =4(cos
2 2A — cos 2B)
1

=3{—2 sin (A + B) sin (A — B)}

.. cos? A — cos? B= sin (A + B) sin (B — A)

Exercise 17g (Oral)

Express the following in factors:
1 cos x + cos y. sin 3x + sin 5x.
3 sin 2y —sin 2z. cos 5x + cos 7x.
5 cos 2A —cos A. sin 4x — sin 2x.
7 cos 3A —cos SA. sin 5@ + sin 70.
9 sin (x + 30°) + sin (x — 30°). cos (y + 10°) + cos (y — 80°).
1 sin 30 —sin 50. cos (x + 30°) — cos (x — 30°).

13 weer. eicos 3 sin 2(x + 40°) + sin 2(x — 40°).

2 2

15 cos (90° — x) + cos y. 16 sin A+ cos B.

17 sin 3x + sin 90°. 18 1+ sin 2x.
19 cos A —sin B. 20 44 cos 20.

Further identities and equations

17.9 Example 12 Solve the equation cos 6x + cos 4x + cos 2x = 0, for values of
x from 0° to 180° inclusive.

[Remember that equations are very often solved by factorisation, so look to

see whether any of the three terms is a factor of the sum of the other pair. Note
that cos 4x is a factor of cos 6x + cos 2x, so group cos 6x and cos 2x together. |

cos 4x + cos 6x + cos 2x =0

“. cos 4x + 2 cos 4x cos 2x = 0
.. cos 4x(1 + 2 cos 2x) =0
“.cos4x=0 or cos2x= —3
If cos 4x = 0,

4x = 90°, 270°, 450°, 630°

“x= 224°, 674°, 1124°, 1574°
If cos 2x = —4,
2x = 120°, 240°
.. x = 60°, 120°

Therefore the roots of the equation in the range 0° to 180° are 225°, 60°, 673°,
1124°120°, 1574°.
360 Pure Mathematics 1 17.9
Example 13. If A, B, C are the angles of a triangle, prove that
pee, Neyatl se:
cos A+ cos B+cos
C —1=4 sin = sin = sin =
2 2 2
Split the left-hand side into two pairs of terms. Now,
A+B A—B
cos A + cos B=2 cos 5 cos 5

But since A + B= 180°— C,

A+B s2histies (he C2

A+B__ = sinCc
Os —
le OS 2
Seeing this factor sin (C/2) on the right-hand side, write

C
cos C—1= ~2 sin’

Therefore
&
cos Ancos. B+ gomC = las? sin, cos

27 ih pues 8 ia
c flags MSG S: 2
On the right-hand side of the identity to be proved, sin (C/2) is multiplied by a
function of A and B, so in the last bracket we must express sin (C/2) in terms of
A and B. This has been done above.

on ee Re ee ee soit at woniy Sal

2 2 2,

ah) 5 cope A= B\ WG
= 5 cos 5 sin

A B 6
=_l 2
(— 2
sin
j
5)sin
— j
5))
—
sin
j
5)
—y

,.. CoS A+cos

B+ cos C — 1 Aiht, © sin ae
2 2 2

Exercise 17h

Prove the following identities:

cos B+ cos C eal cos B—cos C B-—
————— =co : SS
sin B— sin C 2 sinB+ sin C wa 2
 Trigonometrical identities 361
sin B + sin C B+C sin B — sin C B+C Bi—C
3 —_——— _ =ta ; 4 —_—_—__ = oot tan :
cos B+ cos C D sin B+ sin C 2 D
5 sin x + sin 2x + sin 3x = sin 2x (2 cos x + 1).
6 cos x + sin 2x — cos 3x = sin 2x (2 sin x + 1).
7 cos 30 + cos 58 + cos 70 = cos 50 (2 cos 20 + 1).
8 cos +2 cos 30+ cos 50 = 4 cos” 6 cos 30.
9 1+2 cos 260 + cos 40 = 4 cos? 4 cos 20.
10 sin 0 — 2 sin 30 + sin 56 = 2 sin 0 (cos 40 — cos 26).
11 cos @—2 cos 30+ cos 56 = 2 sin @ (sin 20 — sin 40).
12 sin x —sin (x + 60°) + sin (x + 120°) =0.
13 cos x + cos (x + 120°) + cos (x + 240°) = 0.

Solve the following equations, for values of x from 0° to 360° inclusive:

14 cos x + cos 5x =0. 15 cos 4x —cos x = 0.

16 sin 3x —sin x = 0. 17 sin 2x + sin 3x= 0.
18 sin (x + 10°) + sin x =0.
19 cos (2x + 10°) + cos (2x — 10°) =0.
20 cos{x + 20°) — cos (x — 70°) = 0.

Exercise 17i (Miscellaneous)

Do not use a calculator or tables in Nos. 1-6.

1 If sin A= 5, sin B=-;&, where A and B are acute, find the values of
(a) cos (A + B), (b) sin (A — B), (c) tan (A + B).
2 Ifcos A = +3, sin B =48, where A is reflex and B is obtuse, find the values of
(a) sin (A + B), (b) cos (A — B), (c) cot (A — B).
3 Find the values of
(a) cos 80° cos 20° + sin 80° sin 20°,
tan 15° + tan 30°
(b) {—tan 15° tan 30°”

(c) sin 40° cos 50° + sin 50° cos 40°.

-
4 Find the values of sin x and cos x when cos 2x is (a) §, (b) fo2}$2.Wve)
5 Find the ees of tan @ when tan 26 is (a) — 39, (b i.
6 If sin 0 =35, where 0 is acute, find the values of (a) sin 20, (b) cos 20.

Solve the following equations, giving values of @ from 0° to 360° inclusive:

eos 20.+5 cos 0 = 2. 8 2 sin 20 = 3 sin 0.
9 tan 20+ tan 0=0. 10 4cos 0—3sin0=1.
11 3cos@+2sin 0=2.5.

Eliminate @ from the following equations:

12 x=2¢c0s 20, y= 3 cos 0. 13 x =2 tan 0, y= tan 20.

362 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 171

In Nos. 14 and 15, using t=tan 40, express in terms of t:

1+ sin ;)
14 3cos0+4sin0+5. 15 -
sing

Find the maximum and minimum values of the following, giving the values of 6
between 0° and 360° for which they occur:
16 5cos@— 12 sin @.
17 12 cos
6+ 35 sin 0.
18 48 cos
6— 55 sin 0.

3 tan A—tan? A
19 Prove that tan 3A =
1—3 tan? A
1—2tan A—tane A
20 If2A + B=45°, show that tan B=
1 +2 tan A— tan? A

Solve the following equations for values of 6 from 0° to 180° inclusive:

21 cos 8+cos 30+ cos 5@=0. 22 sin 26
+ sin 46 + sin 60
= 0.
23 sin@—2sin20+sin30=0. 24 cos40+2cos36+cos30=0.
25 sin
0+ cos 20
— sin 38
= 0.

Prove the following identities. A, B, C are to be taken as the angles of a triangle.

26 sin A +sin(B—C)=2 sin Bcos C.
27 cos A —cos (B— C)= —2 cos Bcos C.

‘ ! : A
28 sin A +sin B-+sin C=4 cos 5 cos 5cos <.

29 sin 2A + sin 2B+sin 2C =4sin A sin B sin C.

30 tan A+tan B+ tan C =tan A tan B tan C.
Chapter 18

Further topics in trigonometry

Introduction
18.1 One of Euler’s many contributions to mathematics is the invention of a
standard notation for labelling triangles. In this notation the vertices are always
labelled with capital letters, say A, B and C, and the same symbols are used to
represent the sizes of the angles at these vertices. The corresponding lower case
letters, a, b, c, are then used to represent the lengths of the sides opposite the
vertices, i.e. the letter a is used to represent the length of the side BC (see
Fig. 18.1).

Figure 18.1

The traditional unit of measurement for angles is the degree (but it is not the
only one, see §18.5); the degree has been used for over 2000 years. The traditional
sub-unit is the minute, which is 1/60th ofadegree, and the standard symbol for it
is a small dash. So 35° 12’ is equal to 3544°; in decimals this becomes 35.2°. For
more awkward numbers a calculator can be used to convert the number of
minutes into a decimal fraction of a degree.
In the next two sections Euler’s notation will be used to introduce two
important rules, the sine rule and the cosine rule. These rules are used to ‘solve’
triangles; that is, given sufficient data to define a unique triangle, the sine and
cosine rules can be used to calculate the sizes of the remaining sides and angles.

The sine rule

18.2 In the triangle in Fig. 18.2, CP is perpendicular to AB.

363
 Pure Mathematics 1 18.2
364

A I B

Figure 18.2

By elementary trigonometry the length of the altitude CP is equal to b sin A

(from triangle APC) and it is also equal to a sin B (from triangle BPC). Equating
these expressions, we have
asin B=bsin A

and hence
Sap ee b
sinA sinB

Applying the same argument to the line from A, perpendicular to BC, we could
obtain
DT »come
sinB sin C
Putting these expressions together, we have,
hy. b wt
sin A sinB’ sinC
This expression, which, by virtue of its symmetrical appearance, is easy to
remember, is called the sine rule.
Cc

Figure 18.3
 Further topics in trigonometry 365
However, in drawing Fig. 18.1, we have assumed that all the angles are acute;
if one of them is obtuse, the proof must be modified. Suppose that B is the obtuse
angle as shown in Fig. 18.3.
In this diagram, CP is the perpendicular line from C to AB produced.
By elementary trigonometry CP =a sinLCBP =a sin (180° — B). However
sin (180° — B) is equal to sin B and so we can write
CP=asin B=bsin A
and proceed with the proof as before.

Example 1 In triangle PQR, r = 5.75 and the sizes ofangles P and Q are 42° and
65° respectively. Calculate the length of PR.

With these letters (see Fig. 18.4), the sine rule becomes

P q r
snP sinQ- sinR

le

Figure 18.4

Notice that when two angles are given, the remaining angle can be calculated
from the fact that the sum of the three angles of a triangle is 180°, so R = 73°.
Substituting the data, and this value of R, we obtain
Pa OP On pT
sin 42° sin 65° sin 73°
In this example, the length of PR, ie. q, is required. Making q the subject of the
formula above, we obtain
5
= ——- x sin 65°
eh aegin 13° at
= 5.45, correct to three significant figures

Example 2 In triangle ABC, a= 4.73, c= 3.58 and C = 42° 12’. Calculate the
size of angle A.
 1 18.2
366 Pure Mathematics
18.5, we
Firstly, we note that 42° 12’ = 4212° = 42.2°, and secondly, from Fig.
t
can see that two triangles can be drawn with these data. (It 1s very importan
that a sketch should be drawn, so that this sort of difficulty can be anticipat ed.)

= A, A> G

Figure 18.5

By the sine rule,

4.73 ¥ b 3.58
sinA sinB sin 42.2

In this case, the middle term is superfluous; the other two terms give

sin A He sin 42.2°

473 ~~-- 3.58
sin42.2-
esi
. sin A a358 BC
xe ALS)

(= 0,8875)*

“. A=62.560° or 117.440°
=62.6° or 117.4°, correct to the nearest tenth ofa degree

There are two points to note here.

(1) The step marked with the asterisk indicates the figures which appear on a
calculator at this stage; it is not necessary to write them down. (Indeed, to
write them down, correct to four significant figures, and then to use the
corrected figures to find A is poor calculator technique.)
(2) The alternative value of A, namely, A = 117.4°, follows from the fact that
sin 0 = sin (180° — 6), ie. in this case, sin 62.6° = sin 117.4°. If we inspect
the diagram, we can see that both answers are perfectly reasonable,
because the triangle A, BA, is isosceles.
A case like this one, where there are two possible answers, is called the
ambiguous case.
The sine rule can be used when two angles are given (as in Example 1) or when
one of the given sides is opposite the given angle (as in Example 2), but, as the
 Further topics in trigonometry 367
reader should be able to see with a little experimentation, it is useless
when the
lengths of the three sides are given, or when two sides and the included angle
(i.e.
the angle between them) are given. In these circumstances we must turn to the
cosine rule. [Some readers may prefer to work Exercise 18a, Nos. 1-3, first.]

The cosine rule

18.3 There are several possible proofs of the cosine rule: this one uses the idea
of the scalar product (see §15.15).

Figure 18.6

In the triangle OPQ (Fig. 18.6),

the angle POQ is equal to @ and QP= p—q.
Consider the scalar product QP.QP:

QP.QP = (p — q).(p — 9)
= p.p + q.q — 2p.q
= p* + q? —2pqcos 0
But QP.QP is equal to QP?,
*. QP? = p? + q* — 2pq cos 0
So, if we are given the values of p and q, and the size of the included angle 6, we
can calculate the length of QP. ees
The formula looks neater, and it is easier to remember, if Euler s notation is
used. If the triangle is re-lettered ABC, as in Fig. 18.7, the cosine rule becomes

a’ = b? +c? —2be cos A

The letters a, b and c can be permuted to give the following alternative forms:
b? =c? + a* —2cacos B
c* =a’ + b* =2abcos C
368 Pure Mathematics 1 18.3

Figure 18.7

Example 3 In triangle PQR, p = 14.3, r=17.5 and Q = 25° 36’. Calculate the
length of side PR.
In this question we are given the lengths of two sides and the size of the
included angle, so the cosine rule is appropriate. With these letters it takes the
form
q? =r? + p* — 2rp cos Q
Substituting the data gives
q? = 17.5? +.14.37 —2 x 17:5 x 14:3. cos 25.6"
Hence

q=7.71, correct to three significant figures

(On most calculators it should be possible to do the whole calculation without

having to write down any of the intermediate working. If this is possible, it
should be done, because mistakes are easily made when figures are transferred
from the calculator to paper and vice versa. In case of difficulty, consult the
calculator’s instruction booklet.)

Example 4 In triangle XYZ, XY = 3.5, YZ =4.5 and ZX =6.5. Calculate the

size of angle Y.
In this case the lengths of the three sides are given. The cosine rule can be
used, but first it must be rearranged to make cos Y the subject.
y? =2" + x* — 27x cos Y
222X008. Yieez? bor ay?
and hence

cos Y=
Zz 2 COL. 9 oe
+x*—
# yh Womoy'S
22x

Substituting the data,

 Further topics in trigonometry 369
BS aa. ee 615+
COSuie—
2 XB C45

.. Y =108.0°, correct to the nearest tenth of a degree

Once again, if you are using a calculator, the entire calculation should be done
without writing down the intermediate steps. Be careful to press the ‘equals’ key
when you have completed the top line (the calculator should display — 9.75 at
this stage), and, on most calculators, it is essential to enclose the bottom line in
Brackets. 1.€4(2.x<3.5 x 4.5).

The area of a triangle

18.4 It is assumed that the reader is familiar with the elementary formula for
A, the area of a triangle, namely,

where b is the length of the base and h is the height of the triangle.
If we are given the lengths b and c and the size of the included angle A (see
Fig. 18.8), then the height, h, can be expressed as
h—esines

and the formula for the area can be written

A =Sbc sin A
(The reader should note that this formula can be used for both acute and obtuse
angles.)

Vi) cE!
A b Cc

Figure 18.8

Example 5 Jn triangle PQR, QR = 3.5, RP = 4 and PQ =5S. Calculate the size

of angle P and hence find the area of the triangle.
Rearranging the cosine rule (see Example 4),
q?+r?—p’

(ifjoy Bi
370 Pure Mathematics 1 18.4

and substituting the data, ie. p= 3.5, q=4 and r=5, we have

p_ 16+ 25— 12.25

CO al a5
__28.75
rae
-, P= 44.0°, correct to the nearest tenth of a degree
The area of the triangle is given by
A =4ar sin P
=1i% 4x5 x sin P
= 6.95, correct to three significant figures

Note. When no units have been explicitly stated, as in the example above, it 1s
assumed that the same units have been used consistently throughout the
question, e.g. if the lengths QR, RP and PQ are all given in cm, then the area of
PQR is measured in cm’.
Historical note. The problem of calculating the area of a triangle when the
lengths of the three sides are given is a very ancient one. The area can be
calculated from the formula
A =,/{s(s
—a)(s — b)(s —c)}
where s=3(a +b +c). This formula is usually known as Heron’s formula, after
Heron of Alexandria, who lived over two thousand years ago. However the
formula was known even before Heron’s time. (See Exercise 18f, No. 19.)

Qu.1 Calculate the area of the triangle in Example 3.

Qu. 2 Use Heron’s formula (see Historical note above) to calculate the area of
the triangle in Example 5.
Qu.3 Calculate the areas of the triangles in which
(a) A=60", bse 3: c=5:
(bot = 110; a= 14. fe tt:
(c) B=90°; c= 8.6, bee 1.14;
(d) a=8, peer t c=-13:
(ce) a=123,. b=141, c=136;
(f) a=176, b=169, c=161:;
(g) a=209, b=313, c=390.

Exercise 18a

Solve the following triangles:

1 (Sine formula, acute angled)
(a) a= 12; B= 59°, C= 73:
(b) <A 75.67, b= 3.6, C= 48.3%
(Cheng 32e B= 6k7*, c=171.
 Further topics in trigonometry 371
2 (Sine formula, obtuse angled)
(a) A = 36°, b= 237) Cr 49%:
(o)GA = 12312 a= 1125; Ga 37s
(o}} a= 36; B=104,2°, G=43.1°:
3 (Sine formula, ambiguous case)
(a) b= 17.6: C48" 15", ChEH5 3}
(b) B= 129° Diz 7.89, C= 4:56:
(C)? AG 728% 15", C=85, b= 148.
4 (Cosine formula, acute angled)
(a) w= 5; p= 8) C=i:
(b)* a= 10; b= 12, G=9:
(c)ta=7, b= 13: c= 15.
5 (Cosine formula, acute angled)
(a) A=60°, b=8, O= llap
(b) a= 14, B=53; c= 12:
(c)oa— Ti, b=9, C=43.2°:
(Cosine formula, obtuse angled)
(a) a=8, b= 10) c= 15:
(Diga=1'1, b-=31,, G=24:
(c)»a=27, b= 35, c= 46.
7 (Cosine formula, obtuse angled)
(aj—a = 17, B= 120°, €= 63;
(b) A = 104° 15’, b= 10, 12:
(c) ,a=31, b= 42, C=104° 10.
Two points A and B ona straight coastline are 1 km apart, B being due East
of A. If a ship is observed on bearings 167° and 205° from A and B
respectively, what is its distance from the coastline?
A boat is sailing directly towards a cliff. The angle of elevation of a point on
the top of the cliff and straight ahead of the boat increases from 10° to 15° as
the ship sails a distance of 50 m. What is the height of the cliff?
10 A triangle is taken with sides 10, 11, 15 cm. By how much does its largest
angle differ from a right angle?
11 A ship rounds a headland by sailing first 4 nautical miles on a course of 069°
then 5 nautical miles on a course of 295°. Calculate the distance and bearing
of its new position from its original position.
12 A man travelling along a straight level road in the direction 053° observes a
pylon on a bearing of 037°. 800 m further along the road the bearing of the
pylon is 296°. Calculate the distance of the pylon from the road.

Radians
18.5 The fact that there are 90 degrees in a right angle has been familiar to the
reader since he or she began geometry; but it may not have been realised that the
number is an arbitrary one which has come down to us from the Babylonian
civilisation. Indeed, an attempt to introduce 100 degrees to the right angle was
made after the French Revolution, but it was later dropped, and in 1938 a
372 Pure Mathematics 1 18.5

similar attempt was made by the Germans. The following example also
illustrates the arbitrary nature of the number of degrees in a right angle.

Example 6 An arc AB of a circle, centre O, subtends an angle of x° at O. Find

expressions in terms ofx and the radius, r,for (a) the length of the arc AB, (b) the
area of the sector OAB (see Fig. 18.9).

nan
B

Figure 18.9

(a) The length of an arc of a given circle is proportional to the angle it

subtends at the centre. But an angle of 360° is subtended by an arc of length 2rr,
therefore an angle of x° is subtended by an arc of length

x
SS ar
360
Therefore the length of arc AB is (1/180)xr.
(b) The area of a sector of a given circle is proportional to the angle at the
centre. But a sector containing an angle of 360° is the whole circle, which has an
area of mr’, therefore a sector containing an angle of x° has an area of

x
poi EI
360

Therefore the area of the sector OAB is $(n/180)xr?.

Thus, in both the length of an arc and the area of a sector, there appears a
factor of r/180, which is due to the unit of measurement of the angle OAB. This
suggests a new unit for measuring angles, which is called a radian, such that an
T
angle in radians = 180 (angle in degrees) (1)

If we let @ radians equal x degrees, then, referring to Fig. 18.9,

the length of arc AB = r0

and

the area of sector OAB = 4r70

 Further topics in trigonometry 373
If, then, we construct an angle of 1 radian, the arc AB will be of length r, and
so an arc of a circle equal to the radius subtends at the centre an angle of1 radian.
Radians are sometimes termed circular measure, and are denoted by rad. It
follows from the relation (1) above, by putting the angle in degrees equal to 180,
that
mt rad = 180°

Hence | radian = 57.296 degrees and 1 degree = 0.017 453 radians, both correct
to five significant figures.
The use of radians extends far beyond finding lengths of arcs and areas of
sectors. In later sections it is shown how they have applications in mechanics
and calculus.

Exercise 18b (Oral)

1 Convert to degrees:
T T T 21
(a) 7 rad, (b) 4 rad, (c) 3 rad, (d) 3 rad,

3 5
(e) 2 rad, (f) al rad, (g) Ea rad, (h) 4x rad,
6 2 2
4 a 3
(i) Smrad, (j) = rad, (k) = rad, (1) tad.
Convert to radians, leaving m in your answer:
(a) 360°, (b) 90°, (c) 45°, tds Ly.
(e) 60°, hi PsA (g) 300°, (h) 270°,
(i) 540°, (j) 30°, (k) 150°, (I) 450°.
What is the length of an arc which subtends an angle of 0.8 rad at the centre
of a circle of radius 10 cm?
An arc of a circle subtends an angle of 1.2 rad at any point on the remaining
part of the circumference. Find the length of the arc, if the radius of the circle
is 4cm.
An arc of a circle subtends an angle of 0.5 rad at the centre. Find the radius of
the circle, if the length of the arc is 3 cm.
Find, in radians, the angle subtended at the centre of a circle of radius 2.5 cm
by an arc 2 cm long.
What is the area of a sector containing an angle of 1.5 rad, in a circle of
radius 2 cm?
8 The radius of a circle is 3 cm. What is the angle contained by a sector of area
18 cm??
9 Anarc subtends an angle of | rad at the centre of a circle, and a sector of area
72 cm? is bounded by this arc and two radii. What is the radius of the circle?
10 The arc of a sector in a circle, radius 2 cm, is 4 cm long. What is the area of
the sector?
374 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 18c

Exercise 18c
1 Express in radians, leaving m in your answers:
(a), 224°, (b) 1080°, (c) 12. (A) Sie se
iz Express in degrees:
20 ™ 71 7%
(a) —5 tad, (b) =5. rad, (c) —75 tad, d) —= #8 rad.
(d)

Find the length of an arc of a circle, which subtends an angle of 31° at the
centre, if the radius of the circle is 5 cm.
The chord AB of a circle subtends an angle of 60° at the centre. What is the
ratio of chord AB to arc AB?
Anarc of a circle, radius 2.5 cm, is 3 cm long. What is the angle subtended by
the arc at the centre
(a) in radians, (b) in degrees?
A segment is cut offa circle of radius 5 cm by a chord AB, 6 cm long. What is
the length of the minor arc AB?
What is the area of a sector containing an angle of 1.4 rad in a circle whose
radius is 2.4 cm?
A chord AB subtends an angle of 120° at O, the centre of a circle with radius
12 cm. Find the area of
(a) sector AOB, (b) triangle AOB, (c) the minor segment AB.
An arc AB of a circle with radius 6 cm subtends an angle of 40° at the centre.
Find the area bounded by the diameter BC, CA and the arc AB.
Two equal circles of radius 5 cm are situated with their centres 6 cm apart.
Calculate what area lies within both circles.
A chord PQ of a circle with radius r, subjend> an angle @ at the centre. Show
that the area of the minor segment PQ is 4r7(@ — sin 0), and write down the
area of the major segment PQ in terms of r and 6.
12 A circle of radius r is drawn with its centre on the circumference of
another circle of radius r. Show that the area common to both circles is
2r?(n/3—./3/4).

Angular velocity
18.6 A man who buys an electric motor is usually interested in the rate at
which it goes, and he may be told that it does 12 000 revolutions per minute
(rev/min). On the other hand the drum of a barograph turns at the rate of 49
degrees per day. In either case the rate of turning, which is called average
angular velocity, is given by
angle turned
average angular velocity= ae A
e taken
Qu. 4 Find the average angular velocity of the second hand of a watch
(a)in degrees per second (deg/s), (b) in rev/min.
Qu. 5 Convert
(a) 500 rev/min into deg/s, (b) 1 rev/week into deg/h.
 Further topics in trigonometry 375
In many cases of turning, however, the angular velocity is not constant, so
consider the average angular velocity in a small interval of time 6t. If the angle
turned through in this time is 60 radians,

00
average angular velocity = x rad/s

But as 6t>0,
00 >
«dé
ot dt
; ; dé
. average angular velocity > ay

dé.
“ is called angular velocity and is denoted by w (the Greek letter omega).

Therefore
dé
o = —
dt
Lae : : ; distance é : at
[In motion in a straight line average velocity = ae and if a distance ds is
ime
: ) és d
travelled in a time 6t, average velocity = But ~ “> = as 6t—0 and so the

Ree ds
velocity at an instant is given by v= ae In this way there is a parallel between

linear motion and angular motion. ]

If a particle moves in a circle of radius r with speed v and angular velocity w
about the centre, the relation between r, v, @ can be obtained from one of the
results obtained in §18.5. If s is the distance of the particle measured along the
circumference of the circle from a fixed point,
S70

Differentiating with respect to time (remember r is constant),

dset dé
ape at
i TO.

Remember that w must be measured in radians/unit time. Three sets of

possible units for v, r, @ are shown in the table below:

v r w
m/s m rad/s
km/h km rad/h
cm/min cm rad/min
 Pure Mathematics 1 18.6
376

Example 7 A belt runs round a pulley attached to the shaft of amotor. If the belt
runs at 0.75 m/s and the radius of the pulley is 6 cm, find the angular velocity of the
pulley (a) in rad/s, (b) in rev/min.

(a) Using the result v = ra,

O= - = 12.5 rad/s

12.
(b) 12.5 rad/s = ee rev/s

= ee x 60 rev/min
20
~ 120 rev/min

(The sign = means ‘is approximately equal to’.) Therefore the angular velocity is
12.5 rad/s or approximately 120 rev/min.

E xercise 18d
Use the result v =ra@ where you can.
1 Express the angular velocity of the minute hand of a clock in
(a) rev/min, (b) deg/s, (c) rad/s.
2 A wheel is turning at 200 rev/min. Express this angular velocity in
(a) deg/s, (b) rad/s.
A cook can rotate the handle of her egg whisk 32 times in 5 seconds. Each
time the handle rotates, the paddles rotate four times. At what speed are the
paddles rotating in
(a) rev/min, (b) rad/s?
4 The Earth rotates on its axis approximately 3654 times in a year. Calculate
its angular velocity in rad/h, correct to three significant figures.
5 The cutters of a well-known electric shaver rotate about 3000 times a minute,
and the distance from the axis to the tip of the cutter is 0.65 cm. Find
(a) the angular velocity of the cutter in rad/s,
(b) the speed of the tip of a cutter in cm/s.
6 When I dial 0 on the telephone, the dial rotates through 334° in Ids
approximately. What is the average angular speed of the dial in rad/s, and
what is the speed of a point on the circumference of the dial if its diameter is
8 cm?
7 A motor runs at 1200 rev/min. What is its angular velocity in rad/s? If the
shaft of the motor is 2.5cm in diameter, at what speed is a point on the
circumference of the shaft moving?
8 A point on the rim of a wheel of diameter 2.5m is moving at a speed of
44 m/s relative to the axis. At what rate in (a) rad/s, (b) rev/min, is the wheel
turning?
 Further topics in trigonometry 377
9 Ifa cotton reel drops 1.76 m in 0.7 s, the end of the cotton being held still, at
what average angular velocity, in rev/min, is the reel turning, if its diameter is
3cm?
10 A belt runs round two pulleys of diameters 26.25 cm and 15 cm. If the larger
rotates 700 times in a minute, find the angular velocity of the smaller in rad/s.
11 The Earth moves round the sun approximately in a circle of radius
150 000 000 km. Find its angular speed in rad/s, and obtain its speed along
its orbit in km/s.
12 Taking the Earth to be a sphere of radius 6300 km which rotates about its
axis Once in 23.93 hours what error will be made in calculating the velocity of
a point on the equator, if it is assumed that the Earth rotates once in 24
hours? Express your answer in km/h, correct to two significant figures.

Inverse trigonometrical functions

18.7 Can you find an angle x°, such that sin x° = 0.5? This sort of problem
arises frequently in mathematics; indeed we have already met it earlier in this
chapter. An answer can be easily obtained from tables or from a calculator. In
this particular case, the angle x° is an angle in one of the ‘standard’ triangles
described in §16.3, i.e. 30°. But this is not the complete solution; we can see from
the graph of y=sin x (Fig. 18.10), that 150° is also a possibility and, since sin x

Figure 18.10

has a period of 360° (it repeats itself every 360°), we can add any multiple of 360°
to these two angles. Hence there are infinitely many values of x which satisfy the
equation sin x = 0.5; they can be expressed in the form
x = 30° + n360° or x=150° +7360°
where n is any integer, positive or negative. If we were working in radians, this
general solution would take the form
St
Sosa 97n or pee

Qu.6 Write down the general solution, in degrees, of the equation

cos x° = —0.5.
Qu.7 Write down, in radians, the general solution of the equation tan x = 1.
378 Pure Mathematics 1 18.7

In advanced trigonometry, it is useful to have a standard abbreviation for the

phrase ‘the angle whose sine is x’, etc. The usual abbreviation for this is arcsin x;
and arccos x, arctan x are used for the inverses of the cos and tan functions. This
is the standard notation on all microcomputers and it is also found on many
pocket calculators, but the notation sin-! x, cos’! x and tan! x, is also used.
However, the fact that there are infinitely many angles whose sine is x, causes
some problems. For instance, if you were designing a pocket calculator, which of
the infinitely many possible answers would you choose to show on the display?
(Try finding arcsin, arccos and arctan of +0.2, +0.4, +0.8, etc., on your pocket
calculator. Can you discover the principle which the manufacturer of your
calculator is using to select the angle shown on the display?)
Another serious problem is that if we are intending to describe arcsin x,
arccos x and arctan x, as functions, then we must ensure that the function has
exactly one value, for any given value of x (see §2.8). Consequently we must
define these functions rather more carefully than we have done so far.

Definitions
(a) aresin x is the angle (in radians) between —4n and + 4m, inclusive, whose sine
USee
(b) arccos x is the angle (in radians) between 0 and 1, inclusive, whose cosine is x.
(c) arctan x is the angle (in radians) between —4nx and +4n, whose tangent is x.
(The angles within these ranges are often called the principal values.)
If desired, these definitions may be expressed in degrees, but for advanced
work in trigonometry, radians are more common than degrees.
Qu.8 Why is the range —4n to +4nx unsuitable for arccos x?
Notice that, since there is no angle whose sine is greater than 1, an expression
such as arcsin 2 is meaningless. The function arcsin x only makes sense if x is
numerically smaller than (or equal to) 1; in other words, the domain of the
function arcsinx is {x: -1<x< +1}. The function arccos x has the same
domain, but in the function arctan x, the variable x can take any (real) value, i.e.
the domain of arctan x is R (see Fig. 18.11).
Like all inverse functions, the graphs of arcsin x, arccos x and arctan x are the
reflections of the graphs of the corresponding functions in the line y = x.
In diagrams (i) and (ii), the solid parts of the graphs represent the principal
values of arcsin x and arccos x respectively; the broken parts of the graphs
represent the other values.

Exercise 18e
All the questions in this exercise use the angles in the ‘standard’ triangles (see
§16.3). Do not use a calculator.

Write down the general solutions of the following equations (in degrees):
1 six? med/y/2: 2 cos x°= 1. 3 tan xt==/3.
4 sinx?= —1. 5 cos x°= — 1/2. 6 tanx° = —1/,/3.
 Further topics in trigonometry 379

y = arcsin x / y = arccos x

y = arctan x

Figure 18.11

Write down, in radians, the general solutions of the following equations:

7. COos-x =. 8 tanx=—1.
9 sin 2x = 4. 10.cos’ 4=—.

Write down, in radians, the values of

11 arcsin (,/3/2). 12 arccos (1/,/2). 13 arctan 1.

14 arcsin (—4). 15 arccos (—./3/2). 16 arctan (—1).
n 1).
17 arcsi(— s 1).
18 arcco(— 19 arctan 0.
20 arccos 0.
 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 18f
380

Exercise 18f (Miscellaneous)

1 Solve the following triangles:
(a) A=60°, bis: (C= 5:
(b) a= 14, Bess; eadOs
(emaeoi, b=9, C4325
Solve the triangles:
@).aeai7. B= 120°, c= 63;
(b) A= 104° 15’, ee 8 p= iz
(c) Gi Es b= 42, C=104%
Solve the triangles:
(ajc 11.6, A=54.2°, B=264°*;
(b) a= 4.96, b= 6.01, A= Fh ;
(Ch. A= 205 a=A5, pe 10,
Calculate the areas of the following triangles:
(alix =o; y=3, Lass:
(b) x= 4, y=, 2= 6:
(chang 25, y= 35, Zen).
Convert to degrees:

20 Sm 3m 70

Convert to radians, leaving m in your answers:

(a) 330°, (b) 50°, (chad... (d) 24°.
The area of a sector of a circle, diameter 7 cm, is 18.375 cm”. What is the
length of the arc of the sector?
A radar scanner rotates at a speed of 30 rev/min. Express this angular
velocity in rad/s.
What is the angular velocity of the hour hand of a clock in
(a) rev/min, (b) rad/s?
10 Two cog-wheels have radii 10 cm and 15 cm. If the larger wheel is turning
with an angular velocity of 50 rad/s, what is the angular velocity of the
smaller one when the teeth of the cog-wheels are engaged?
11 A circular coin is placed on a flat horizontal surface and held stationary
while an identical coin, also placed on the horizontal surface, rolls around its
perimeter, without slipping. Through how many radians does the second
coin turn?
12 Investigate the effect on the cosine rule if, in the usual notation, a, b and c are
given, andc>a+b.
13 Investigate the effect on the sine rule if, in the usual notation, a, b and A, are
given, and
(a) a<bsin A, (b) bsin A<a<b, (c) b<a.
14 The lengths of the sides of a triangle are 10, x and (x — 2). The side of length
(x — 2) is opposite an angle of 60°. Find the value of x.
15 In the triangle XYZ, x = 29, y= 21 and z= 20. Calculate:
(a) the area of the triangle,
 Further topics in trigonometry 381
(b) the length of the perpendicular from Z to XY.
16 The points A and B lie on a circle, radius 1 cm, centre O, the origin. The radii
OA and OB are inclined at angles « and f, respectively, to the x-axis. Write
down the coordinates ofA and B in terms of « and f. By applying the cosine
rule to triangle OAB prove that
cos (a — 8) =cos a cos B + sin « sin Bp
; A
17 In the cosine rule, substitute cos A = 2 cos? ee 1, and hence prove that

A * s(s — a)
COs oY = Be

where s=4(a+b+c).
BA
18 In the cosine rule, substitute cos A = 1 — 2 sin? > and hence prove that

mc A eee
ee ee
bey
19 Use the results of Nos. 18 and 19 to prove Heron’s formula for the area of a
triangle,

A =,/{s(s—a)(s—b)(s—0)}
20 Prove Heron’s formula by eliminating A from the formulae
a?=b?+c*—2becosA and A =4bc sin A
[Hint: use cos? A +sin? A = 1.]
Chapter 19

Derivatives of trigonometrical
functions
Small angles
19.1. A glance at Fig. 19.1 will show the reader that, for small acute angles,
tan 0, @ and sin @ are practically equal.

degrees
10," 20) 307 40> 550))605 70) s380= 90

1.0
radians

Figure 19.1

This is borne out by seven-figure tables:

382
 Derivatives of trigonometrical functions 383

Angle in degrees 10° Su ih

0 (radians) 0.174 5329 0.087 266 5 0.017 453 3
tan 0 0.176 327 0 0.087 488 7 0.017 455 1
sin 0 0.173 648 2 0.087 155 7 0.017 452 4

We shall now consider this geometrically.

as
\

Figure 19.2

In Fig. 19.2, the chord AB subtends an angle 0 at the centre of a circle of radius
r, and the tangent at B meets OA at D. Consider the three areas: triangle AOB,
sector AOB, triangle DOB.

(a) In triangle AOB, two sides of length r include an angle 0, therefore its area is
+r? sin 0 (see §18.4).
(b) From §18.5, the area of sector AOB is $r70.
(c) In triangle DOB, B is a right angle, therefore BD =r tan @ and so its area is
4+y? tan 0.
From the figure it can be seen that

triangle AOB < sector AOB < triangle DOB

* 47? sin 0 <4r70 <4r? tan 0

But if we divide each term by 4r? the order of magnitude is unchanged, therefore
sin0<6<tan 0

providing @ is acute, as the figure requires. Again, if we divide each term by sin 0,
the order of magnitude is unchanged, therefore

sin 0 0 eetan 0
sin@ sin@ sin@

But tan 0 = sin 6/cos 0, therefore

0 1
Bees: “cos G
384 Pure Mathematics 1 19.1

Now as 0-0, cos 0-1,

1
1
cos ey

Thus 6/sin @ lies between 1 and a function which approaches 1 as 0-0.

+1 as@—-0
*” sin 0
(See Chapter 2, Example 17 and Qu. 11.)
This limit (or, more strictly, (sin 0)/9->1 as 0-0) is required in the next
section for the differentiation of sin x.
Another way of expressing the statement that 6/sin 0-1 as 0-0, is to say
that, for small values of 0,

sin 0 ~ 0
An approximation for cos @ is obtained from the identity
cos @= 1—2sin*40
If 6 is small, sin $0 +40, therefore
cos 6 = 1 — 2(46)?
Therefore, for small values of 6,

cos 0x 1—46?

1 —cos 20
Example 1 Find the approximate value Chom awe when @ is small.

We cannot put 0 = 0, as the numerator and denominator would both be zero.

Since cos 0 x 1 —46?,
cos 20 x 1 — 4(20)? = 1 — 26?
Therefore the numerator = 267. But the denominator ~ 67, since tan 0 = @.
Therefore, when @ is small,

1 —cos 20 _ 20?
@tan@ ~ @
_ 1—cos20
x2 when @is small
# tan0

Qu. 1 Find approximations for the following functions when @ is small:

sin 30 sin 40 1—cos 0
Sere sin20° oie TE
0 sin 0 sin (x + 8) sin 0 sin (~ + 0) — sin «
(d) 1 —cos 20’ (©) a ee () i) hens
 Derivatives of trigonometrical functions 385
sin 6 tan 6 . tan(a+ @)—tan
(g) Rae eT (h) sin 0 cosec 40, (i) > :

Derivatives of sin x and cos x

19.2. The graph of sin x may be sketched, as shown in Fig. 19.3, and from
it
may be obtained a rough graph of its gradient. The gradient is zero at B, D,
F,
positive from A to B and from D to F, and negative from B to D, giving a graph
like the one in Fig. 19.4.

sin x

Figure 19.3

ude
a (sin x)

Figure 19.4

Qu.2 Does Fig. 19.4 resemble any graph you have met so far?
Qu.3 Express sin A — sin B in factors. (See §17.8.)

We shall now find the derivative of sin x from first principles, using the
definition in §3.8, that is
f +h)hy—f
f(x) = lim f(x —FO)
h-0 h
(The reader is advised to review §3.8 before proceeding further.)
In this case, f(x) = sin x, and so
f(x +h) — f(x) = sin (x + Ah) — sin x
Using the factor formula (see Qu. 3 above), this can be written
h Pe
fe +h) — f(x) =2 e085 sin 5
386 Pure Mathematics 1 19.2

In+h..h
2 cos sin
_ f(x +h) —f(x) . 2. 2
. h =.

cos (x + 5h) sin 4

sh
(1)
But we know that when h—0,

cos(x +4h)—>cosx and

Therefore, when h > 0, the right-hand side of equation (1) tends to cos x. So, for
this function,

f’(x) = cos x

In Leibnitz notation, this is written

y=sin X

y
— =Ccos x
dx
Or, more concisely,

d,
— (sin x) = cos x
dx

Qu.4 At what stage in the above is it necessary to have x in radians?

Qu.5_ Prove from first principles that
d
— (cos x) = —sinx
dx

Remember that these results hold only if x is in radians.

Example 2 Differentiate (a) sin (2x + 3), (b) cos? x, (c) sin x°.
(a) Let y =sin (2x + 3), t=2x + 3, then y =sin t.
d
rest and iS
dt dx

dy ay" ae
B ut —>
rdar = ty x —a = (cos t)2,

dtm
a a {sin (2x + 3)} =2 cos (2x + 3)

(b) Let y =cos? x, t=cos x, then y = t?.

Gymiidy dt : :
rey x a, = 2t(— sin x) = — 2 cos x sin x
 Derivatives of trigonometrical functions 387
d , :
. p= (COS* X). = = sin 2x
dx

(c) Let y=sin x°. Now x° = (/180)x radians,

iy) = sin s
panies 180°
Put t =(7/180)x, then y =sin t.

Sage Da Gb x eae A Tie, seua P

idr ds «is ees0 180 5mao
. shy 2) = Tt (eo)
tax sin X oe £80") te

Qu.6 Differentiate (a) cos 3x, (b) sin? x, (c) 2 sin 2x, (d) cos? x.

Example 3 Integrate (a) cos 2x, (b) 3 sin 4x.

The method used here is to change cos to sin, or sin to cos, and to determine
the coefficient by differentiation:

(a) i, (sin 2x) = 2 cos,2x.

dx

= (#'sin 2x) = Cos 2x

dx
eabeos 2x d= sin 2x + ¢

(b) oe cos 4x) = —3sin 4x.

on eae x 3 cos 4x) = 3 sin 4x

x
(3 sin3xdx = —6 cos$x+c

Exercise 19a
1 Differentiate:
(a) cos 2x, (b) sin 6x, (c) cos (3x — 1),
(d) sin(2x—3), (e) —3-cos 5x, (f) 2 sin 4x,
(g) —4sin3x, (h) 2sin3(x+1), (i): sin x’.
2 Integrate: .
(a) sin 3x, (b) cos 3x, (c) 2 sin 4x,
(d) 2 cos 2x, (e) —4sin 6x, (f) 6 cos 4x,
(g) sin (2x + 1), (h) 3 cos (2x — 1), (i) 4sin4x.
3 Differentiate:
(a) sin? x, (b) 4 cos? x, (c) cos? x,
388 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 19a

(d) 2 sin? x, (e) 3 cos* x, (f) ./(sin x),

(g) ./(cos x), (h) cos? 3x, (i) sin? 2x,
(j) —2sin? 33. (kK) 3 Sim" 2G (1) (sin 2x)
4 Differentiate: .
(a) COs 2; (b)2x'sin' 2x)" 1c). 2° site
sin x cos 2x
(d) sin x cos x, (e : (f) :
x x
2 ee +¥ sin x
h 5
(s) sin x’ (h) cos x W) cos x
F 1
(j) cot x, (k) ‘ (I) cosec x.
cos x
A particle moves in a straight line such that its velocity in m/s, ts after
passing through a fixed point O, is 3 cos t—2 sin t. Find
(a) its distance from O after 37,
(b) its acceleration after 7 s,
(c) the time when its velocity is first zero.
A particle is moving in a straight line in such a way that its distance from a
fixed point O, ts after the motion begins, is cos t + cos 2t cm. Find
(a) the time when the particle first passes through O,
(b) the velocity of the particle at this instant,
(c) the acceleration when the velocity is zero.
The distance of a particle from a fixed point O is given by

s=3cos
2t+4 sin 2t

Show that the velocity v and the acceleration a are given by v? + 4s” = 100,
a+4s=0. Hence find
(a) the greatest distance of the particle from O,
(b) the acceleration at this instant.
The velocity at time t of a particle moving in a straight line is 6 cos 2t + cos t,
and when t = 0, the particle is at O. Find
(a) the time when v is first zero,
(b) the distance from O at this instant,
(c) the acceleration at the same instant.
Find the area between the curve y = sin 3x and the x-axis between x = 0 and
x=4n.
10 Sketch the curve y=1+cosx from x= —n to x=7, and find the area
enclosed by the curve and the x-axis between these limits.
Find the maximum value of y = x + sin 2x which is given by a value of x
between 0 and 37. Sketch the graph of y for 0<x <4n and find the area
bounded by the curve, the x-axis and the line x =4n.
12 Find the maximum value of y = 2 sin x — x which is given by a value of x
between 0 and $x. Sketch the graph of y for values of x from 0 to mt, and find
the area between the curve, the x-axis and the line x =4n.
 Derivatives of trigonometrical functions 389
d
13 Show that qn 2 — 4 sin 2x) = sin? x and deduce that

14

| sin? xdx=4n
0)

14 Express cos” x in terms of cos 2x, and hence show that

cos? x dx =4x+4sin 2x +c
15 Show that cos* x =4(cos 3x + 3 cos x), and deduce that

J cos? x dx = 75 sin 3x + 3sin x +c =sin x —4sin3 x +c

16 By expressing sin? x in terms of sin x and sin 3x, show that

{ sin? x dx =75
cos 3x —3cos
x +c=4.cos? x—cosx+c
17 Express 2 cos 5x cos 3x as a sum of two cosines and hence evaluate
n/4

| DICOSO xs.COS XnCLX

0)

Derivatives of tan x, cot x, sec x, cosec x

19.3 Using the derivatives of sinx and cosx, those of the four other
trigonometrical ratios can be obtained by writing

sin x COs X
tan x = cot x =—
“COS sin x

1
Cale 36 = cosec x = —
cos Xx sin x

This is left as an exercise for the reader, if he or she has not already done
No. 4 (i)-(l) of Exercise 19a. The results are

d
a (tan x) = sec” x ap (cot x) = — cosec? x
¥
d d
— (sec x) = sec x tan x — (cosec x) = — cosec x cot x
dx dx

Note:
(a) the similarity of the pair of formulae on each line.
(b) the associations between tan x and sec x, and between cot x ee
cosec x. The gas associations occur in the identities 1+ tan? x =sec? x,
cot? x + 1 =cosec? x.
(c) that the derivatives of ratios beginning with ‘co’, i.e. cos x, cot x, cosec x,
all have a negative sign.
 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 19b
390

Exercise 19b
1 Differentiate:
(a) tan 2x, (b) cot 3x, (c)' 3. see 2x,
(d) 2 cosec 4x, (ec) —tan(2x+1), _(f) $58ec(3x—2),
(g) —2 cot (3x + 2), (h) cot x?, (i) tan ./x.
2 Differentiate:
(a) tan? x, (b) sec? x, (c). 2 cot? x,
(d) 3 cosec? x, (e) = tan® 2x,* (i) 4 cov 3x,
(g) +sec? 2x, (h) —2 cosec* x, (i) ./(tan x).
3 Differentiate:
(a) x tan x, (b) sec x tan x, (Ch coun
tan x
(d) 3x cosec x, (e) cosec x cot x, (f) ae

(g) wae , (h) sinx—xcosx, (i) xsec? x—tanx.

es
4 Integrate:
(a) sec? 2x, (b) 3 sec x tan x, (c) —cosec? 4x,
‘ 1
(d) 4 cosec 3x cot 3x, (e) 2 sec? x tan x, (f) ie

sin x 1 . COS 2x
h) ——— Seen Aa
(e) cos” x (h) cu” Te ) sin? 2x
5 Sketch the graph of the curve y = sec” x — 1 between x = —4n and x =4n.
Calculate the area enclosed by the curve, the x-axis and the line x =n.
6 Find the volume generated by revolving the area bounded by the x-axis, the
lines x = +4n and the curve y = sec x about the x-axis.
7 Find the minimum values of the following functions which are given by values
of x between 0 and $n:
(a) tan x + 3 cot x, (b) sec x + 8 cosec x, (c) 6sec x + cot x.
8 By expressing tan? x in terms of sec? x, show that
{ tan? x dx =tanx—x+c
9 Express cot? x in terms of cosec? x and hence integrate cot? x.

Exercise 19c (Miscellaneous)

1 Convert to degrees:

OF2n OFSt OF3n OF.Tt

ele eine method of working often overcomes the initial difficulty some students find with the
chain rule:
da d ‘
a sin* 5x) = ne {3(sin 5x)*} = 3 x 4 (sin 5x)? x cos 5x x 5= 60 sin? 5x cos 5x.
 Derivatives of trigonometrical functions 391
Convert to radians, leaving x in your answers:
(a) 330°, (b) 50°, (ea S% (d) 24°.
Use tables or a calculator to find the values of
(a) sin 2 rad, (b) sec 0.5 rad, (c) tan 1.32 rad, (d) cos 2.98 rad.
The area of a sector of a circle, diameter 7 cm, is 18.375 cm2. What is the
length of the arc of the sector?
A sector with an area of§cm? is bounded by an arc of length 3cm. What is
the radius of the circle? Also find the angle contained by the sector, giving
your answer in degrees.
A chord AB subtends a right angle at the centre of a circle of radius r. BC is a
chord in the minor segment, inclined at 15° to BA. Show that the area
bounded by the two chords and the are AC is 5r?(¢n + 4,/3 — 1).
The common chord of two circles of radii 13 cm and 37 cm is 24 cm long.
Calculate the area common to both circles.
Draw, on the same diagram, the graphs of y= x — 1 and y = sin x, where x is
in radians, and —t <x < +n. Hence show that the equation
x=1+sinx

has one root only. Estimate this root from your graph.
Draw the graph of cos 26 for values of 0from — 41 to +n. Use your graph to
solve the equation cos* 0 =4(1 + 0).
10 Draw the graph of cos 36+ cos @ for values of @ from 0 to m, and find the
roots of the equation
2,cos 39 +2cosé@+1=0

in this range.
11 A radar scanner rotates at a speed of 30 rev/min. Express this angular
velocity in rad/s.
12 What is the angular velocity of the hour hand of a clock
(a) in rev/min, (b) in rad/s?
13 A wheel of diameter 3 m is rotating with an angular velocity of 420 rev/min.
Find, taking m as 22/7,
(a) the angular velocity of the wheel in rad/s,
(b) the velocity of a point on the circumference in km/h.
14 A lift goes down a distance of 6 m in 34s, and a cable to the counter-weight
passes over a pulley of diameter 0.5 m. What is the average angular velocity
of the pulley while the lift is in motion?
15 In order to investigate the effect of acceleration on the human body, a man is
placed in a cabin which is made to travel in a circle of radius 10 m. If the
speed of the cabin reaches 160 km/h, what is its angular velocity in rev/min
at that instant?
16 Find approximations for the following when @ is small:
sin @ tan 0 1 — cos 20 () cos (0 + a) — cos a
a 0sin 30s 0
392 Pure’ Mathematics 1 Ex 19c

17 Show that, if @ is small, Eb

— 307,
(a) sin (4n+ 0) ~4+4,/30 (b) cos (42 + 0) = $,/2(1 — 8-36").
18 Differentiate:
(a) sin 3x, (b) tan 4x, (c) cos x’,
(d) ./(cos x), (e) 2 cosec? x, (f) 4sin? 4x,
(x) = 3 sec” 2x, (h) in 2x, (i) 3 tan? 2x.
19 Integrate:
(a) cos 2x, (b) sin (2x — 1), (c) 3.cos4x,
(d) sec? 4x, (e) cosecxcotx, (f) sec 2x tan 2x,
cos x 1 : Me Ree”
— ae i) x sin x.
Sitar COS": 2% )
20 Differentiate:

(a)..x sin x, (b) sin x cos 2x, (c), x~. tan” x,

(d) sateoe e ee eke (f) sin x tan 2x,

EX sin 3x

(g) ido (h) 2’cos x + 2x sin x— x* Cos x.

x
21 If x =asec 0, y=b tan 8, show that

d b d* b
Fe = cosee 8 and rete — za cot? 8

22 If x=acos 0, y=b sin 0, show that

2
4 = x cosec* 0

23 A particle travels in a straight line in such a way that its distance from a fixed
point O after time t is 3 cos 2t + 4 sin 2t. Find
(a) the distance of the particle from O when it first comes to rest
instantaneously,
(b) its acceleration at this instant,
(c) its maximum velocity.
24 A particle is moving in a straight line with velocity sin 2t + 7 sin t cm/s, t s
after passing through a fixed point O. Find
(a) the maximum velocity of the particle,
(b) the greatest distance of the particle from O.
25 Evaluate:
n/2 7/6
(a) \ sin2xdx, (b) | $607 wdc.
<=) 3.

a Tt n/4
(c) |sin? x dx, (d) | cos 3x sin 5x dx.
0
 Chapter 20

Loci
Introduction
20.1 “Percy the goat is tethered to a fixed point O by a rope which is 6 m long.
If Percy moves so that the rope is always taut, describe his path.’ Readers will
have little difficulty deciding that the goat moves around a circle, centre O,
radius 6 m. (A scale drawing could be made, using a piece of string 6 cm long,
fixed at one end by a drawing-pin and with a pencil at the other end; as the
pencil moves, keeping the string taut, a circle can be drawn.)
Now consider this problem: ‘Percy the goat is tethered by means of a ring
which can slide freely on a rope which is 6m long. The ends of the rope are
attached to two fixed points A and B which are 4 m apart. Describe the goat’s
path.’ In this case there are probably few readers who could give the path a
name. However, a scale drawing could be made, using a piece of string 6 cm long
with its ends attached to two drawing pins which are fixed, 4cm apart. Use a
pencil to trace the goat’s path, being careful to keep the string taut. The diagram
should look something like Fig. 20.1. Note that at all points on the path,
AP + PB =6.

Figure 20.1

In this chapter, we shall use the techniques introduced earlier in the book to
investigate problems like this. In particular, the moving point P will be
represented by a point in the Cartesian plane with coordinates (x, y) (we shall
only consider two-dimensional problems) and we shall endeavour to find an
equation which expresses, algebraically, the conditions governing the motion of

393
394 Pure Mathematics 1 20.1

P. (It is customary, in this context, to use P to represent the moving point; any
fixed points are usually represented by A, B or C, although in many cases the
origin O will be used as a fixed point.) The path traced out by the point P, as it
moves according to the given conditions, is called the locus of P, and the
equation satisfied by the coordinates of P is called the equation of the locus.

The equation of a locus

20.2 In the first of the introductory problems above, the given condition is
OP =6, so, if O is the origin, the equation of the locus can be obtained by
applying Pythagoras’ theorem in Fig. 20.2.

P(x, y)

6
ly
I
[gnizw bg
O x x

Figure 20.2

i.e. the equation of the locus is

ois? y? =:36

In the second problem, we shall take the two fixed points to be (— 2, 0) and
(2, 0), respectively (Fig. 20.3).

(es 0)

Figure 20.3

Applying the usual formula for the distance between two points we obtain
AP=,/{(x+2)?+y?} and BP=./{(x—2) + y?}
The condition which governs the movement of the point P is AP + PB=6,
so
 Loci 395
the equation of the locus is
J {(x+ 2)? + y?} +./{(x
— 2)? + y?} =6
Qu. 1 Show that when the equation above is simplified it can be expressed as

x
ey wy,
eee]
on 5
(We shall see in Book 2 that this is the equation of an ellipse.)

Example 1 Find the equation of the locus of a point P which moves so that it is
equidistant from two fixed points A and B whose coordinates are (3, 2) and (5, —1)
respectively

Let P be the point (x, y). Expressed geometrically, the condition satisfied by P
is
PA = PB
However, since we shall use Pythagoras’ theorem to express the lengths of PA
and PB in terms of x and y, it is neater to square this equation, obtaining
PAZ PB:
Now
PA? =(x
— 3)? +(y
— 2)?
PB? = (x — 5)? +(y+ 1)”
therefore the equation which must be satisfied by the coordinates of P is

Cee eat aeeials Bi tant le dawn

ie. x?-—6x+9+4+ y?—4y+4=x7-—10x+25+y?+2y+1
Therefore the equation of the locus of points equidistant from (3, 2) and (5, — 1)
is 4x —6y —13=0.

The locus is actually the perpendicular bisector (or mediator) of AB. Because
of the close connection between the locus and the equation connecting the
points lying on the locus, the equation itself is often referred to as the locus.

Qu.2 Find the equation of the locus in Example | by using the fact that it is
the perpendicular bisector of AB.
Note. When drawing graphs it is often useful to take different scales on the
two axes, but in coordinate geometry the scales must be the same or the figures
will be distorted.

Example 2 Find the locus of a point P, whose distance from the point A(— 1, 2)is
twice its distance from the origin.
Let P(x, y) be a point on the locus (Fig. 20.4), then
PA =2PO
 Pure Mathematics 1 20.2
396
¥i

P(x, y)
+
>,¢

Figure 20.4

The lengths of PA and PO may be written down by the method of §1.2, but as
both expressions involve a square root, it is neater to square first, giving
PA* = 4PQ?
2. 1 +p = 2) ar 7)
Sx? +2x4+14+y? —49 +4 = 4x? + 4y?
Therefore the locus of P is 3x* + 3y? —2x+4y—5=0.

Exercise 20a
1 Find the equation of a circle with centre at the origin and radius 5 units.
2 What is the locus of a point which moves so that its distance from the point
(3, 1) is 2 units?
3 What is the locus of a point which is equidistant from the origin and the
point (— 2, 5)?
4 What is the locus of a point which moves so that its distance from the point
(—2, 1) is equal to its distance from the point (3, — 2)?
5 What is the distance of the point (x, y) from the line x = — 1? Find the locus
of a point which is equidistant from the origin and the line x = — 1.
6 Find the locus of a point which is equidistant from the point (0, 1) and the
line y= —1.
7 Find the locus of a point which moves so that its distance from the point
A(— 2, 0) is three times its distance from the origin.
8 A point P moves so that its distance from A(2, 1) is twice its distance from
B(—4, 5). What is the locus of P?
9 Find the locus of a point which moves so that its distance from the point
(8, 0) is twice its distance from the line x = 2.
10 Find the locus of a point which moves so that its distance from the point
(2, 0) is half its distance from the line x = 8.
11 Find the locus of a point which moves so that the sum of the squares of its
distances from the points (— 2, 0) and (2, 0) is 26 units.
12 Find the locus of a point which moves so that it is equidistant from the point
(a, 0) and the line x = —a.
13 A is the point (1, 0), and B is the point (— 1,0). Find the locus of a point P
which moves so that PA + PB = 4.
 Loci 397
14 A is the point (1, 0), and B is the point (— 1, 0). Find the locus of a point P
which moves so that PA — PB = 2.
15 A rectangle is formed by the axes and the lines x = 4 and y =6. Find the
locus of a point which moves so that the sum of the squares of its distances
from the axes is equal to the sum ofthe squares ofits distances from the other
two sides.

Further examples
20.3. Example 3 Show that the equation of the circle on the line segment joining
A(3, —5) and B(2, 6) as diameter is (x — 3)(x — 2)+(y + 5)(y — 6) =0.

Let P(x, y) be any point on the circle. The vector AP is perpendicular to the
vector BP, and hence the scalar product AP.BP is zero (see $15.16).
Now, AP =(x — 3)i+
+(y+5)j and BP= (x= .2)i+ (y —6)j,.so

AP.BP
= {(x —3)i+ (y + 5)j}-{(x— i+ (y—6)j}
=(x —3)(x-2) +(y+ 5)(y—9)
But this scalar product is zero, so the equation of the circle is

(x —3)(x=2)
+ (y + 5)(y— 6) =0

Qu.3 Show that the equation in Example 3 may also be found by using the
result that the product of the gradients of two perpendicular lines is — 1.

Example 4 A variable point P moves on the curve y? =4x and A is the point
(1, 0). Find the locus of the mid-point of AP.

iy,

Figure 20.5
398 Pure Mathematics 1 20.3

Let P be the point (x, y), and let Q(X, Y) be the mid-point of AP (Fig. 20.5).
Then the coordinates of Q are given by
x= x+1
an d Y==)
Since P lies on the given curve, we have

yo=dx
but x =2X — 1 and y=2Y, therefore

4Y* =4(2X — 1)
Therefore the locus of the mid-point of AP is y* = 2x —1.

Example 5 A straight line AB of length 10 units is free to move with its ends on
the axes. Find the locus of a point P on the line at a distance of 3 units from the end
on the x-axis.

Figure 20.6

Let A be the point (X, 0) and B the point (0, Y) and note that, by Pythagoras’
theorem (Fig. 20.6),
OA? + OB? = AB?
and therefore
X? + ¥? = 100 | (1)
Also, let the coordinates of the point P be (x, y). We are given that BP:PA = 7:3,
and so p, the position vector of the point P, is given by

p= pat pb
where a and b are the position vectors of the points A and B (see the ratio
theorem, §15.8), hence

(;)-10(¢) +a)
 Loci 399
SO, Xx=75X and y= 5 Y. From these equations we see that
10 10
x = —7x andeny, 3 y
=> —_—

Substituting these into equation (1) we obtain

Hh)
rT as ye 360
ta
and hence the equation we require is
x? y?

Osi
Ge wa
(We shall see in Book 2 that this is the equation of an ellipse.)

Exercise 20b
1 Find the equations of the circles on the diameters whose ends are
(a) (—3, 2) and (4, —5); —(b) (4, 1) and
(— 3, 4);
(c) (0, a) and (a, 0); (d) (x4, ys) and (xp, y2).
2 Pisa point on a line of length 12 units, which moves so that its ends lie on
the axes. Find the locus of P when it is
(a) the mid-point of the line,
(b) the point of trisection of the line nearer to the y-axis.
3 Land M are the feet of perpendiculars from a point P on to the axes. Find
the locus of P when it moves so that LM is of length 4 units.
4 A variable line through the point (3, 4) cuts the axes at Q and R, and the
perpendiculars to the axes at Q and R intersect at P. What is the locus of the
point P?
5 A variable point P lies on the curve xy = 12. Q is the mid-point of the line
joining P to theoigin. Find the locus of Q.
6 P is a variable point on the curve y = 2x” + 3, and O is the origin. Q is the
point of trisection of OP nearer the origin. Find the locus of Q.
7 A line parallel to the x-axis cuts the curve y* = 4x at P and the line x = — | at
Q. Find the locus of the mid-point of PQ.
8 Variable lines through the points O(0,0) and A(2,0) intersect at right
angles at the point P. Show that the locus of the mid-point of OP is
y? + x(x — 1)=0. |
9 Find the locus of a point which moves so that the sum of the squares of its
distances from the lines x + y=0 and x — y=0 is 4.
10 A is the point (1, 0), B is the point (2, 0) and O is the origin. A point P moves
so that angle BPO isa right angle, and Q is the mid-point of AP. What is the
locus of Q?
11 A line parallel to the y-axis meets the curve y = x? at P and the line y= x +2
at Q. Find the locus of the mid-point of PQ.
12 Misa variable point on the x-axis, and A is the point (2, 3). A line through A,
 400 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 20b

perpendicular to AM, meets the y-axis at N. Perpendiculars to the axes at M

and N meet at P. Find the locus of the point P.
13 M and N are points on the axes, and the line MN passes through the point
(3, 2). P is a variable point whi -h moves so that the mid-point of the line
joining P to the origin is the mid-point of MN. Find the locus of the point P.
14 A straight line LM, of length 4 units, moves with L on the line y = x and M
on the x-axis. Find the locus of the mid-point of LM.
15 A straight line LM meets the x-axis in M and the line y = x in L, and passes
through the point (6, 4). What is the locus of the mid-point of LM?

Tangents and normals

20.4 If a tangent touches a curve at the point P, the line through P
perpendicular to the tangent is called a normal. (See §3.9.)

Example 6 Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the curve
y = 3x” — 8x + 5, at the point where x = 2.
_ [The equation ofa line can be found from its gradient and the coordinates ofa
point through which it passes. Therefore we begin by finding these.]
y=3x7
— 8x45
Ca be
Therefore the gradient of the tangent, ae is given by
x
dy Pe
eed ee
dx i of
At the point of contact x = 2, and so

dy
—=6x2-8=
i; x 8=4

The y-coordinate of the point of contact may be found by substituting x = 2 in

the equation of the curve:
y=3 X22? 8x!24
580
Therefore the coordinates of the point of contact are (2, 1).
Using the equation of a line in the form

y-Y, =m(x
— x;)
the equation of the tangent is
y—1=4x—2)
ie. 4x—y—7=0
The normal is perpendicular to the tangent, and so its gradient is —4.
Therefore its equation may be written

y— l= h(x = 2)
ie. x +4y—6=0
 Loci 401
Thus the equations ofthe tangent and normal to the curve y = 3x? — 8x + Sat
the point (2, 1) are respectively 4x — y—7=0 and x + 4y—6=0.

Note. It should be emphasised that, when the equation of the tangent was
found, the gradient of the curve at (2, 1) was used. If we had taken the gradient to
be 6x — 8, the equation y — 1 =(6x — 8)(x — 2) would not have represented a
straight line.

Example 7 Find the equations of the tangents to the curve xy =6 which are
parallel to the line 2y + 3x = 0.
The gradient of the line 2y + 3x =0 is —3. Therefore we must find at what
points on the curve xy = 6 the gradient is — 3.
6
aes
x
ey 6
ee oy
dy
If — = —3/2
dx le
éxte 3
Be irae >
~.3x?=12, andso x?=4
eC
—i

When x = 2, y = $ = 3; and when x = — 2, y= —$ — 3. Thus the gradient of

the curve is —# at the points (2, 3) and (— 2, —3).
The equations of the tangents may be found from the form y — y, = m(x — x):
y—3=—3(x—2) and y+3=—3(x+2)
Therefore the equations of the tangents to the curve xy = 6 which are parallel
to the line 2y + 3x =0 are 3x + 2y — 12 =0 and 3x + 2y4+ 12=0.
Sometimes questions about tangents may be solved without using the
calculus. Fig. 20.7 shows a curve with a chord PQ passing through a fixed point
P and a variable point Q. When P and Q are distinct, we must obtain distinct
roots when the equations of the curve and PQ are solved simultaneously; and
when P and Q coincide, producing a tangent, there will be a repeated root.

Example 8 Show that if the line y=mx+c is a tangent to the curve

4x? + 3y? = 12, then c? = 3m? +4.
[If the line y = mx + c is a tangent, then the point of contact must be given by
an equation with a repeated root.]
Substituting y = mx +c in the equation 4x? + 3y? = 12, we obtain
4x? + 3(mx +c)? = 12
”. Ax? + 3m?x? + 6mxc + 3c? = 12
7. (44+ 3m?)x? + 6mcx + 3c? — 12 =0
402 Pure Mathematics 1 20.4

Figure 20.7

Now if the equation ax? + bx + c = 0 has equal roots then b? = 4ac (see §10.2).
Therefore if y= mx +c is a tangent,
36m2c? = 4(4 + 3m?) (3c? — 12)
”, 9m2c? = 12c? — 48 + 9m2c? — 36m?
~, 12c? = 36m? + 48
Therefore if y=mx+c is a tangent to the curve 4x? + 3y? = 12,
then c* = 3m? + 4.
This means that the line y= mx + ,/(3m? + 4) will touch the curve for all
values of m. Hence we may find the tangents parallel to y = 2x by substituting
m= 2, which gives y=2x+4.
Qu.4 Find the equations of the tangents to the curve 4x? + 3y? = 12 which are
(a) parallel to y =x, (b) inclined at 60° to the x-axis.
Qu.5 Solve the following pairs of simultaneous equations:
(a) ysixy yp? =F eaxtioe (6) pe2x! yer? 41x?
What is the significance of the repeated root in each case?

Exercise 20c
1 Find the equations of the tangents and normals to the following curves at the
points indicated:
(a) y=x?, (2, 4); (b) y=3x?—2x +1, where x = 1;
(ch) y=x-bl/x, (=1,; = 2); (d) y? = 4x, (1, — 2);
(e) y=x?—2x, wherex=—2; (f) xy=4, where y=2;
(g) y? =x’, (L, 1).
2 Show that the following lines touch the given curves and find the coordinates
of the points of contact:
(a) y>=8x,y—2x-1=0; (b) x? +y?=8,x—y—4=0;
 Loci 403
(c) xy=4,x4+9y—12=0; (d) 9x? — 4y? = 36, 5x —2y +8=0.
3 At what points does the parabola y = x? — 4x +3 cut the x-axis? Find the
equations of the tangents and normals at these points.
4 Find the equations of the tangents at the points of intersection of the line
y=x-+1 and the parabola y = x? — x —2.
5 Find the equations of the normals to the curve y = x? — 1 at the points where
it cuts the x-axis. What are the coordinates of the point of intersection of
these normals?
6 Find the coordinates ofthe points ofintersection of the parabolas y? = x and
x? = y. What are the equations ofthe tangents to thescurves at these points?
7 What is the equation ofthe normal to the curve y = x? — 4x — 12 at the point
where it cuts the y-axis? Where does this normal meet ibe X-axis?
8 Find the equations of the tangents to the curve y= x*—3x? which are
parallel to the line y = 9x.
9 Find the equations of the tangents to the hyperbola xy =4, which are
inclined at 135° to the x-axis.
10 Show that the equation of the tangent to the parabola y = x? at the point
(h, k) may be written y —2hx + h? =0. Find the values of h for which the
tangent passes through the point (1,0), and obtain the equations of these
tangents.
11 Show that the equation of the tangent to the rectangular hyperbola xy = c?
at the point (h, k) may be written xk + yh — 2c? = 0. Find the equation ofthe
tangent which passes through the point (0, c).
12 Show that, if the line y=x-+c is a tangent to the circle x? + y* =4, then
c? =8.
13 Prove that the condition that the line y=mx-+c should touch the ellipse
x? + 4y? = 4 is c? = 4m? + 1. Hence find the equations of the tangents to the
ellipse which are parallel to the line 3x — 8y =0.
14 Show that the line y= mx +c touches the hyperbola b?x? — a*y* = a?b? if
c? =a’?m? — b?. Hence find the equations of the tangents to the hyperbola
9x? — 25y? = 225 which are parallel to the line x — y= 0.
15 Find the condition that the line 1x + my +n=0 should touch the ellipse
bint Wary? —a7d%:

Exercise 20d (Miscellaneous)

1 Find the locus of a point which is equidistant from the points (4, — 1) and
(3, 7). |
2 Find the locus of a point which is equidistant from the y-axis and the point
(4, 0). id agit 0
3 A point P moves so that its distance from the point (5, 0) is half its distance
from the line x — 8 = 0. Find the locus of P. ee
4 Find the locus of a point which moves so that its distance from the origin is
three times its distance from the line x =a. at 4
5 Find the locus of a point which moves so that its distance from (2, 0) is twice
its distance from (— 1, 0). Show that a point P, which moves so that the sum
404 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 20d

of the squares of the distances from P to the origin and the point (— 4, 0) is
16, describes the same locus.
6 If A is the point (2,0) and B is (—3, 0), find the locus of a point P which
moves so that AP? + 2BP?= 22.
alFind the equation of the circle on the line joining (a, b) to (c, d) as diameter.
8 A straight line of length 24 units moves with its ends on the axes. Find the
locus of a point on the line which is
(a) 12 units from the end on the x-axis,
(b) 6 units from the end on the x-axis.
9 A straight line of length 6 units moves with its ends A and B on the axes.
Perpendiculars to the axes, erected at the points A and B, meet at P. Find the
locus of P.
10 A and B are points on the x- and y-axes, and P is the mid-point of AB. Find
the locus of P if the area of triangle AOB is 8 units.
11 A variable line through the point (a, b) cuts the axes at L and M, and the
perpendiculars to the axes at L and M aie at P. What is the locus of P?
12 Pisa variable point on the curve 4x? + y? = 36 and Ais the point (1, 0).Find
the locus of the mid-point of AP.
13 Find the gradient of the curve y = 9x — x? at the point where x = 1. Find the
equation of the tangent to the curve at this point. Where does this tangent
meet the line x = y?
14 Find the equation of the normal to the parabola y =4x? at the point (4, 4).
Find also the coordinates of the point at which this normal meets the
parabola again, and show that the length of the chord so formed is Sat
15 Find the equations of the tangents to the rectangular hyperbola xy = 4 at the
points (2, 2), (6, 3). Show that they intersect on the line 3y = x.
16 Find the gradient of the curve y = 4x? — 7x + 5 at each of the points where it
is cut by the line y = 2. Find the equations of the tangents at these points and
show that they meet on the line 15x = 7y.
17 Find the equation of the normal to the parabola y = 4x? which is parallel to
y = 3x, and find the coordinates of the point on the parabola at which it is
the normal.
18 Prove that the line y=mx +a/m touches the parabola y? = 4ax. Find the
equation of the tangent to the parabola y* = 2x which is perpendicular to the
straight line 2y + 7x = 4.
19 The gradient of a curve at the point (x, y) is 1 — 2/x. Find the equation of the
curve if it passes through the point (2, 4).
Find the point of contact of the tangent which is parallel to the tangent at
(2, 4); also find the equations of both these tangents.
20 Show that the line y = mx +c touches the ellipse
2 2
= 1

if c? = a*m? + b?.
Find the equations of the tangents to the ellipse 4x? + 9y? = 1 which are
perpendicular to y= 2x +3.
Chapter 21

The circle
The equation of a circle
21.1 The work of previous chapters will now be applied to the circle, and we
begin by obtaining the equation of a circle, radius r, with its centre at the origin.

Figure 21.1

We require an equation connecting the coordinates (x, y) of any point P on

the circle (see Fig. 21.1). Let N be the foot of the perpendicular from P to the
x-axis, so that ON =x and NP=y.
Then by Pythagoras’ theorem,
ON? + NP? =r?
apy dioude Moa it
Therefore the equation of the circle, radius r, with its centre at the origin is
vr+y=r

This is the simplest form in which the equation of a circle can be written, but
now, to be quite general, consider the circle, radius r, whose centre is at the point
C(a, b).

405
406 Pure Mathematics 1 21a

yA

t >
O xX

Figure 21.2

Let P(x, y) be any point on the circle, and draw CN and NP parallel to the
x- and y-axes, as shown in Fig. 21.2.
Now CN=x-—a and NP=y—b; but by Pythagoras’ theorem in triangle
CNP,
CN4 + NP? = CP?
(x=—aP?+(y—bp =r?

Therefore the equation of the circle, radius r, whose centre is at (a, b) is

(x — a)? +(y—by?
=r’

Using this result, the equation of the circle with centre at (4, — 1) and radius 2
may be written

(x —4) +(y 41)? =2?

Expanding the squares:
x? —8x+16+y?+2y+1=4
Collecting the terms:
x? + y? 8x +2y+13=0
The equation of a circle is usually given in this form. Note that
(a) the coefficients of x? and y? are equal,
(b) the only other terms are linear (such as may occur in the equation of a
straight line).

Qu.1 Express the equation (x — a)? + (y—b)? =r? in the form

x? + y? + 2ex + 2fy+c=0
Write down g, f, c, in terms of a, b, r.
 The circle 407
Example 1 Find the radius and the coordinates of the centre of the circle
2x? + 2y* — 8x + S5y+10=0.
[We may find the centre and radius if the equation is expressed in the form
(x — a)? +(y—b)? =r?.]
Divide both sides of the equation of the circle
2x? + 2y? — 8x + 5y+ 10=0

by 2, in order to make the coefficients of x* and y* equal to 1:

x?
+ y?-4x+3y+5=0
Rearrange the terms, grouping those in x and y:
x*-4x + y?+3y = = 5
Complete the squares (see Appendix, Exercise 5):

x?—4x44+4+y? +$3yt(3)? =—-54+44+28

Ue aye gt 2) (2)
Comparing this with the equation of the circle, radius r, centre (a, b):

a)
(tdal ya bye
we obtain

a=2, b= eu, r=4

Therefore the radius is 3 and the centre is at the point (2, — 3).

Example 2 Find the equations of the circles which pass through the points A(0, 2)
and B(0, 8), and which touch the x-axis.

Figure 21.3

Fig. 21.3 suggests a method. The centre of the circle must lie on the
perpendicular bisector of the chord AB, i.e. on the line y=5.
408 Pure Mathematics 1 0 VI

Now the circle touches the x-axis, therefore the radius is 5. |

If D is the point (0, 5) and C is the centre of either circle, then triangle ADC is
right-angled and DC = 4 by Pythagoras’ theorem. Therefore the centres of the
circles are (— 4, 5) and (4, 5) and so their equations are

(x44)? +(y— 5? =5
Therefore the equations of the circles are x* + y7 + 8x — 10y + 16=0.

Exercise 2la
1 Find the equations of the circles with the following centres and radii:
(a) centre (2, 3), radius. 1; (b) centre (— 3, 4), radius-5;
(c) centre (3, —4), radius 3; (d) centre (0, — 5), radius 5;
(ec) centre (3, 0), radius \/2; (f) centre (—4,4), radius 3./2.
2 Find the radii and the coordinates of the centres of the following circles:
(a) x?+y?+4x—6y+12=0, (b) x*?+y?—2x—4y+1=0,
(c) x7 + y? —3x=0, (d) x?+ y?+ 3x —4y—6=0,
(ce) 2x?+2y?+x+y=0, (f) 36x? + 36y? — 24x — 36y — 23 =0,
(g) x? + y? — 2ax — 2by =0, (h) x7 + y?+2¢x+2fy+c=0.
Which of the following equations represent circles?
(a) x? + y?—5=0, (b) x7 + y?+ 10=0,
(c) 3x? +2y?+6x—8y+100=0, (d) ax*+ay?=1,
(ec) x? +y?+8x+xy+4=0, (f) x? +y? + bxy=1,
(g) x? +y*+c=0, (h) x? + dy?—8x+10y + 50=0.
Which of them can represent circles if suitable values are given to the
constants a, b, c, d?
Find the equation of the circle whose centre is at the point (2, 1) and which
passes through the point (4, — 3).
The points (8, 4) and (2, 2) are the ends of a diameter of a circle. Find the
coordinates of the centre, and the radius. Deduce the equation of the circle.
What is the equation of the circle, centre (2, — 3), which touches the x-axis?
Find the radii of the two circles, with centres at the origin, which touch the
circle x? + y? — 8x — 6y+ 24=0,
Show that the distance of the centre of the circle x? + y? 6x —4y+4=0
from the y-axis is equal to the radius. What does this prove about the y-axis
and the circle?
Find the equations of the circles which touch the x-axis, have radius 5, and
pass through the point (0, 8).
What is the equation of the circle whose centre lies on the line x — 2y + 2=0,
and which touches the positive axes?
11 A circle passes through the points A(—5, 2), B(—3, —4), C(1, 8). Find the
point of intersection of the perpendicular bisectors of AB and BC. What is
the equation of the circle?
12 The circle x*+y*+2gx+2fy+c=0 passes through the points A(—1, —2),
B(1, 2), C(2, 3). Write down three equations which must be satisfied by g, fc.
Solve these equations and write down the equation of the circle ABC.
 The circle 409
13 Find the equations of the circles which pass through
(a) the origin, (— 1, 3), (—4, 2);
(b) (3, 1), (8, 2), (2, 6);
(c) (6, en 5), Pa Bee 7), 616; ri iy.
14 A point moves so that its distance from the origin is twice its distance from
the point (3, 0). Show that the locus is a circle, and find its centre and radius.
15 A is the point (3, — 1), and B is the point (5, 3). Show that the locus ofa point
P, which moves so that PA? + PB? = 28, is a circle. Find its centre and
radius.

Tangents to a circle
21.2 Elementary geometry will frequently help to simplify working in co-
ordinate geometry, as the reader may have found in the last exercise. It provides
a simple way of obtaining the equation of a tangent at a given point on a given
circle, using the fact that a tangent is perpendicular to the radius through the
point of contact. This method will be-employed in the next example.

Example 3 Verify that the point (3, 2) lies on the circle x* +y* —8x +2y+7=0,
and find the equation of the tangent at this point.
Substituting the coordinates (3, 2) into the equation x? + y?—8x+2y+7=0,
L.H.S.=9+4-—24+4+7=0=RHS.
Therefore (3, 2) lies on the circle.
[The gradient of the tangent can be found from the gradient of the radius
through (3, 2); and, in order to find this, we obtain the coordinates of the centre
of the circle.]
The equation of the circle may be written
x? = 8x Syrupay ss 7
7, x?—8x4+ 164+ y?4+2y+1=—74+16+1
“(x — 4) +(y+ 1)? = 10
Therefore the centre of the circle is (4, — 1). Hence the gradient of the radius
through (3, 2) is (— 1 — 2)/(4 — 3) = —3.
Therefore the gradient of the tangent is }. Using the formula y— y, =m(x—x,),
the equation of the tangent at (3, 2) is

y—2=4(x—3)
38y-—6=x—3
Therefore the equation of the tangent to the circle at (3, 2) is x —3y+3=0.

Example 4 Find the length of the tangents from the point (5,7) to the circle
x? + y?— 4x —6y+9=0.
[Fig. 21.4 suggests a method. The tangent is perpendicular to the radius
through the point of contact, so t can be found by Pythagoras’ theorem ifdandr
are known. ]
410 Pure Mathematics 1 Ae)

Figure 21.4

In Fig. 21.4, the radius, length r, is perpendicular to the tangent, length t, from
the point (5, 7). If the distance of (5, 7) from the centre of the circle is d, then by
Pythagoras’ theorem d? = t* +r’, or
a d2—ey2

To find the coordinates of the centre of the circle x? + y* —4x —6y + 9 =0:
x*-4x+4+y?-6y+9=4
‘(mand
Pot (ff 82?
Therefore the centre is (2, 3) and the radius is 2.
Now, by Pythagoras’ theorem,
d? =(5—2)?+(7—
3)? =9+ 16 =25
But r? = 4,
t= 25=4=21
Therefore the length of the tangents from (5, 7) to the circle is Pya

Qu. 2 Calculate the lengths of the tangents to the circle in Example 4 from (a)
(4, 3), (b) (2, 2). What do you conclude from these results? If in doubt, mark these
points in a figure containing the circle.

Exercise 21b
1 Verify that the given points lie on the following circles and find the equations
of the tangents to the circles at these points:
(a) x? + y?+6x—2y=0, (0,0);
(b) x? + y?—8x—2y=0, (3,5);
 The circle 411
(c) x7 +y?+2x+4y—12=0, (3, —1);
(d) x7 + y?+2x—2y—8=0, (2,2);
(ec) 2x7 + 2y?—8x—Sy—1=0, (1, —1).
Find the lengths of the tangents from the given points to the following circles:
(a) x7 + y?+4x—6y+10=0, (0,0);
(b) x7 + y?-4x—8y—5=0, (8,2);
(c) x7+y?+6x+10y—2=0, (—2,3);
(d) x*+ y?-10x+ 8y+5=0, (5,4);
(e)ox?+ y? =a, (x1, V1)5
(f) x? + y?+2ex+2fy+c=0, (0,0).
The tangent to the circle x* + y* — 2x —6y + 5=0 at the point (3, 4) meets
the x-axis at M. Find the distance of M from the centre of the circle.
Find the equations of the tangents to the circle x? + y>— 6x +4y+5=Oat
the points where it meets the x-axis.
The tangent to the circle x* + y? — 4x + 6y —77 = Oat the point (5, 6) meets
the axes at A and B. Find the coordinates of A and B. Deduce the area of
triangle AOB.
Find the length of the tangents from the origin to the circle

x? + y?—10x
+2y 4+13=0
Use this answer to show that these two tangents and the radii through the
points of contact form a square.
Find the length of the tangents to the circle x? + y? —4=0 from the point
P(X, Y); and deduce the equation of the locus of P, when it moves so that the
length of the tangents to the circle is equal to the distance of P from the point
(1, 0).
Show that the length of the tangents to the circle x” + y? —4x —6y + 12=0
from the point P(X, Y) is /(X? + Y? —4X — 6Y+ 12). Find the locus of P
when it moves so that the length of the tangents to the circle is equal to its
distance from the origin.
Show that the point (x,, y,) is outside, on or inside the circle

x? + y? 4+2¢x + 2fy+c=0
according as to whether x,*+),7+2gx,+2fy,;+¢ is positive, zero or
negative.
10 Prove that the line x — y— 3 =0 is a common tangent to the circles
x?4+y?—2x—4y—3=0 and x*+y?+4x—2y—13=0
What are the coordinates of the point in which it meets the other common
tangent?

The intersection of two circles

21.3. Example 5 Find the equation of the common chord of the circles
x24 y? —4x —2y+1=0 and x? + y? + 4x—6y—10=0.
 412 Pure Mathematics 1 PANS)

The coordinates of the points of intersection A and B of the circles satisfy the
two equations
x* + y? —4x —2y+ 1=0
x? + y?+4x —6y—10=0
Therefore, by subtraction, the coordinates of A and B satisfy the equation
—8x+4y+ 11=0
But this equation represents a straight line, and it is satisfied by the coordinates
of A and B, therefore it is the equation of the common chord.

Two circles may not intersect but, by subtracting one equation from the other,
’ the equation of a line may still be obtained. What then does the line represent?
Qu. 3 suggests an answer.
Qu.3 What are the squares of the lengths of the tangents from the point
P(X, Y) to the circles x? + y?— 1=0, x? + y? — 6x — 8y + 21 =0? What is the
locus of P such that the lengths of the tangents from P to the circles are equal?
Qu.4 Write down the equation of the line joining the origin to the point of
intersection of the lines 17x — 1S5y + 7=0 and 19x — 13y+7=0.

Orthogonal circles
21.4 If the tangents to two circles at their points of intersection are per-
pendicular, the circles are said to be orthogonal. Since the radius through a point
of contact is perpendicular to the tangent, it follows that the tangent to one circle
is a radius of the other. Thus if the centres of two orthogonal circles of radii R
and r are a distance d apart (Fig. 21.5), it follows by Pythagoras’ theorem that

TAN
g
Figure 21.5

Example 6 Show that the circles

x? +y?—6x+4y+2=0 and x?+y?+8x42y—22=0
are orthogonal.
 The circle 413
The centres of the circles are (3, — 2) and (—4, — 1), and their radii are ./11
and ,/39. :
The sum of the squares of the radii is 50, and the square of the distance
between the centres is 77 + 17 = 50, therefore the circles are orthogonal.

Exercise 21¢c (Miscellaneous)

1 Show that the common chord of the circles

ey = dean Xx. yy dy — Jy 4=0

passes through the origin.
Find the coordinates of the point where the common chord of the circles
x? + y? — 4x — 8y —5 =O and x? + y? — 2x — 4y — 5 =0 meets the line join-
ing their centres.
Show that the following pairs of circles are orthogonal:
(a) x7 + y?—6x—8y+9=0, x?4+y?=9;
(b) x? + y?—4x+2=0, x?+y?+6y—2=0;
(c) x? +y?—6y+8=0, x7+y?—4x+2y—14=0;
(d) x7+y?+10x—4y—3=0, x?+y?—2x-—6y+5=0.
Prove that the line y = 2x is a tangent to the circle x? + y? 8x —y+5=0
and find the coordinates of the point of contact.
Show that the line x —2y + 12=0 touches the circle x? + y?—x—31=0
and find the coordinates of the point of contact.
The line 2x + 2y — 3 =0 touches the circle 4x? + 4y? + 8x + 4y — 13 =0 at
A. Find the equation of the line joining A to the origin.
Find the equation of the circle whose centre is at the point (5, 4) and which
touches the line joining the points (0, 5) and (4, 1).
Find the equation of the tangent to the circle x7 + y? —2x + y—5=Oat the
point (3, — 2). If this tangent cuts the axes at A and B, find the area oftriangle
OAB.
Find the length of the tangents to the circle x* + y? — 2x + 4y —3 =0 from
the centre of the circle x? + y? + 6x +8y—1=0.
10 A tangent is drawn from the point (—a, 0) to a variable circle, centre (a, 0).
What is the locus of the point of contact?
Prove that the circles x? + y? + 3x + y=0 and x* + y? — 6x —2y =0 touch
each other. Find the coordinates of the point of contact and the equation of
their common tangent at that point.
Show that the line y=x-+1 touches the circle x* + y? —8x —2y+9=0.
What is the equation of the other tangent to the circle from the point (0, 1)?
13 A circle passing through the point (4, 0) is orthogonal to the circle
x? + y* =4. Find the locus of the centre of the variable circle.
14 The circle x? + y? — 2x —4y —5=0 has centre C, and is cut by the line
y =2x +5 at A and B. Show that BC is perpendicular to AC and find the
area of the triangle ABC.
15 Find the equation of the circle which passes through the points (0, 2), (8, — 2),
(9, 5). Verify that it also passes through the point (2, 6).
414 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 21c

16 Find the coordinates of the points A and B at which the line x — 3y = 0 meets
the circle x? + y? — 10x — 5y + 25 = 0. Find also the coordinates of the point
T where the circle touches the axis OX and verify that OA x OB = OT’.
17 A triangle has vertices (0, 6), (4, 0), (6,0). Find the equation of the circle
through the mid-points of the sides and show that it passes through the
origin.
18 Two circles have their centres on the line y+3=0 and touch the line
3y — 2x =0. If the radii of the circles are ,/13, find the coordinates of their
centres and also their equations. [Hint: use similar triangles. ]
19 A and B have coordinates ( — 3, 0) and (3, 0). Show that the locus of a point P
which moves such that PB = 2PA is a circle with centre (— 5, 0) and radius 4.
20 Show that the line y=mx+c touches the circle~ x* + y? =a? if
c? =a?(1 +m’).
 Chapter 22

Further topics in coordinate

geometry
The equation of a straight line
22.1 Straight lines occur so often in coordinate geometry that it is worth while
learning to write down their equations by a quick method. Example 9 in
Chapter 1 was done by two methods, and what follows is an extension of the
second.

Example 1 Find the equation of the line with gradient — %, which passes through
the point (1, — 4).
[Think: the line has equation y = —4x +c, therefore it may be written
3y + 2x =constant
Now since the line passes through (1, —4), the constant may be found by
substituting these coordinates in the left-hand side.]
The equation of the line is
3y + 2x = —124+2
ie. 2x+3y+10=0
Note. Check that the line (a) has gradient — 4, (b) passes through (1, — 4).

Given the equation of a line, it is easy to write down the equation of a

perpendicular line through a given point. For example, if we require the
equation of the line perpendicular to 4x + Sy +7=0 which passes through
(6, — 5), we interchange the coefficients of x and y, changing one of the signs, and
balance the equation as before. Thus the perpendicular is 5x — 4y = 50.

Example 2 Find the equation of the line joining the points (a, 9), (0, b).
The gradient of the line is — b/a. Therefore, using the method of Example 1, its
equation is ay + bx = ab.

415
416 Pure Mathematics 1 22

Dividing through by ab, the equation becomes

PSE
ere aa
aah

which is known as the intercept form of the equation of a line.

Exercise 22a
1 Write down the equations of the lines with the given gradients which pass
through the given points:
(a) gradient 1, through (3, 2); (b) gradient — 2, through (1, — 3);
(c) gradient +, through (0, — 6); (d) gradient —4, through (—2, 5);
(e) gradient —2Z, through (3, — 6); (f) gradient #, through (—1, 1);
(g) gradient — 2, through (— 3, — 4); (h) gradient 4, through (—2, 5);
(i) gradient 1/t, through (at?, 2at) (j) gradient —t, through (at?, 2at);
(k) gradient — cot 6, through (a cos 6, a sin 6);
(l) gradient — 1/t?, through (ct, c/t).
2 Write down the equations of the perpendiculars to
(a) 3x +2y—1=0, through (2, 2);
(b) 4x —3y + 7=0, through the origin;
(c) Sx + 6y + 11 =0, through (— 3, 5);
(d) 3x —2y —7=0, through (—1,3); —_(e) ty — x =at?, through (h, k);
(f) ax+by+c=0, through (x,,y;); (g) t?y + x = 2ct, through (ct, c/t).
3 Write down the equations of the lines which make the following intercepts on
the x- and y-axes respectively:
(a) 3,2; bh) = 128) ea ee ee
4 Write down the equations of the lines joining the following pairs of points:
(a) (0, 2), (3,0); (b) (— 1,0), 0, 5); ©) (— 430), 0, 4).
5 The perpendicular from the origin to a straight line is of length p and makes
an angle « with the x-axis (see Fig. 22.1). What intercepts does the line make
on the axes? Write down the equation of the line.

Figure 22.1
 Further topics in coordinate geometry 417
6 Use the method of §22.1 to find the equations of the following straight lines:
(a) with gradient 3, through (4, 3);
(b) with gradient —4, through (2, — 1);
(c) with gradient 2, through (1, 1);
(d) with gradient —#, through (0, — 3);
(e) joining (3, 2) and (2, — 4);
(f) joining (1, 3) and (— 3, — 6);
(g) joining (— 1, 2) to the mid-point of (3, 5) and (5, — 1);
(h) through (2, 1), perpendicular to 2x — y = 0;
(i) through (— 1, 3) perpendicular to 3x + 4y —2=0;
(j) the altitude through A of the triangle A(1, 3), B(2, — 1), C(3, 5);
(k) the altitude through B of the triangle in (j);
(1) through (h, k), perpendicular to t7y + x = 2ct.
7 Show that the rectangular hyperbolas xy = 1 and x* — y* = 1 are orthogonal.
8 Show that the ellipse 16x? + 25y* = 400 and the hyperbola 4x? — Sy? = 20 are
orthogonal.

Polar coordinates
22.2 If someone asks me at Harrow to tell him where Enfield is, I may reply
that it is about 19 km East and 9 km North, or I might tell him that it is roughly
21 km away on a bearing N 60° E. These two descriptions of the position of
Enfield correspond to the two systems of coordinates used in this book. The first
is the basis of Cartesian coordinates and we have already met the second in the
chapter on vectors. (See also §10.9.)

fixed line
O x

Figure 22.2

Let P be any point and let OP =r, where O is the origin (see Fig. 22.2) and let
OP make an angle @ with the x-axis, then r and @ are called the polar coordinates
of the point P, and the coordinates may be written (r, 0). The x-axis is sometimes
called the initial line.
It should be noticed that, while a bearing is usually measured in a clockwise
sense from North, in mathematics the polar coordinate @ is normally represen-
ted in an anti-clockwise sense.
Thus in Fig. 22.3, the coordinates of A are (2, 30°) and those of B are (3, 90°). A
point may be described in different ways, for instance C may be written as
 IY
418 Pure Mathematics 1
way of
(2, 210°), (2, — 150°), (—2, 30°) and so on. If, for any reason, a unique
lie in
referring to each point is required, r may be taken to be positive and @ to
the range — 180° <6 < 180°.

Figure 22.3

Example 3 Sketch the curve whose polar equation is r = a(1 + 2 cos @).
Take values of 6, and calculate 1 + 2 cos @, as below.

6 Oem 45° 60° 90° tea|sade Me Be 150° 180°

2 cos 0 Piolo 32vnd Al¢scih 0 —-1 -—1414 —1.732. —2
1+2cos@ |3 2.732 2.414 2 1 0-. —0.414 —0.732 —-1

Plot these values (see Fig. 22.4). Now if « is any angle, cos(—«a)=cos a,
therefore the same values of r will be obtained for negative values of 0. Thus the
curve may be completed.

Example 4 Find the polar equation of a line such that the perpendicular to it from
the origin is of length p and makes an angle « with the x-axis.

In Fig. 22.5, N is the foot of the perpendicular from the origin to the line, and
let P be any point (r, @) on the line.
In the triangle ONP, N is a right angle and angle PON = 6 — a (or a — 0).

..rcos(9@—a)=p (orrcos(a—6)=p) .

Therefore, in either case, the polar equation of the line is r cos (@ — «) = p.

 Further topics in coordinate geometry 419

Figure 22.4

Figure 22.5

Relations between polar and Cartesian coordinates

22.3. In Fig. 22.6, P is the point (x, y) in Cartesian coordinates and (r, 9) in
polar coordinates, and PM is an ordinate.
Now, by the definitions of cosine and sine given in $16.1,

Can and in dee

r r
 Pure Mathematics / 225,
420

Figure 22.6

Therefore x and y are given in terms of r and @ by the equations

x=rcos@ and y=rsin0
If, on the other hand, we are given the values of x and y, we can, by inspecting
the diagram in Fig. 22.6, write down the values of r and 0.
By Pythagoras’ theorem, -

pee ty
or +t /(x ty?)
In most cases the positive square root should be taken, but on some occasions it
may be necessary to use the negative one. (For instance, in Example 3 above, at
the point x =a, y=0, r is equal to —a.)
The angle 6 can be found by elementary trigonometry. In Fig. 22.6, 6 is given
by
tand=~
x

[Here again, care must be taken. For example, the point x = — 1, y = —1, gives
tan 0 = + 1, but in this case 0 is equal to — 135°, not 45°; if in doubt, consult the
diagram. Compare this with the modulus and argument of a complex number
(see §10.9).]

Example 5 Find the Cartesian equations of

(a) r=a(1+2cos 8), (b) rcos (0 —a) =p.

(a) r=a(1+2cos 0)

[The cos @ suggests the relation x = r cos 0, so multiply through by r.]

“. 1 =a(r + 2r cos 6)
x? + y? = af] (x? + y*) + 2x}
1.x? by? — 2ax = ay/(x? + y?)
 Further topics in coordinate geometry 421
Therefore the Cartesian equation of r = a(1 + 2 cos @) is
(x? 4 y? —2ax)? = a?(x? + y?)

(b) rcos
(0 —a)=p

cos (@ — ~) may be expanded (see §17.2),

".rcos @cosa+rsin
0 sin «=p
Therefore the Cartesian equation of r cos (8 — «) = p is

COS
a+ y SIN o& =p

Note. The perpendicular from the origin to this line is of length p and makes
an angle « with the x-axis. This form of the equation of a straight line is known
as the normal or perpendicular form.

Example 6 Find the polar equation of the circle whose Cartesian equation is
xy dy.
x? +y?=4x

Put.x= cos 0; y=7'sin 6, then

r? cos? 0+ r? sin? 6 = 4r cos 0

‘ r7=4rcos 0
Therefore the polar equation of the circle is r=4 cos 0.

Exercise 22b
1 Sketch the curves given by the following polar equations:
(a) r=a(1 +cos 0), (b) r=acos 20, (c) r=a(1 —sin 8),
(d) r=asin 30, (ec) r=asec 8, (f) r=atan 8,
(g) r=acos 450, (h) r=a(1 + sin 20).
2 Find the polar equations of the following loci:
(a) a circle, centre at the origin, radius a;
(b) a straight line through the origin, inclined at an angle « to the initial line;
(c) a straight line perpendicular to the initial line, at a distance a from the
origin;
(d) a straight line parallel to the initial line at a distance a;
(e) a circle on the line joining the origin to (a, 0) as a diameter;
(f) a circle, radius a, touching the initial line at the origin and lying above it;
(g) a circle, radius a, centre on the initial line at a distance c from the origin;
(h) a point which moves so that its distance from the origin is equal to its
distance from the straight line x = 2a.
3 P, is the point (r;, 0,), P2 is (r2, 02) and 0, > 0,. Show that the area of the
triangle OP,P, is4r,r2 sin (0, — 0,). Deduce that if the Cartesian coordinates
of P, and P, are (x,,y,) and (x2, y2), then the area of OP,P, is
F(x V2 — Xz).
422 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 22b

4 Deduce from the result of No.3, that the area of the triangle P,(x,, y;),
P3(X2, Y2), P3(x3, y3) 1S

2{ (X23 — X32) + (X31 — X1 V3) + (X12 — X2y1)}

[If new axes are drawn at (x3, y3), the coordinates of P, and P, referred to
them are (x; — X3, ¥; — y3) and (x2 — X3, y2 — ys).]
5 Obtain the polar equations of the following loci:
(a) x7 +y? =a’, (b) x?—y? =a’, (c) y=0,
(d) y? = 4a(a — x), (e) x? + y?—2y=0, (i) xy=c*.
6 Obtain the Cartesian equations of the following loci:
(ajer=2; (b) r=a(1+cos 8), (c) r=acos 8,
(d) r=atan 0, (e) r=2a(1 + sin 26), (f) 2r? sin 20 = c?,
(g) l/r=1+ecos 6, (h) r= 4a cot @ cosec 0.
7 Express the following straight lines in the form x cos a+ y sin « = p. State the
distance of each line from the origin and give the angle which the per-
pendicular from the origin makes with the x-axis.
(a) x ./ SP = 2, (b) x —y=4, (c) 3x+4y— 10=0,
(d) 5x —12y+26=0, (ce) x+3y—2=0, (f) ax+by+c=0.

The distance of a point from a line

22.4 Given a point P,(x,, y,) and the line
ax+by+c=0

we shall first find the distance, r, of P, from a point P, on the line, such that
————

P,P, makes an angle « with the x-axis (see Fig. 22.7).

Pi(m,Yi)

Figure 22.7
 Further topics in coordinate geometry 423
P, has coordinates (x; +rcosa, y,+rsin a), but, as P, lies on the line
ax + by +c =0, its coordinates satisfy the equation, therefore

a(x; +rcosa)+b(y,+rsina)+c=0
.. r(acos «+ b sin a) = —(ax, + by, +c)

; ax, +by,+c
ge acosa+b
sin « : (1)
Now take the case when P,P, is perpendicular to the line ax + by +c =0.
The gradient of ax + by +c =0 is —a/b, therefore the gradient of P, P, is b/a.
b
nin Wea) Oe
a

. De ae b
Pen taelodiiey. ant aa

cos (= + —
. +f. a

~ ./(a?
+ b?)
and, since tan a = b/a,
’ mn b
sing = + —.—_
~ J (a? +b?)
so in the denominator of equation (1)

. a’ b*
acosa+bsina= + (Tr oa + roe

ace)
Therefore the perpendicular distance of (x,, y,) from the line ax + by +c =0 is
4 1 +by,+c
~~ f(a? +b)
The plus or minus sign should be chosen so that this is a positive quantity, in
other words, the perpendicular distance is
ax,+by,+¢
J(a? + 5)

Example 7 Find the distances of the points (a) (1, 3), (b) (— 3, 4), (c) (4, —2) from
the line 2x + 3y —6=0.
The distance of (x,, y,) from the line ax + by +c =0 is

ax, +by,+c
a (a? + b?)
Therefore the distances of (1,3), (—3,4), (4, —2) from 2x+3y—6=0 are
424 Pure Mathematics 1 204

respectively
2 NAPSSION AS
a) Via) WA TEX

2X(= 3) 3 x4 = Glos
| ses =o,
2:x443%(=2)= 6/0 4
(c) Ges) DR AER

The formula is more easily remembered if two points are noticed: (1) the
numerator is obtained by substituting the coordinates of the point into
the equation of the line (remember that the perpendicular distance is zero
if the point lies on the line), (2) the denominator is the square root of the sum of
the squares of the coefficients.
Qu. 1 Find the distances of the given points from the following lines:
(a) (3, 2), 3x —4vy+4=0; (b) (2, — 1), 5x + 12y =0;
(c) (0, —3),x+5y+2=0; (d) (2,5), x+y—1=0;
(ec) (—4, 2), 3y =5x
— 6; (f) (2,1), y=9x+4;
(g) (0, a), 3y = 4x; (h) (p,q), 3x + 4y — 3p =0;
(1) (X,Y), 12x-—Sy+7=0; — (j) (%1,y1),
8x = I5y.
Example8 Find the equations of the bisectors of the angles between the lines
4x+3y—12=0 and y=3x.
[The angle bisectors are the locus of a point which is equidistant from the two
lines, and this provides a method of finding their equations. |
Let P(X, Y) be a point on the locus, then the distances of P from the lines
4x +3y—12=0 and y—3x=O are
4X +3Y—12
_
erates
n
Y—3X a

“si_./ (47+ 37) ae

|ce oda|
But P is equidistant from the two lines, therefore
4p SY 12 © > Y—3X
5 et
[One + sign has been dropped, since there are only two distinct equations: one
given by the same sign each side, the other by different signs.]
Simplifying these equations we obtain
4,/10X + 3./10¥— 12,/10 =5Y ~—15X
and
4,/10X + 3,/10¥— 12</10-~5SY-4 15X
Therefore the equations of the angle bisectors of the lines are
(4,/10 + 15)x + (3./10 — 5)y — 12,/10=0
 Further topics in coordinate geometry 425
and
(4,/10— 15)x + (3/10
+ 5)y— 12/10=0
Example 9 Find the equations of the tangents to the circle
x? + y* 4x —2y—8=0
which are parallel to the line 3x + 2y =0.
[This will be done by using the result that the perpendicular distance of a
tangent from the centre of a circle is equal to the radius. ]
The required tangents are parallel to the line 3x + 2y =O, therefore their
equations may be written in the form
3x +2y+c=0
where c is a constant to be determined for each tangent.
To find the centre and radius of the circle
x? + y?—4x —2y—8=0
x? —4x4+44+y?—-2y+1=84+4+41
ees
(ys 23
Therefore the centre is (2, 1) and the radius is ,/13.
Now the distance of the point (x,,y,) from the line ax+by+c=0 is
\(ax, + by, +0)/,/(a’ +b), therefore the distance of the centre of the circle
(2, 1) from the line 3x + 2y+c=0 is
3x24+2x1+c
J? + 27)
But if the line is a tangent, this distance is equal to the radius, therefore
8+c¢ d hea)
Sh
73) 7v'3
J. £(8+c)=13
Taking the positive sign, 8 +c =13, and so c=5. With the negative sign,
—§—¢ =13, and so c= —21.
Therefore the equations of the tangents parallel to 3x+2y=0 are
3x + 2y+5=0 and 3x + 2y—21=0.

Exercise 22c
1 Write down the distances of the given points from the following lines:
(a) (2, 5), 4x + 3y —2=0, (b) (—1, 3), 12x —S5y =0;
(c) (—2, 0), 4x+ y—2=0; (d) (3, 5), x —y+2=0;
(e) (—1, 7), 2x = Sy + 1; (f) (0, 0), 3x =4y+ 6;
(g) (2, 3), y=$x4+4; ),
5x +3
(h) (1,4 y =1;
(i) (0,0),xcosa+ysina=p; (j) (X, hit a
(k) (c, 2c), 8x = 15y; 1),
() (1,9y= 4x —2-
426 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 22c

2 Find the equations of the bisectors of the angles between

(a) 3x+4y—7=0, y—1=0,; (b) 4x —3y +1=0,3x—4y+3=0;
(c) 5x + 12y=0, 12x + 5y—4=0; (d) x + y—1=0, the x-axis.
3 Find the equations of the bisectors of the acute angles between
(a) 3x —4y+2=0,x+3=0; (b) 5x +12y+9=0, 5x —12y+6=0;
(c) x+y+1=0,x=7y.
[Draw figures to determine which equations give the required lines.]
4 What is the locus of a point which moves so that it is equidistant from the
point (2, — 3) and the line x + 2y = 0?
5 Find the locus of a point which is equidistant from the line 3x —4y + 7=0
and the point (3, 4) on the line.
6 What is the locus of apoint which moves so that its distance from (2, 2) is half
its distance from x + y+4=0?
7 Find the equations of the tangents to the circle x7 + y>+4x+8y—S5=0
which are parallel to the line 4y — 3x = 0.
8 Show that the line 3x + 2y =0 touches the circle x? + y? + 6x + 4y =0, and
find the equations of the perpendicular tangents.
9 Find the equation of the circle in the first quadrant with radius 2 which
touches the y-axis and the line 3y — 4x —3 =0.
10 Prove that the line y=mx-+c touches the circle x? + y? =a? if
c? =a?(1+m?’). Also find the condition that the line x + my + n=0 should
touch the circle.

Parameters
22.5 Consider a circle, radius a, centre at the origin (see Fig. 22.8). Let P(x, y)
be any point on the circle, and let the angle between PO and the x-axis be 0, then
x=acos@ and y=asin@

Figure 22.8
 Further topics in coordinate geometry 427
These equations, which give the coordinates of any point on the curve in terms
of 0, are called parametric equations, and @ is called a parameter.
If we wish to refer to a particular point on the curve, a single number, the
corresponding value of 6, will determine it. Thus @=60° gives the point
(a/2, J 3a/2). On the other hand, if we were given a value of x, say 4a, there are
two corresponding points: (a/2, ,/3a/2) and (a/2, —,/3a/2). Another advantage
of parameters is that we may write down the coordinates of a general point on
the curve (a cos 0, a sin 0). If we wrote (x,, y;), we should also have to bear in
mind the equation x,” + y,? =a’.
Another example of parameters was used in §22.4. The point
(x, +rcos a, yy +rsin a)
lies on the straight line through (x,, y,) with gradient tan «, and in this case the
parameter, r, is a distance. However, it is not always possible to give an easy
interpretation of a parameter in terms of angles or distances.

Example 10 Plot the graph of the curve given parametrically by the equations
x=t?—4, y=t? —4t, for values of t from —3 to +3.
A table of values is shown below.

t af => al 0 ie ee 3
x=0?—4 5 on ee 2 TS SEN 5
y=0—4t 15 0 3 (ee 0) 15

=l8)

Figure 22.9
 1 22'5
428 Pure Mathematics

The graph has been plotted in Fig. 22.9, and the values of the parameter, t, have
been written against the corresponding points. The arrows indicate the direction
of motion of a point on the curve as t increases from —3 to + B:

Example 11 Sketch the curve given parametrically by x = sin 6, y =sin 20.

A few values of @ will give all the points we need.

0 0 45° 90° 135" 180°

x=sin 0 0 0.7071 1 O08 tee
y=sin 20 0 1 0 —1 0

Plotting these points and joining them by a curve we obtain the part of the curve
in Fig. 22.10 which lies to the right of the y-axis.

Figure 22.10

Now sin (— «) = —sin a, so that negative values of 0 change the signs of x and
y. Therefore the rest of the curve may be drawn in symmetrically.

Qu.2 Sketch the locus given by x = t?, y= 1 —t?, for real values of t. Is it the
line x +y=1?
The graph of the curve given parametrically by the equations x = t? — 4,
y=t*—4t was plotted for values of t from —3 to +3 in Example 10. The
question may well have risen in the reader’s mind, ‘What is the equation
connecting x and y?’ This can be found by eliminating t from the equations
Kat? = 4 y=r—4
Notice that y=tx. Therefore we may substitute t= y/x in either of the
 Further topics in coordinate geometry 429
equations above. Choosing the simpler,

ry,
x= -4
x?
ee ey At
Therefore the Cartesian equation of the locus is y? = x?(x + 4).

Example 12 Find the Cartesian equation of the locus given parametrically by the
equations x = sin 0, y = sin 20 (see Example 11).
y =sin 20, but sin 20 = 2 sin @ cos 0, therefore
y=2sin @cos 0
|. y? =4 sin? 0 cos? 0
Now x =sin 0, therefore 1 — x* = cos? 0, and so the Cartesian equation of the
locustis y? =4x?(1 — x?).

The process of obtaining parametric equations from a given Cartesian

equation is not so easy as the reverse, but one method is illustrated in the next
example.

Example 13. Obtain parametric equations for the locus y? = x3 — x?.

Put y =tx in the equation y? = x? — x?, then
pen eo ir?
tie |
prea Kees Toast
Therefore the locus may be represented by the parametric equations
x=t?
41, y=t +t.

Note. This method is not suitable for all equations, but it works well when the
terms are of degree n and n—1.

Exercise 22d
1 Plot the curves given parametrically by the equations:
(a) x=t? 41, y=t+2; from t= —3 tot = +3.
(b) x=t?, y=; from t= —3 tot= +3.
(eo x St ype le taking t= 4, +3) 42, +'1, +4, +4, +4.
(d)x=T+oy=3—2t;
(e)'x'="at?, y= 2ar;
es eye
ABatBtany tk = 2ty
heath acim
430 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 22d

(h) x = 3(t + 1/t), y= 2(t — 1/t);

(i) -x=3 cos Oxy =2 sin 9;
(j) x= 4 ste6, y= 3 tame.
Find the values of the parameters and the other coordinates of the given
points on the following curves:
(a) x =t, y=2/t; where y = 13.
(b) x =at?, y = 2at; where x = Za.

(d) x =acos 0, y=b sin 6; where x =4a.

Oo Find the Cartesian equations of the loci in No. 1.
By substituting y=tx, find parametric equations for the loci whose
Cartesian equations are
ay yaa") (b)' ¥= xP + 2x, (c) yP =x 4 2x,
(d) x? =x =, (6) x y= Say.
Show that the parametric equations
(a) x=1+2t, y=2.4 3t, (b) x = 1/(2t — 3), y=t/(2t — 3),
both represent the same straight line, and find its Cartesian equation.
2-t
Show that the line given parametrically by the equations x=
1+ 2t’
oat
y= raed passes through the points (6, 7) and (— 2, — 1). Find the values oft

corresponding to these points.

P is the variable point (t?, 3t) and O is the origin. Find the coordinates of Q,
the mid-point of OP, and hence obtain the locus of Q as P varies.
P is the variable point (at*, 2at) on the parabola y? = 4ax, and Q is the foot
of the perpendicular from P to the y-axis. Find the locus of the mid-point of
PQ.
The line joining the origin to the variable point P(t, 1/t) meets the line x = 1
at Q. Find the locus of the mid-point of PQ.
10 Find the coordinates of the points nearest to the origin on the curve x =f,
y= 1/t. What is their distance from the origin?
Find the coordinates of the points on the curve x = at”, y = 2at where the
distance from the point (Sa, — 2a) is stationary. Distinguish between max-
ima, minima and points of inflexion.
12 Find the equations of the chords joining the points with parameters p and q
on the following curves:
@xetyp=2e (6) x=ty= Le
(chr vert, pelt (d) x=t+4+1/t, y=2t.
13 Determine the point on the parabola x = at*, y = 2at where the distance to
the line x — y+ 4a =0 is least and find the least distance.
14 Find the values of t at the points of intersection of the line 2x — y—4=0
with the parabola x = t?, y = 2t and give the coordinates of these points.
15 Find the points of intersection of the parabola x = t?, y = 2t with the circle
x? + y?-9x+4=0.
 Further topics in coordinate geometry
431
Example 14. Find the equation of the tangent to the rectangular hyperbola
xy =c* at the point P(ct, c/t), and show that, ifthis tangent meets the axes at Q
and R, then P is the mid-point of QR.

The gradient of the curve is given by

svat
doe
[a
dais
Buty —e7t,

upGptoenGi
dt i?
and) oo —= Cr.

ead.
aig

pe tae Ral 1
box c i
Therefore the equation of the tangent at P is
yt? + x = 2ct
This tangent meets the axes at Q(2ct, 0) and R(0, 2c/t) therefore P(ct, c/t) is the
mid-point of QR.

Example 15 Find the coordinates of the points where the line 4x — Sy + 6a =0

cuts the curve given parametrically by (at?, 2at).
If the line 4x —5y +6a=0 meets the curve at the point (at?, 2at), then its
coordinates must satisfy the equation of the line. Therefore
4at? — 10at
+ 6a =0
Bota 5p 4 sr 0)
a (eae= 0
ae bho Of ort
Therefore the coordinates of the points of intersection are (ja, 3a) and (a, 2a).

Exercise 22e
1 Find the equations of the tangents and normals to the following curves at the
given points:
(a) x=17, y=t°, (1, — 1); (b) x=t?,y= I1/t, (4, 2);
(c) x =at?, y =2at, (a, — 2a); (d) x =ct, y=c/t, (—c, —c);
(ec) x=t?—4, y=t?—4t, (—3, —3); (f) x=3cos 0, y=2sin 8, (3,./3).
2 Find the equations of the tangents and normals to the following curves at the
point whose parameter is ¢:
(dorset? yewdtt (b)anisval?; p= 2at;
(Chae = 403,-y= 34; (dix =<ctpy= c/t;
(e) x=acost, y=bsint; (f) x=asect,
y=b tant.
432 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 22e

Find the equations of the chords joining the points whose parameters are p
and q on the following curves. Deduce the equations of the tangents at the
points p by finding the limiting equations of the chords as q approaches p.
(aye Sr? ep = 26 (b) x =1/t, y=t?;
(Cc) = et, y= ot; (dj'x=% cos f,y = b'sint.
[Hint: cancel a factor of p—q in the gradients.]
Find the equation of the normal to the parabola x = at”, y = 2at at the point
(4a, 4a). Find also the coordinates of the point where the normal meets the
curve again.
Find the coordinates of the point where the normal to the rectangular
hyperbola x =ct, y=c/t at (2c, $c) meets the curve again.
Find the coordinates of the point where the tangent to the curve x = 1/t,
y=t? at (1, 1) meets the curve again.
Find the equation of the tangent to the parabola y* =4ax at the point
(at?, 2at). For what values of t does the tangent pass through the point
(8a, 6a)? Write down the equations of the tangents to the parabola from
(8a, 6a).
Find the equations of the tangents to the hyperbola x = ct, y= c/t from the
point (3c, $c).
Find the equations of the normals to the parabola x = at*, y = 2at from the
point (14a, — 16a).
The normal to the hyperbola x = ct, y =c/t at the point P with parameter p
meets the curve again at Q. Find the coordinates of Q.
Show that, if atangent to the curve x = 1/t, y = t? meets the axes in A and B,
then PB = 2AP.
Show that the tangent at the point t on the astroid x = a cos? t, y=asin° tis
the line y cos t+ x sin t=a sin t cos t. Show that the tangent meets the axes
in points whose distance apart is a.

The parabola
22.6 As no new method is required, work on the parabola is given in the form
of exercises. It is intended that any result proved may be used in later questions.

Definition

The locus of a point equidistant from a given point and a given line is called a
parabola. The given point is the focus and the given line the directrix.

Exercise 22f
1 Use compasses and graph paper to plot a parabola from the definition.
2 Given a parabola, take axes with the x-axis through the focus, perpendicular
to the directrix, and the origin where the x-axis meets the curve. Let the focus
be (a, 0) and show that the equation of the parabola is y? = 4ax. [It follows
from the definition that the equation of the directrix is x = —a.]
 Further topics in coordinate geometry 433
3 Verify that the point (at?, 2at) lies on the parabola y? = 4ax for all values
of 3
and that every point on the parabola is given thus.
4 Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the parabola y? = 4ax at the
point (at*, 2at).

In Fig. 22.11, the tangent and normal at the point P on the parabola y? = 4ax
meet the x-axis at T and G, and the y-axis at T’ and G’. PN is parallel to
the
y-axis. S is the focus. LD is the directrix and L is the foot of the perpendicular
from P to the directrix.

Figure 22.11

5 Show that ST’ = T’L and deduce that

(a) LLPT’ = LSPT’ [use the definition of the curve],
(b) LSPG = LKPG.
[This proves the optical property of the parabola, 1.e. that light from a point
source at the focus is reflected in rays parallel to the axis.]
6 Show that L, T’, S are collinear (i.e. lie on a straight line), and that LS is
perpendicular to PT.
7 Show that TS =SP =SG.
8 Show that LPST is a rhombus and that LPGS is a parallelogram.
9 Show that NG = 2a.
10 If the parameters of the points P and Q are p and q, show that the tangents to
the parabola meet at the point (apq, ap + aq).
11 If PQ passes through the focus prove that, with the notation of No. 10,
pq= —1.
434 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 22f

12 Show that the tangents at the ends of a focal chord meet on the directrix.
13 Show that if the tangents at the ends of a focal chord meet the tangent at the
vertex at U and V, then LUSV is a right angle.
14 Show that the locus of the mid-point of a focal chord is y? = 2a(x — a).
15 Show that if the tangents to the parabola at P and Q meet on the line x = ah,
then the locus of the mid-point of the chord PQ is y? = 2a(x + ah).
16 Ifthe tangents to the parabola at P and Q intersect on the line y = k, find the
locus of the mid-point of PQ.
17 Find the values of t for which the normal at (at, 2at) passes through the
point (5a, 2a). Hence find the equations of the normals to the parabola from
(Sa, 2a).
18 Find the equations of the tangents to the parabola from the point (4a, 5a).

Exercise 22g (Miscellaneous)

1 Show that the ellipse 4x? + 9y? = 36 and the hyperbola 2x? — 3y? = 6 are
orthogonal.
2 Sketch the curve whose polar equation is r=acos 30.
3 Sketch the curve whose polar equation is r=a(1+sin@) and from this
obtain a sketch of the curve r(1 + sin 0) =a.
4 Find the polar equation of a parabola, taking the focus as the origin and the
axis as the initial line.
Nn Calculate the area of the triangle A(2, 5), B(3, — 1), C(4, 6).
6 Find the polar equation of (x* + y* + ax)? = a?(x? + y*) and the Cartesian
equation of r(1 + sin #) =a.
7 Express the equation 7x — 24y — 10 = 0 in perpendicular form and state the
distance of the line from the origin.
8 Find the equations of the bisectors of the angles between
(a) 6x —7y+11=0,
2x + 9y—3 =0; (b) 7x -y=3,x+y=2.
9 Find the locus of a point which moves so that its distance from the line
y+x—2=0 is equal to its distance from the point (— 1, — 1).
10 Find the equations of the tangents to the circle

x? + y*— 12x — 14y + 75=0

which are parallel to the line 3y — x =0.
11 A straight line through the point (1, 1) and the variable point P(t, 1/t) meets
the y-axis at Q. Find the locus of the mid-point of PQ.
12 The chord PQ of the hyperbola x = ct, y=c/t meets the axes at A and B.
Show that the mid-point of PQ is also the mid-point of AB.
13 Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the curve x =f? — t?,
y=t?—1 at the point (4, 3).
14 Find the equation of the tangent at P(t?, 1/t) to the curve xy? =1. If the
tangent meets the x-axis at Q, find the locus of the mid-point of PQ.
15 The tangent at P(t’, 1/t) to the curve xy? = 1 meets the y-axis at A, the x-axis
at B and the curve again at Q. Show that AP:PBIBQ = 1:2:1;
 Further topics in coordinate geometry 435
16 Find the equations of the tangents to the parabola x = at?, y = 2at from the
point (Sa, 6a).
17 Find the coordinates of the point where the normal to the parabola x = at?,
y =2at at (9a, 6a) meets the curve again.
18 Show that if the tangent at P(t, t°) to the curve y = x° meets the curve again
at Q, then the y-axis divides PQ in the ratio 1:2.
19 A tangent to the rectangular hyperbola x = ct, y=c/t meets the axes at A
and B. Show that the area of triangle AOB is constant.
20 Show that if the tangent to a parabola at P meets the axis at T, and N is the
foot of the perpendicular from P to the axis, then TN is bisected by the
vertex.
Chapter 23

Variation and experimental laws

Variation
23.1 ‘Variation’ in its mathematical sense is concerned with certain ways in
which one variable depends on one or more others. The idea is bound up with
ratio and proportion which the reader will have met in elementary arithmetic.
Some readers may need to revise these ideas and to appreciate their power for
the first time.
Proportion arises in arithmetic in a number of ways. For instance the
circumference C of a circle is proportional to its radius r: this is usually
expressed in the form of an equation,
GH nr

Sometimes a graph shows us that two variables are in proportion; for example
Fig. 23.1 shows the ‘travel graph’ of a car moving at a steady speed of 50 km/h
along a road. Note that: (1) the gradient of the graph is uniform, (2) the straight
line passes through the origin.
Yet another aspect of proportion, and indeed the most basic, is used in
arithmetic when we use ratios.
To summarise, if y is proportional to x, then
(a) y=kx, where k is some constant,
(b) the graph of y against x is a straight line through the origin,
(c) if x,;, y; and x3, y, are corresponding values of x and y, then

Ye MH
Be wads)

Note that any one of these statements follows from either of the others. The
equivalence of (a) and (b) is familiar from the work of Chapter 1. The equivalence
of (b) and (c) can be seen by writing (c) in the form

Ya
_Ya
X, Xz
which shows that (x,, y;) and (x3, y2) lie on the same straight line through the
origin.

436
 Variation and experimental laws 437

125

100

75

distance
in
km
50

Ayes sa
Y 1 1% 2 212
time in hours

Figure 23.1

In the last paragraph we used the phrase,

‘y 1s proportional to x
Sometimes another phrase with exactly the same meaning is used instead,
namely,
‘y varies as x’
Other examples of variation will already be familiar to the reader. For instance,
the area A of a circle is given in terms of its radius r by the equation
A= Tr
Here A is not proportional to r, but it is proportional to r? and we express this
by saying that ‘A varies as the square of 7’.
Another example is the volume V of a sphere in terms of its radius r. The
equation connecting V, r is

Again, V is not proportional to r, but it is proportional to r> and we express this

by saying that ‘V varies as the cube of r’.
Kinematics provides another example. If a distance of 60 km is travelled at a
constant speed u km/h, the time t h is given by the equation

t = 60/u
We may say that t and ware inversely proportional, or we may express this by
saying ‘t varies inversely as wu’.
The ‘inverse square law’ may be familiar to the reader: one example of this is
 Pure Mathematics 1 IBY AI
438

the force F exerted by the Earth ona given satellite at distance r from the centre
of the Earth. The equation connecting F and r is
k :
Fa (where k is a constant)
r

This may also be expressed by saying that ‘F varies inversely as the square of r’.
Qu.1 Express the following equations as statements involving the word
‘varies’:
10
(a) s= 16t?, (b) V=nr°, ()y=—-

(d) T eeTt
a jaV (e) p =e200V? iT
(f) ee
Suppose that a number of spheres are made out of wood of uniform density.
Then, unless we know the density of the wood, we cannot calculate the weight W
of one of these spheres from its diameter d. We can, however, say that

W varies on the cube of d

or write

W =kd? (where k is a constant)

Further, if W,,d, and W,, d, are the weights and diameters of two of the spheres,
W, — kd,?

W, = kd?

so that, by division,

Wreedie
W, d,°
Now, if we know the weight and radius of one of the spheres, this last equation
provides us with a very convenient way of calculating the weight of any other
when its diameter is known.

Example 1 A number of spheres are made out of wood of uniform density. A

sphere with diameter 7 cm weighs 0.11 kg. How much will a sphere of diameter
9 cm weigh?
As we have seen above, W varies as d°*. Hence if W,, d, and W,, d, are the
weights and diameters of the two spheres,

W, d,°

W, d,*
It is often helpful to tabulate the data and it is worth noting that the algebra of
the question is simplified if we place the quantity to be found in the line labelled
(1):
 Variation and experimental laws 439

weight (kg) diameter (cm)

(1) W, 9
(2) 0.11 7

Then substituting into the equation W,/W, = d,*/d,°,

W, 93
O11 7
93
W, =0.11 x Bp

= 0.23 to two significant figures

Therefore the sphere of diameter 9 cm weighs 0.23 kg, correct to 2 significant
figures.
[Example | illustrates the power of the method: an alternative way of tackling
this question would have been to find the density of the wood from the data
numbered (2) in the table.]
Qu.2 In Example 1, what is the effect on W of (a) doubling d, (b) trebling d?

We saw on page 438 (just above Example 1), that from the statement,
‘W varies as the cube of d’
could be deduced the equation

W, d,°
W, d,*
which connects corresponding values W,, d, and W,, d,. It is important for the
following work to be able to convert a statement to an equation quickly and
easily, so some more examples of this process follow.
If we are given that
‘y varies as the square of x’
this is simply another way of saying
‘y is proportional to x?’
From this it follows immediately (see page 436) that
(a) y=kx?, where k is some constant,
(b) the graph of y against x? is a straight line through the origin,
(c) if x,, y; and x>, y, are corresponding values of x and y, then

Ya
2

Bp ee)
On the other hand, if we are given that
‘y varies inversely as the square of x’
 1 oye |
440 Pure Mathematics

this is simply another way of saying

1
‘y is proportional to me

from which it follows immediately that

(a) y=k/x?, where k is some constant,
(b) the graph of y against 1/x? is a straight line through the origin,
(c) if x;, y, and x,, y are corresponding values of x and y, then

ae 1/5?
Yo fx,”
or, multiplying numerator and denominator of the right-hand side by
RymaE

ae
Von as

Note that, in this case of inverse variation, the x’s are upside down compared
with the y’s. ‘Inverse’ comes from the same root as ‘invert’, one meaning of which
is to ‘turn upside down’.

Qu. 3 Write down equations (i) with k’s, (ii) with suffixes, similar to those in the
last three paragraphs for the following statements:
(a) p varies as q,
(b) p varies inversely as v,
(c) v varies as the cube of x,
(d) u varies as the square root of 1,
(e) F varies as the square of c,
(f) H varies inversely as the square of d,
(g) T varies inversely as the square root of g,
(h) A varies as the nth power of s,
(i) the cube of A varies as the square of v.

Example 2 The length | of a simple pendulum varies as the square of the period T
(time to swing to and fro). A pendulum 0.994 m long has a period of approximately
2 s, find (a) the length of a pendulum whose period is 3 s, (b) an equation connecting
l and T.

(a) Tabulating the data:

length (m) period (s)

(1) l 3
(2) 0.994 2

I varies as T?.
 Variation and experimental laws 441
thal dy?
ic l, ui 7°

wat spate’
"0.994 2?

.. f=0:994 x 2
4
= 2.236
Therefore the length of a pendulum whose period is 3 s is 2.24 m.
(b) Tabulating the data again, we enter / and T in the row numbered (1):

length (m) period (s)

(1) l ‘i
(2) 0.994 2

Substituting in the same equation as before,

Oe
0.994 2?
-, b=0.2485T?
Therefore the equation connecting |, T is 1 = 0.25T”.

Qu.4 In Example 2, find the effect on / of (a) doubling T, (b) trebling T. What is
the effect on T of doubling /?
Qu.5_ Find the period of a pendulum whose length is 0.3 m from the data of
Example 2. Time ten swings to and fro of such a pendulum and compare this
with your answer.

Example 3 The weight w N* of an astronaut varies inversely as the square of his

distance d from the centre of the Earth. If an astronaut’s weight on Earth is 792 N,
what will his weight be at a height of 230 km above the Earth? Take the radius of
the Earth to be 6370 km.
We tabulate the data:

distance from the

centre of the Earth
weight (N) (km)
(1) w 6370 + 230 = 6600
(2) 792 6370

*The newton (N) is the absolute unit of force in SI units. The magnitude of | kg wt varies with the
value of g, since 1 kg wt gives to a mass of 1 kg an acceleration of g m/s”. In contrast, 1 N gives to the
same mass a fixed acceleration of 1 m/s”, by definition. Hence in a context of varying gravitational
pull we use this constant, or absolute, unit of force the newton. —
 Pure Mathematics I DEY
442

Now w varies inversely as d?, so if w,, d, and wp, d, are corresponding values,

Wi d,”
W2 a ihe

_ w _ 6370?
"792 66002
. ao 63702
pig Tt
S777
Therefore the astronaut’s weight would be 738 N.
To find the height above the Earth at which.his weight would be halved, we
again tabulate the data:

distance from the

centre of the Earth
weight (N) (km)

(1) 396 d
(2) 792 6370

Again using w,/w, =d,7/d,?, for the new w,, d,,

e267 fit
Dekel)
2, d? =2 x 6370?
2. d=,/2 x 6370
= 9010
Therefore the height above the Earth at which his weight would be halved is
9010 — 6370 km = 2640 km.

Qu.6 Find an equation in the form w=k/d? connecting the weight of the
astronaut in Example 3 and his distance from the centre of the Earth.
Qu.7 With the equation of Qu. 6, find the effect on w of (a) doubling d,
(b) trebling d.
Qu.8 Discuss whether the first of the following pairs of variables varies as
some power of the second and, if so, state what power:
(a) the cost c of 100 copies of a book and the price p of one,
(b) the cost C of a square of plywood and its side a,
(c) the weight w of a spherical lead shot and its radius r,
(d) the length / of a rectangle of given area and its breadth b,
(e) the surface area S of a scale model and its length 1,
(f) the area A of an equilateral triangle and its side a,
 Variation and experimental laws 443
(g) the side a of an equilateral triangle and its area A,
(h) the volume V of a regular tetrahedron and its side a,
(i) the side a of a regular tetrahedron and its volume V.

Exercise 23a
1 The area of a circular sector containing a given angle varies as the square of
the radius of the circle. If the area of the sector is 2 cm? when the radius is
1.6 cm, find the area of the sector containing the same angle when the radius
of the circle is 2.7 cm.
The distance of the horizon d km varies as the square root of the height h m
of the observer above sea level. An observer at a height of 100 m above sea
level sees the horizon at a distance of 35.7 km. Find the distance of the
horizon from an observer 70 m above sea level.
Also find an equation connecting d and h.
The length / cm ofa simple pendulum varies as the square of its period T's. A
pendulum with period 2s is 99.4cm long; find the length of a pendulum
whose period is 2.5 s.
What equation connects / and T?
Assuming that the length of paper in a roll of given dimensions varies
inversely as the thickness of the paper, find the increase in length when the
thickness of paper in a 100 m roll is decreased from 0.25 mm to 0.20 mm.
A certain type of hollow plastic sphere is designed in such a way that the
mass varies as the square of the diameter. Three spheres of this type are
made: one has mass 0.10 kg and diameter 9 cm; a second has diameter 14 cm;
and a third has mass 0.15 kg. Find the mass of the second, the diameter of the
third, and an equation connecting the mass m kg and the diameter d cm of
spheres of this type.
The circumference C inches of a circle of radius r inches is given by the
formula C = 2nr; if C,, r, and C,, r, are corresponding values of C, r,

Gon (1)

(a) What formula gives the circumference C cm of a circle of radius rm?

Does equation (1) still hold?
(b) Given that 1 inch = 2.54 cm, what equation gives the circumference C cm
of a circle of radius r inches? Does equation (1) still hold?
Boyle’s law states that, under certain conditions, the pressure exerted by a
given mass of gas is inversely proportional to the volume occupied by it. The
gas inside a cylinder is compressed by a piston in such a way that Boyle’s law
may legitimately be applied. When this happens, the volume is decreased
from 200 cm? to 70 cm?. If the original pressure of the gas is 9.8 x 10* N/m’,
find the final pressure of the gas.
8 The number of square carpet tiles needed to surface the floor of a hall varies
inversely as the square of the length of a side of the tile used. If 2016 tiles of
 1 Ex 23a
444 Pure Mathematics

side 0.4 m would be needed to surface the floor of a certain hall, how many
tiles of side 0.3 m would be required?
If the volume of amodel 10 cm long is 72 cm?, what is the volume of a similar
model 6cm long? What is the length of a similar model with volume
100 cm??
10 The maximum speed of yachts of normal dimensions varies as the square
root of their length. If a yacht of 20m can maintain a maximum speed of
12k, find the maximum speed of a yacht 15m long. Obtain an equation
connecting a yacht’s maximum speed v k and its length / m.
11 For similar printing type, the number of characters on a given size of page
varies inversely as the square of the height of the type. On a certain page
2200 characters of height 6 mm could be printed. How many characters of
similar type of height 5mm could be printed on the page? When 7000
characters have to be printed on the page with similar type, what height
would the type be if the height is a multiple of 0.1 mm?
12 (a) Ifyvaries as x? and x varies as t*, does y vary as any power of t? [Hint:
write the statements y varies as x°, x varies as t? as equations with
constants k, K.]
(b) p varies inversely as gq; q varies as the square of r. Does p vary as any
power of r?
13 When I drive round a certain corner at 18 km/h, the sideways frictional force
between the tyres of my car and the road is 1050 N. The sideways frictional
force F N varies as the square of the speed v km/h. Find an equation
connecting F, v and use it to find
(a) the total sideways frictional force at 27 km/h,
(b) the speed at which the sideways frictional force is equal to 6170 N which
is half the weight of the loaded car.
14 Assuming that the power H kW developed by a certain car travelling on a
level road varies as the cube of the speed v km/h, find an equation connecting
H, v for this car, given that it develops 50 kW at 65 km/h. Find the power
developed by it at 30 km/h along a level road.
15 The speed of a certain point on a high-speed centrifuge varies as the angular
velocity of the centrifuge, and the acceleration of this point varies as the
square of the angular velocity. Find the percentage changes in the speed and
acceleration of the point when the angular velocity is increased from 56 000
rev/min to 60 000 rev/min.
16 The cube of the surface area of a regular icosahedron varies as the square of
its volume. By what factor will the surface area of a regular icosahedron be
increased if its volume is doubled?
17 The period T's of a given pendulum varies inversely as the square root of the
acceleration due to gravity g m/s” at the location of the pendulum. Find the
percentage change in the period of a pendulum moved from Greenwich,
where g = 9.812 m/s”, to New York where g = 9.802 m/s*. [Hint: use the first
two terms of the expansion of (1 + x)!/?.]
18 The volume and areas of similar solids vary respectively as the cubes and
squares of their linear dimensions. Some similar solids are placed in an
 Variation and experimental laws 445
upward current of air. Assuming that the upthrust ofthe air current varies as
the surface area of the solid and that the weight of the solid varies as its
volume, show that some of the solids will rise if their linear dimensions are
small enough.
19 The square of the period (time to go round its orbit) of an Earth satellite
varies as the cube of its mean distance from the centre of the Earth. The
period of the Moon is 28 days and its mean distance from the centre of the
Earth is 380 000 km. Find the period, to the nearest minute, of an Earth
satellite whose mean distance from the surface of the Earth is 470 km, given
that the radius of the Earth is 6370 km.
Also find an equation giving the period of an Earth satellite T hours in
terms of its mean distance d km from the centre of the Earth.
20 Like and unlike poles of two bar magnets repel and attract each other
respectively with a force which varies inversely as the square of the distance
between the poles. The poles of each of two bar magnets are at a distance 2d
apart. The magnets are placed in line with two unlike poles of the magnets at
a distance d apart. They are then placed in line with two unlike poles at a
distance 2d apart. By what factor is the attractive force between the magnets
decreased?

Joint variation
23.2 So far we have only considered examples of variation where one variable,
say y, varies as some power of another variable, say x. But there are many
examples in science, engineering and everyday life when one variable depends on
two or more others. For example, the volume V of a right circular cylinder is
given in terms of its radius r and height h by the formula

V=nr7h

If we consider a metal rod of uniform circular cross-section which can be cut

into lengths, we have a case of this law in which the radius is constant and so

the volume varies as the length

or, using the symbol ‘oc’ as an abbreviation for ‘varies as’,

Voch

On the other hand, if circular discs are cut out of sheet metal or plywood, h will
be constant and so
the volume varies as the square of the radius

or Voor
~ To summarise, for a right circular cylinder,
if ris constant, Voch
if his constant, Vocr?
 1 232
446 Pure Mathematics
it 1s
In experimental work, if one variable depends on two or more others,
most convenient to see how the first depends on each of the others in turn while
the remainder are held constant. As an illustration of this, consider the discharge
of water through a circular hole. The volume of water V will depend in some way
on
(a) the radius r of the hole,
(b) the velocity v of the water,
(c) the time t over which the discharge takes place.
It is found that
(1) if v, t are constant, Vocr’,
(2) if t, r are constant, Vv,
(3) if r, v are constant, V oct.
It will be seen that the equation
V=kr’vt — (k constant)
satisfies the conditions (1), (2), (3) and hence it is natural to write
V or*ot
Qu.9 Express the statement ‘If z is constant, y varies as x; if x is constant, y
varies as the cube of z’, as a single equation.
Qu. 10 Write the statement, ‘If h, t are constant, W varies as the square of r; ifr,
t are constant, W varies as h; if r, h are constant, W varies inversely as t’, as a
single statement using the sign ‘oc’.
When one variable varies as two or more others, the word jointly is sometimes
used. For example, with the data of the last paragraph, we might say that V
varies jointly as v, t and the square of r.
Qu. 11 ‘The kinetic energy T of a flywheel varies jointly as its mass m and as
the square of its radius r.. Express this statement (a) as an equation with a
constant k, (b) as a statement using the sign ‘oc’.
Qu. 12 ‘F varies jointly as m and the square of v, and inversely as r.’ Express
this statement as an equation.

For purposes of calculation, we can rewrite statements in the form

x :
A= ey (where k is some constant)

in terms of the ratios of corresponding values A,,x,,t; and A5,x>,t, of the

variables. We have
x
A,= eA
ty
x, 3
A, =k—-
ty

Ape! ee
 Variation and experimental laws 447
Multiplying numerator and denominator by t,t»,

A, nine
Mowe bo RPiti

Note that A varies inversely as t, and that the ratio t,/t, is ‘upside down’.

Qu.13 If x,, y,, z; and x, yj, z, are corresponding values of x, y, z, write

down equations connecting x,, y;,Z, and x5, y), Zz, when
(a) z varies jointly as x and the square of y,
(b) z varies as y and inversely as the square of x,
(c) z varies as the cube of x and as the square of y,
(d) z varies as x when y is constant and z varies as y when x is constant,
(e) z varies as the square of x when y is constant and z varies as the square of y
when x is constant,
(f) z varies as the square root of x when y is constant and inversely as y when x
is constant.

Example 4 The total sideways force experienced by a given car rounding a

circular bend at a constant speed varies as the square of the speed of the car and
inversely as the radius of the circle. A certain car goes round a bend of radius 50 m
at 72 km/h and experiences a total sideways force of 12 kN. What sideways force
will it experience on going round a bend of radius 30 m at 54 km/h?

Let the sideways force be F kN, the speed be v km/h, and the radius r m, then
p2
Fa *

Therefore, if F,, v,, r; and F,, vj, r, are corresponding values of F, v, r,

2 2
Rynoe [re 14°72
a PonsTes tie tie, 2
Fy 0,°/f, 02°15

F (kN) v(km/h) —r(m)

(1) F 54 30
(2) 12 72 50
gph 5428-50
Wier722 «30
LAO S
AP 3

Paylin i235
4

Therefore the sideways force on the car will be approximately 11 KN.

448 Pure Mathematics 1 233

Variation in parts*
23.3. As an example of variation in parts, consider the cost of having a floor
covered with lino tiles. First of all, a man and some materials have to be
transported to the site. Here the cost of the man’s time and the cost of the
running of a van may be taken to vary as the distance s km from the firm’s
premises and so we may write this part of the cost as £ks, where k is some
constant to be found. Second, there is the cost of materials and the man’s time
doing the job, which may be taken to vary as the area A m7 of the floor, and so
this part of the cost may be written £KA, where K is another constant to be
determined. Hence, if the total cost is £C,
C=ks+KA
Let us suppose that the cost of two contracts is as given in the following table.
How much would it cost to lay 40 m? of lino tiles at a distance of 75 km from the
firm’s premises?

cost distance area

£C skm Am?
C 75 40
265 45 50
155 60 D7,

Substituting from the bottom two lines of the table into

C=ks+ KA
we get
265 = 45k + SOK (1)
155 = 60k + 27K (2)
A x (1) —3 x (2):
1060 — 465 = (200 — 81)K
eeile
5
lo
From (2),

155 = 60k + 135

/. 20 = 60k,
“ak=4
Substituting K =5, k =4,
C=45+5A

cae aes is advised to delay reading this section until he has worked at least some of Exercise 23b
os. 1-12.
 Variation and experimental laws 449
When s=75, A = 40,

C=5xI54-5x
40— 295

Therefore the cost of laying 40 m? of lino tiles at a distance of 75 km would be

BP ks

Qu.14 The cost £C of manufacturing a certain number of wooden cubes for

children is made up of two parts, one of which is constant and the other of which
varies as the cube of the side x cm of a brick.
(a) Express the above statement in symbols.
(b) Find the cost of making 1000 14 cm cubes if the same number of 2 cm and
1 cm cubes cost respectively £18 and £11.

Exercise 23b
1 The area of a sector of a circle varies jointly as the angle at the centre and the
square of the radius. Given that the area of a sector containing an angle of
36° in a circle of radius 10 cm is 31.4 cm”, find the area ofa sector containing
an angle of 72° in a circle of radius 5 cm.
2 The number of revolutions per minute of a bicycle wheel varies as the speed
of the bicycle and inversely as the diameter of the wheel. A wheel of diameter
63 cm makes 151.5 revolutions per minute when the bicycle is moving at
18 km/h. Another bicycle has wheels of 35 cm diameter; how many revol-
utions per minute will one of its wheels make when the bicycle is moving at
30 km/h?
3 The flow of water through a circular orifice varies as the square of the
diameter of the orifice and as the square root of the head of water. Given that
200 litres of water per second flow through an orifice of diameter 25 mm
when the head of water is 4 m, find the flow of water through an orifice of
diameter 10 mm when the head of water is 9 m.
4 The kinetic energy of a car (including passengers) varies jointly as the total
mass and the square of the speed. A car of total mass 1000 kg travelling at
72 km/h has a kinetic energy of 200 kJ. What is the kinetic energy of a car of
total mass 1500 kg travelling at 108 km/h?
5 The volume of a given mass of gas varies directly as its absolute temperature
and inversely as its pressure. At an absolute temperature of 283 K and a
pressure of 73cm of mercury, a certain mass of gas has volume 200 cm?.
What will its volume be at standard temperature and pressure, i.e. absolute
temperature 273 K and pressure 76 cm of mercury? Also find an equation
which expresses the volume V cm* of the gas in terms of its absolute
temperature T K and its pressure p cm of mercury.
6 The rate at which an electric fire gives out heat varies as the square of the
voltage and inversely as the resistance. If a fire with resistance 57.6 ohms
gives out approximately 1 kW when the voltage is 240, at what rate will heat
be given out by an electric fire with resistance 69 ohms when the voltage is
 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 23b
450

220? Also find an expression which gives (approximately) the output in kW

of an electric fire of resistance R ohms when the voltage is V.
7 The frequency of the note emitted by a plucked wire of a certain type varies
as the square root of the tension ofthe wire and inversely as its length. A wire
of length 0.61 m under a tension of 31 N emits a note of frequency 130.54
What will be the frequency of the note emitted by a similar wire of length
0.25 m under a tension of 100 N? Find an equation which gives the number of
oscillations per second f in terms of the length / m and the tension F N.
8 When a note is produced by blowing across the top of a bottle with a circular
mouth, the frequency ofthe note varies as the internal diameter of the mouth
and inversely as the square root of the volume ofthe bottle. Blowing across a
certain bottle, I obtain a note whose frequency is approximately 203s °.
What is the frequency of the note I should obtain by blowing across the top
of a bottle with four times the capacity, and with three-quarters the mouth
diameter of the first?
9 The period of a simple pendulum varies as the square root of its length and
inversely as the square root of the acceleration due to gravity. On the Earth,
the period of a pendulum 99.4 cm long is 2 s. Assuming that the acceleration
due to gravity on the surface of the Moon is one-sixth of that on the Earth,
what would be the period of a pendulum | m long on the Moon?
10 The effectiveness of a spin drier is measured by the central acceleration at a
point on the internal surface of the rotating drum. This acceleration varies as
the internal diameter of the drum and as the square of its angular speed.
Which would be the more effective: a spin drier with internal diameter 0.5 m
running at an angular speed of 1600 rev/min, or one with internal diameter
0.3 m running at 2000 rev/min?
11 The rate at which heat is conducted through a metal plate varies jointly as
the area of the plate and the temperature difference between the two sides,
and inversely as the thickness of the metal. For quick heating of the contents,
which saucepan would be better; one with a diameter 15 cm and thickness
2mm, or another with diameter 20 cm and thickness 3 mm?
12 The light received at a point varies as the power of the source and inversely
as the square of its distance from the point. Assuming that each bulb
converts an equal proportion of its power into light, which gives better
illumination: a 60 W bulb at 145 m, or a 100 W bulb at 2 m?

13 The annual cost of running a certain car is made up of two parts, one of
which is fixed and the other of which varies as the distance run by the car in
the year. In one year the car ran 6000 km at a total cost of £900; in the next
year it ran 7200 km at a total cost of £950. How much would it cost to run
the car in a year during which it ran 12000 km? To what extent is the
assumption about the cost justified?
14 The cost of printing a circular on octavo paper is partly fixed and partly
varies as the number of copies printed. If 100 and 500 copies cost £8.25 and
£14.25 respectively, how much will 200 copies cost? Find an equation which
gives the cost £C of n copies.
 Variation and experimental laws 451
15 When a body is being uniformly accelerated, the distance travelled is the sum
of two narts: one part varies as the time, the other varies as the square of the
time. The distances travelled by a body in 2s and 3s from its original
position are respectively 32m and 57m. How far will it travel from its
original position in 4s? Find an equation which gives the distance sm in
terms of the time ts from its original position.
16 In good road conditions, the driver of a car moving at 30 km/h can stop the
car in 11.4 m, and if the car is moving at 60 km/h it can be stopped in 33.6 m.
This stopping distance is made up of two parts, one of which varies as the
speed of the car, and the other of which varies as the square of the speed. In
what distance can the driver stop the car if it is moving at 80 km/h? Find an
equation which gives the stopping distance s m in terms ofthe speed v km/h.
If the car can just be stopped in 25 m, how fast is it moving?
17 Basic slag is advertised in 5 kg packs at £1.25, 10 kg packs at £2.25 and 20 kg
packs at £4.25. It is suggested that the cost £C of these packs is partly
constant and partly varies as the mass m kg of basic slag. If this is so, what is
the equation which gives C in terms of m?
18 The price of a ticket to a dance is made up of two parts, one of which is fixed
and the other of which varies inversely as the number of people expected at
the dance. For a certain dance, it is found that the price of a ticket would
need to be £3 if 100 people were to attend, but if 150 people attended the
price of a ticket would need to be £2.50 in order to cover the cost. What
would be the price of a ticket in order to cover the cost if only 75 people
attended? If the price of a ticket was fixed at £2.70, how many people would
have to buy tickets for the cost to be covered?
19 When a certain volume of wax is cast into a square prism, the surface area of
the prism may be expressed as the sum of two parts, one of which varies as
the square of the side of the cross-section and the other of which varies
inversely as the side of the cross-section. If the side of the cross-section is
2 cm, the surface area of the prism is 28 cm’. When the side of the cross-
section is 1 cm, the surface area of the prism is 42 cm*. What will be the
surface area of the prism when the side of the cross-section is 24 cm?
Also find a formula which gives the surface area S cm? of the prism in
terms of the side x cm of the cross-section.
20 The volume ofa cap of height h cut off from a sphere of radius r (by a plane at
distance r —h from the centre) is the sum of two parts, one of which varies
as the square of h and the other of which varies as the cube of h. Use
the formulae for the volumes of a hemisphere and a sphere (i.e. the volume
of the cap when h =r and when h = 2r) to find a formula for the volume V of
the cap in terms of h, r.

Graphical determination of laws

234 nA simple experiment is performed to investigate the relationship between
the tension in an elastic band and its extension, by fixing the upper end and
suspending bodies of different masses in turn from the lower end. The tension
 23.4
452 Pure Mathematics 1
the
(y N) in the band (given by the weight of each body) is tabulated against
corresponding extensio n (x cm) measure d to the nearest mm.

(=) — i) eS) _ N fo
<<

N
in
tension

extension in cm

Figure 23.2

When these results are illustrated graphically (see Fig. 23.2) we see that it is
possible to draw a straight line about which the points are closely scattered; such
a line is then drawn, and we make it pass through the origin since we know that
y =0 when x = 0.
A straight line through the origin of gradient m has the equation

y=mx

and, allowing for experimental error and the limited accuracy in measuring x, we
may reasonably deduce this to be the relationship between the x and y of our
experiment. Referring to the straight line drawn, when x=4, yx 4.6, and its
gradient m~4.6/4=1.2 correct to 2 significant figures.
So by this experiment we have determined that the law connecting the tension
in the given band (y N) and its extension (x cm) is

ye tx

Qu. 15 A trolley accelerates down a slope from rest to v km/h in ts as shown

by the following table. Determine graphically the law giving v in terms of t.
 Variation and experimental laws 453

v 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
t 0 Pie) 4.7 7.1 OF. i 14.5

Example 5 The following estimate is received for printing copies of a pamphlet.

No. of copies 50 100 200 500

Cost in £ 11.50 12.50 14.50 20.50

(a) Obtain a law giving the cost, £y, of x copies.

(b) Estimate the cost of 350 copies.

4
Fe
aerahet

coo 100 200 300 400 500. x

| number of copies

Figure 23.3

(a) Fig. 23.3 shows a straight-line graph, so we assume that the printer has used
a linear law connecting x and y to make his estimate, i.e. there is an equation
connecting the variables of the form

y=mx+c

Now c is the intercept on the y-axis (see §1.7) and so we can refer to the graph
to find that c = 10.5, and (from the triangle ABC) that the gradient

20.50—-14.50 of A6 ey
eee ee
™=~500—200 300
Therefore the law 1s

y =0.02x + 10.5

(b) When x = 350,

454 Pure Mathematics 1 234

y = 0.02 x 350 + 10.5

=7.0+ 10,5
=i)
Therefore the cost of 350 copies is £17.50.

Qu.16 From the solution of Example 5 (a), when x=0, y=10.5. What
interpretation may be given to this result?
Note that in Fig. 23.3 we have included the origin of the coordinates (that is
to say each axis is calibrated from zero) and thus we were able to utilize the
y-intercept to find c. This advantage must often be sacrificed in favour of the
increased accuracy obtainable by using a larger scale; Example 6 demonstrates
how the equation of a straight line is determined in these circumstances.

Example 6 Find the equation of the line y= mx +c in Fig. 23.4.

Figure 23.4

The gradient m is found from the triangle PQR (chosen so that the length of
PQ is a whole number of units).
32
m 5 6.4.

Substituting in y=mx +c,

y=64x+¢
To find c, substitute the coordinates of a convenient point on the line e.g. when
x=10, y=78.
 Variation and experimental laws 455
ye 8=—64< 10226
ee —14

Therefore the required equation is y=6.4x+ 14.

Qu.17_ Find as accurately as possible the equations of the lines (a), (b), (c) in
Fig. 23.4. (Note that two of these lines have negative gradients.)
Qu. 18 The upper end of a coiled spring was fixed and bodies were hung in
turn from the lower end. The mass of the bodies (y g) and the corresponding
lengths of the spring (x cm) were recorded as follows:

% 8.4 9.5 10.1 11.0 11.7 12.6 13:5 14.3

y 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Find a law giving y in terms of x over this range, and estimate the unstretched
length of the spring.

Linear check of non-linear laws

23.5 As we saw in §23.1, a non-linear law connecting two variables may often
be considered in such a way that it involves a linear relationship. For example, if
we suspect that two variables x and y are inversely proportional, we wish to
show that xy =k, where k is a constant, i.e. y=k x 1/x; this may be done by
plotting y against 1/x and seeing if the points lie close to a straight line through
the origin.
To take another example, let us suppose that the designer of a car windscreen
wishes to find out if the air resistance (R N) is proportional to the square, or the
cube, of the velocity (v km/h); he carries out an experiment which yields the
following results:

The reader may check from a rough sketch that the graph of v against R does no
more than indicate that R might vary as some power of v, which is of no real
assistance. This problem is dealt with in the following question.

Qu. 19 With the data of the preceding paragraph, plot the following graphs,
letting 1 cm represent 5 N:
(a) R against v? (on the v?-axis let 1 cm represent 200),
(b) R against v? (on the v*-axis let 1 cm represent 10 000).
Deduce an approximate relationship giving R in terms of v.
Qu. 20 A marble was allowed to run down a sloping sheet of glass and the time
(t s) taken to roll s m from rest was measured by a stop watch. The results were
456 Pure Mathematics 1 23.5

as follows:

S I 2 3 4 5
t 1.4 ps 265 Pa 32

Confirm that the law relating s and t¢ is s = kt*, and determine the value of the
constant k to two significant figures.

Reduction of a law to linear form using logarithms*

23.6 The method of Qu. 19 is severely limited, since we assume a relationship
R =kv", then we guess some integral value of n and test for it. It would be better
to employ a method which tests for any rational value of n, and this is possible if
we use logarithms. (At this point it may help some readers to refer back to Qu. 5
and Qu. 6 on p. 180)
Suppose that we wish to test the law
R=kv" (1)

where k and n are constants. If it is valid,

logio R = 10g
49 (kv")
log,9 R=log,,9 vu" + log, 9k
log,9 R=nlog,) v+log,,k (2)
Writing log,) R as y, log,) v as x and log,, k as c, (2) becomes
y=nx+c

which represents a straight line of gradient n.

Thus if we plot log;, R against log,) v and we obtain a set of nearly collinear
points, this means that we have established the linear relationship (2) and
confirmed the law (1); we then draw the ‘best’ straight line. Its gradient
determines the value of the constant n, and the constant k is found from the
y-intercept c, or by the method of Example 6.

Qu. 21 From the data of Qu. 19 the following table has been prepared:

x =1ogi0.v 1.30 1.48 1.60 1.70

y=logioR 0.60 $16 1.52 1.78

Using a scale of 0.1 to 1cm, plot log, )R against log, v and deduce that
R=0.0005v? (see Example 6, p. 454).
When a given mass of gas is compressed or allowed to expand slowly, so that
there is time for the transfer of heat between the gas and its surroundings, its
temperature remaining constant, the pressure (p) and the volume (V) are said to

*The reader should work some of Nos. 1 to 12 in Exercise 23c before proceeding with this section.
 Variation and experimental laws 457
undergo an isothermal change and obey Boyle’s law pV =k, a constant. If
however the compression or expansion takes place suddenly, and there is no
appreciable exchange of heat between the gas and its surroundings, then there is
a change in the temperature of the gas, and the pressure and volume undergo an
adiabatic change which does not conform to Boyle’s law.
Boyle’s law may be written p = kV !; the experimental data from an adiabatic
change suggest that in this case we have the same form of relationship, p = kV”,
but that n has some value other than — 1.

Example 7 A given mass ofair expands adiabatically and the following measure-
ments are taken of the pressure (p cm of mercury) and volume (V cm?):

V | 100 125 150 175 200

p 58.6 42.4 32.8 27.0 225

Confirm that p=kV" and determine the values of the constants k and n.

Assuming that p=kV”", and taking logarithms to the base 10 of each side,

logio P= logyo V" + logy, k

logio P=N login V + logig k
Writing log,, p as y, log,;, V as x, log,, k as c¢,

y=nx+c

Since this is a linear relationship between x and y, we hope to find that log,, V
plotted against log,, p will yield points lying nearly on a straight line. From the
following table the points have been plotted in Fig. 23.5, and the ‘best’ straight
line has been drawn.*

fleet 2000... 2.097 . 2,176 — 2.243. - 2.301

y=logiop Pies 162). 1516-1431 1.348

The gradient n is found from triangle PQR

Therefore the equation of the straight line is

y=—14x-+c

* Provided that the experimental errors are random, then a reliable aid to drawing the ‘best’ straight
line is to make it pass through the point whose coordinates are the averages of the coordinates of the
plotted points; this point is shown in Fig. 23.5. Sometimes there is also a point whose exact
coordinates are known; such a point is (0, 0) in Fig. 23.2.
 Pure Mathematics 1 23.6
458

y ST
(logio Pp) eencenel SERSIUGSTggaee Ene peat

1.8 Cenccnaee wanasess: pacreaeggaseets

isk

1.38
(logig V).

Figure 23.5
*See footnote, page 457

But from the graph, when x=2, y=1.77,

J 177=-14x2+c
fi logyg R= C=4.57
.. kK=37150=37000 to two significant figures
Hence the experimental data confirms the relationship given between p and V,
namely

p=37000 V~!4
There are other types of variation which may be confirmed by using
logarithms to reduce them to a linear relationship; in laws of growth, for
example, one of the variables is often in an index.
 Variation and experimental laws 459
If P = ka*, where k, a, are constants,

logio P=log,y a* + log, k

<e logy JB =x logio a + logio k

and writing log;, P as y, logy) a as m, log,, k asc,

y=mx+c

This is a straight-line equation which reveals a linear relationship between x and

logig P-

Example 8 The frequency (f oscillations per second) and the interval (x

semitones) of each note ofaC major scale are given in the table below; show thatf,
x are related by a law in the form f = ka* and determine the constants k, a.

Note & D B FE G A B C
ys 0 2 4 5 ih 9 11 12
if 256 287 323 342 384 431 483 512

Assuming that f= ka*, and taking logarithms to the base 10 of each side,

logio f= 10819 & + logy k

5 log10 f= 4,6 logo a + logio k

Writing log,, f as y, log;, a as m, log,,) k asc,

y=mx+c

This shows that we must, from the data, establish a linear relationship between x
and log,, f. From the following table the points have been plotted in Fig. 23.6
_ and the ‘best’ straight line has been drawn; we have confirmed that the law is of
the form f= ka*.

# 0 2 = 5 ‘a 9 i 12
y=logiof | 2.408 2.458 2.509 2.534 2.584 2.634 2.684 2.709

Figure 23.6
460 Pure Mathematics 1 23.6

If we now consider the straight line in Fig. 23.6 to have the equation
y=mx +c, we see from the triangle PQR that its gradient
0.25
m= logi0 a= ay = 0.025

From antilogarithm tables or a calculator, a = 1.059.

We may now write y=0.025+c.
x

From the graph, when x = 0, y = 2.408.

‘C= 108 qk =2.408

From antilogarithm tables or a calculator, k = 256.
Hence from the data we deduce the required law to be

{= 236, < R097

Qu. 22 A remote and isolated tribe came under the influence of medical
missionaries in 1935, when a very careful count of the population was made.
Less reliable counts were made in later years, as shown in the following table:

Year 1935 1940 1950 1955

Lapse of years (t) 0 5 15 20
Population (P) 2070 2500 4200 5100

Show that the data points to the operation of a law of the form P = ka‘, and
determine the constants k, a. Also estimate the population in 1948.
Two final points deserve mention, starting with a word of warning. A
graphical method may confirm that a certain law is obeyed but only within the
given ranges of values of the variables; guard against false deductions. For
example, remember that an elastic band may be stretched beyond its elastic
limit; or a gas undergoing changes of pressure and volume may also be
approaching a change of state.
Secondly, the use of logarithmic graph paper has not been mentioned in this
chapter. It can be a time-saver in repetitive work, and the reader who has
mastered the idea of this last section will have no difficulty in using it should the
need arise.

Exercise 23c
1 A round bolt with nominal diameter D mm has a countersunk head of
diameter A mm. D and A are found to be as follows:

*In fact standard musical pitch has been set slightly higher than that used in this example, with
f= 440 for A above middle C, giving f= 261.6 for middle C. Also, since the ratio of the frequency of
a note to that of an octave below is 2:1, a'? = 2 and calculation gives a better value of a as 1.05946.
Thus the corresponding law for a correctly tuned piano is f= 261.6 x 1.059*.
 Variation and experimental laws 461

D 6.4 pat se 11.1 ibea, la Eo eee

A 11.7 14.6 BEI ih 4s 29.25 we35.0: 1740.9.,1246.7

Find the linear equation giving A in terms of D. Does A vary as D?

The mass m kg of a300 mm square oflead sheeting of thickness t mm is given
as follows:

t 5 1.80 2.24 2.50 an 3.39:

m 1275 1.835 2.285 Paes) 3.215 2025

Obtain a linear relation giving m in terms of t. What is the connection

between the gradient of the graph of m against t and the relative density of
lead?
A marble was dropped from a height h, cm and observed to rise to a height
h, cm. Four such observations are given in the table below:

hy 124 9 16 22
Peepale pays. "St 74
Does it appear that there is a law connecting h,, h,? If so, what is it?
A letter in a daily paper gave the following table relating the deaths in a
certain group due to lung cancer with the number of cigarettes smoked per
day.

No. of cigarettes
per day n 0 1 to 14 15 to 24 over 25
Deaths per 100 000
per annum d d 57 139 22h

Investigate the justification for assuming from these figures that a linear
relationship exists.
Some printers quoted the price of a small book as follows:

No. of copies | 500 1000 2006 5000 6000

Cost in £ 650 865 1300 2600 3035

Does this bear out the idea that one gets a reduction for ordering in
quantity? Can you estimate the cost of (a) 3500 copies, (b) getting the type set
up ready to print, without running off any copies?
6 A man bought a car when the distance travelled registered as 71 km, the fuel
tank containing an unknown amount of petrol. According to his log book,
he bought 20 litres of petrol at the following kilometre readings:
241, 432, 685, 907, 1123
462 Pure Mathematics 1 Exe23¢

Estimate the average number of km travelled per litre of petrol up to the last
distance.
Given that the car ran out of petrol at 1378 km, estimate the quantity of
petrol originally in the fuel tank. .
7 While some water was cooling, the temperature was recorded at minute
intervals as follows:

Time t minutes 0 i 2 3 ~ 2) 6

Temperature 60°C 62 61.5 61 60.5 60 59.5 59

Find an equation giving @ in terms of t. Can you expect this equation to hold
over a wider range of values? Give reasons for your answer.
8 The flow of water through a circular hole is thought to vary as the square
root of the head of water. For a certain hole, the following results were
obtained:

Head of water, hm iS) 3 4.5 6

Flow of water, x litres/min 119 170 205 240

Do they confirm the conjecture? Estimate the flow of water through the hole
when the head is 5 m.
9 A crane on a building site displayed the following figures:

Load in tonnes me 1-5 1 i 0.75

Radius in metres Wes) 10 iS 20

Do these figures confirm the expectation that the radius is inversely

proportional to the load? Is there an equation giving the load / tonnes in
terms of the radius r metres?
10 The mass m kg of 100 m lengths ofa certain type of steel wire rope is given for
nominal diameters d mm as follows:

d 8 oa 11 13 16 19
m 21.6 30.5 40.9 S72 86.6 122

Examine the suggestion that the mass varies as the square of the nominal
diameter of the rope.
11 A hose squirts a stream of water horizontally and the height of the stream
ym at distance x m along level ground is estimated to be as follows:

Distance sehan 0 2 4 5 6 mi, 8

Height y m 3.50 3.40 SSeS S 2.60 2.28 1.90
 Variation and experimental laws 463
Obtain an equation in the form y=a+bx? connecting these values
approximately.
12 For purposes connected with a survey, the digits 0, 1, 2, ..., 9 were required
in a random order. However, when they were taken from a list of random
numbers, it was noticed that the intervals between new digits tended to
increase. Noting the intervals on a number of occasions the following
averages were obtained:

Position of
digit p 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Average
interval i OMe a a 21172238 94.0.3.9.:9162

Find a law in the form p = a — b/i. [In finding a, use the fact that i= 1 when
p =1.] Hence express i in terms of p.
13 The periods and mean distances of some of the planets are given in the table
below:

Period P days Bij 247. 365.3, 6870 . 4333. 10760

Mean distance s in
millions of km 58 108 150 228 778 1426

Find a law in the form P = ks".

14 For a certain survey in which n people are to be interviewed, a market
research organisation calculates that it has an even chance of obtaining
correct within p% the percentage in favour of the product concerned in the
survey. n and p are related as below:

n 500 1000 2000 5000 10 000

p 1.51 1.07 0.75 0.48 0.34

Find how p varies with n.

15 Some molecules are made out of two atoms. The moment of inertia and the
distance between the nuclei of the atoms is given for four such molecules in
the table below:

g cm?)
Moment ofinertia I (10-*° Poeeroos ast 431
Distance between nuclei r (107° cm) 0.92 1.28 1.42 1.62

Find a law in the form I =kr". (Source of data: S. Glasstone, Theoretical

Chemistry.)
16 The widths of successive whorls of a shell of Turbo duplicatus have been
464 Pure Mathematics 1 Bxe23¢

measured:

Position of :
whorl n 1 2 3 4 5 6 if 8

Width of whorl
w cm 333 °° 284" 239 “203 21D gee eee

Find a law in the form w= ab". (Source of data: H. Moseley, Phil. Trans.
1838, 356.)
17 Two substances in a chemical reaction have the same initial concentration a
moles per litre, and after t min the concentration of each is (a — x) moles per
litre. The following experimental results were obtained:

t | 5 15 p>) 35 55 120

a—X |10.24 6.13 4.32 3.41 pads 1.10

In order to establish that this is a second-order reaction (i.e. the rate of

reaction ar is a quadratic function of x) show graphically that a linear

relationship exists between t and the reciprocal of (a—x); deduce that

dx
= k(a — x)’, and determine the value of k, the reaction velocity constant.
dt
18 A given mass of ozone is subjected to an adiabatic change and the pressure
p 10° '° N/m? and volume V cm? are observed as follows:

Volume V cm? 100 90 80 70 60 50

Pressure p (10° 1° N/m?) 1.18 b35con LSTagg L822 rane

Verify graphically that pv’ =k, where y, k are constants, and determine the
value of y.
19 Steinmetz’s law, E =7B'-°, gives an approximation for the energy lost per
cycle of magnetisation in a transformer core, where the energy lost is E
ergs/cm*, the maximum magnetic flux density is B gauss, and n is the
Steinmetz coefficient for the given material. Values of B and E are tabulated
below:

B 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000

E
To? 0.316 0.956 1.83 2.90 4.14 aie

Use a graphical method to show that these values agree with the given law,
and determine the value of y for this material.
 Variation and experimental laws 465
20 In the Ehrenfest game, n balls numbered from 1 to n are placed in a container
A and another container B is left empty. Numbers in the range | to n are
drawn at random. When a number is drawn, the corresponding ball is
transferred from the container it is in to the other container. In such a game
with n = 100, the total T balls left in container A after x numbers had been
drawn was as follows:

Find a law in the form T = ab*, where a, b are constants, to fit these data as
well as possible. As x becomes large, can T be expected to obey this law?
Chapter 24

Iterative methods for solving

equations
Introduction
24.1 One of the most common tasks in mathematics is to solve an equation. In
this book we have already solved a variety of different equations. We have
solved quadratic equations by factorisation or by the formula, we have solved
other polynomial equations by factorising them and we have solved some
carefully selected trigonometrical equations.
Consider, however, the following problem. Fig. 24.1 represents a circle, whose
centre is at O, and whose radius is one unit. Can we find the value of 6, in
radians, so that the area of the shaded segment is exactly 0.5 square units?

Figure 24.1

Since the angle @ is measured in radians, the area of the sector OAB is 46r?,
and since r = 1, this is just 30. The area of the triangle OAB can be obtained from
the standard formula, jab sin C; in this case a = 1, b= 1, and C = 0, so the area
of the triangle OAB is 5 sin 0. The area of the shaded segment is the difference of
these two areas, i.e.
19_16in
79 —5 sin g

The problem is to find the value of @ so that this area is 0.5 square units. In other

466
 Iterative methods for solving equations 467
words we need to solve the equation

30—Ssino=4
or d—sin@=1
None of the methods for solving equations at our disposal (apart from drawing a
graph) would enable us to solve this equation; indeed it is impossible to find an
exact solution. However, there is no doubt that such an angle exists, and with a
little experimentation using tables or a calculator, it is possible to see that an
approximate solution is @ = 2.
In this chapter we shall develop methods by which approximate solutions to
equations can be obtained. An approximate solution should not be despised, for
it can be very useful, and, as in the example above, it may be the only solution
available. The value of such an answer is greatly enhanced if it is possible to give
an estimate of its degree of accuracy.
Later in the chapter we shall return to the equation 6 — sin 0 = 1, but first we
shall tackle a simpler problem, namely, can we find the square root of a given
number without using square root tables, or the square root function on a
calculator?

An iterative method for finding square roots

24.2 What is the square root of 18? Or, to put it another way, solve the
equation
x? &18
Since we are not going to use tables or the square root function on a calculator,
the most sensible first step is to check through the ‘square numbers’
de eo. 16, 25, 36, 49,
and note that J18 lies between 4 and 5, and that it is nearer 4 than 5. So we
might say
‘the square root of 18 is 4, correct to the nearest whole number’
This at least gives an approximate answer and it indicates the degree of accuracy
of this approximate answer.
We shall now use this ‘first approximation’ to obtain a better ‘second
approximation’, and this in turn will be used to form an even better ‘third
approximation’. Such a procedure is called successive approximation, or
iteration.
The method we shall use to find the successive approximations will depend
upon the fact that if x is exactly equal to ,/ 18, then 18/x is exactly equal to J 18.
If x does not equal ,/ 18, then
either x is less than ,/ 18, in which case 18/x is greater than ,/18,
or x is greater than ,/18, in which case 18/x is less than J 18.
In both cases, we can say that af18 lies between x and 18/x.
 Pure Mathematics 1 24.2
468

Consequently, using \/18 ~ 4 as a ‘first approximation’, we know that J 18

lies between 4 and 18/4, ie. between 4 and 4.5, so we take as our ‘second
approximation’ the average of these two numbers, 1.e.

2Waa:
fcderaee n\n. 25
s( ie |
Now we repeat the process, using \/18 ~ 4.25. Once again we know that J 18
must lie between 4.25 and 18/4.25, and so we take as our ‘third approximation’
the average of these two numbers. In other words the third approximation is

1 18
=| 4.25 je4.24265, correct to six significant figures
s( 7 4.25a

(The arithmetic at this stage is becoming rather heavy, and a calculator or tables
may be used to lighten the load. However, square root tables and the square root
function on the calculator are not allowed!)
We now have a very good approximate value of the square root of 18, and we
know that the exact value lies between 4.24265 and 18/4.2426S ( = 4.24263). So
we are now able to say that

18 = 4.243, correct to four significant figures

knowing that we are justified in claiming this degree of accuracy.

This procedure can be summed up as follows: writing x, for the rth
approximation, the (r + 1)th approximation is given by

1 18
Xr+d 7) an

This is called an iterative formula for finding ,/18. More generally, the iterative
formula for finding the square root of any positive number, N, is

1 N
Red i ale

Qu.1 Use the iterative formula above, to find the square roots of
(a) 17, (b) 40, (Cab, (d) 96, correct to four significant figures.

Historical note. This method for calculating square roots is a very old one. It
was used by the Babylonians more than three thousand years ago. Today it is
frequently called Newton’s algorithm, but this is hardly fair to those great, but
nameless, mathematicians from Mesopotamia.
If a programmable calculator or a microcomputer is available, the reader
should try to write programs to solve some of the equations in this chapter by
iteration. Iterative methods are ideally suited to such an approach, because the
same basic sequence of steps is repeated over and over again; this can be done
very rapidly and accurately on a programmable calculator or a microcomputer.
 Iterative methods for solving equations 469
Further iterative formulae
24.3 If we were given the iterative formula

but we did not know how it had been constructed, would it be possible to
discover the equation which it is designed to solve? The answer is ‘Yes’, provided
the sequence

Hen Mons eg gs

tends to a limit. Suppose that x, > X, as n> 0, then for a large value of n, the
iterative formula could be written

we tinns
meg x
This equation could then be simplified, as follows:

2X=X+ %
= x
2, 18
ae
~ X*=18
So, as expected, we see that the equation which is solved by the iterative formula
above is
x? =18

Example 1 Starting with x, =4, use the iterative formula

2
Xrey = 57
r

to find x,, X3, and X4, giving these values correct to three significant figures. Find
the equation which is solved by this iterative formula.

2
X2 — 5 = 4 ;

=45, exactly
2
X3 = 5 =a 45

~ 4.55556
= 4.56, correct to three significant figures
470 Pure Mathematics 1 24.3

2
RSS
~ 4.55556
= 4.56098
= 4.56, correct to three significant figures

The successive values of x, appear to be tending to a limit, namely 4.56.

(Note. If you are using a calculator for the arithmetic, the successive values
X>, X3, X4 etc. should be retained on the calculator. It is poor technique to use
the corrected value of x, to calculate x,,,. However, if you are answering an
examination question which requires a specific degree of accuracy in presenting
answers, you should always follow this instruction; it is usually there to simplify
the task of marking the answer and it is very unwise to upset the examiner!)
To find the equation which this iterative formula solves, we write this limit as
X, then, for large values of r, the iterative formula becomes

2
xyesus
i
When this is simplified we obtain
X?—-5X+2=0
So x = 4.56 is a root, correct to three significant figures, of the equation
x SSO

(This equation is of course a quadratic equation, and using an iterative method

to solve it is using a sledge-hammer to crack a nut. However, at this stage it is
more convenient to use fairly simple equations for the examples. If this equation
is solved by the formula, the solution would be

Se LT, :
x i
jadi 4.56 or 0.44, correct to two decimal places

The iterative formula has produced the first of these, but not the second.
However, we could use the fact that the sum of the roots is 5 to calculate the
second root, ie. 5 — 4.56 = 0.44.)
As we have seen above, if the sequence x,, x2, x3, X4, ... converges, then we
can deduce the equation from the iterative formula. This suggests that if we have
a given equation and we wish to construct a suitable iterative formula, all we
need to do is to rearrange the equation in the form
x= (5)
and the corresponding iterative formula will be

Xr+1 = f(x,)

Example 2 Form an iterative formula to solve the equation

x3—5x+1=0
 Iterative methods for solving equations 471
and use it to find the root which lies between 0 and 1, correct to three significant
figures.
The given equation can be arranged in the form

5x =x? +1
x? +1
oe

consequently we shall take as the iterative formula

ee oa|
Xp+i a
5

and, starting with x, =0, we obtain

X> ~=0.2
5

1.008
x3=—— = 0.2016
0.20163 + 1
X4 = cmbics foes

= 0.201639, correct to six significant figures

In view of the very small change from x, to x4, it would be reasonable to
conclude that we are now very near to the exact answer. Consequently we could
claim, with some confidence, that the root of the equation is 0.202, correct to
three significant figures.

However, the reader must not run away with the idea that any rearrangement
of the original equation will yield a suitable iterative formula. Consider, for
example, the following equation:
x*—5x+3=0
It is easy to verify that this has a root between 4 and 5.
The rearrangement

=
x? +3
2)
produces the iterative formula
x, +3
Xr+1 =
5
If we start at x, =5, the succeeding values of x,, correct to four significant
figures, are
2543
5.6
2, are
472 Pure Mathematics 1 24.3

24 3
X= ib Bi 6.872
5

04
2

04? + 3
i= LOO laa = 2078
5
These values of x, are getting further and further away from the root we were
expecting; we say the sequence x,,X,X3, ... 1s diverging. However, the
rearrangement of the original equation was by no means the only possible one.
Consider, for example,
3
x=) ——
x
This gives the iterative formula
3
aig aga ae
r

and if we start, as before, with x, = 5, we obtain

m=5-Z =44

sar Senge = 4318

yi 5 — 7a = 4.308

He. 9ph Fags = 4303

65 —zany = 4303
(The root given by the quadratic formula is 4.303.)
So this second rearrangement has worked satisfactorily.
We can see from this that not all rearrangements of a given equation lead to a
suitable iterative formula. We could decide to discard any iterative formula
which produces a divergent sequence, but it would clearly be more satisfactory if
we had some method for discriminating between a formula which produces a
divergent sequence and one which produces a convergent sequence; we shall
tackle this in the next section.
 Iterative methods for solving equations 473
Exercise 24a
1 Use the iterative formula in §24.2 to find the square roots of
(a) 12, (b) 30, (c) 50, (d) 75,
giving your answers correct to three significant figures.
Use the iterative formula
4

starting at x, = 2, to find x,, x, and x4, giving your answers correct to three
significant figures. Find, in its simplest form, the equation which is solved by
this iterative formula.
Adapt No. 2 so that it can be used to find 201°.
Show that the equation x7 — 5x + 1 =0 can be arranged as x =(x? + 1)/5,
or, alternatively, as x = 5—1/x. Hence write down two possible iterative
formulae which might be used for solving this quadratic, and, starting from
x, = 0.2, find the values of x,, x3 and x, which are produced by each of these
iterative formulae.
Only one of these sequences appears to converge; use this sequence to
write down the (two) roots of the quadratic equation.
The cubic equation x*—10x+1=0 can be rearranged in the form
x =(x? + 1)/10.
Use this rearrangement to form an iterative formula and use it to find,
correct to four significant figures, the root which lies between 0 and 1. (Start
with x, =0.)
Solve the equation in §24.1, that is 0=sin 6+ 1, by an iterative method,
starting from @ = 2. (@ is measured in radians.)
Show that the equation x? — 8x + 10 =0, has a root between 1 and 2.
Show that the iterative formula x,, ,= 8 — 10/x,, can be formed from this
equation, and, starting from x, = 1, calculate the values of x,, x; and X4.
Comment on your results.
The iterative formulae

3410 10
a and = (b) ee]

can both be obtained by rearranging the equation x° — 10=0.

Starting from x, = 2, find the values of x,, x3; and x4, which are produced
by these iterative formulae. Only one of these sequences converges, use this
one to find ,/10, correct to four significant figures.
The fifth root of a real number N can be calculated from the iterative formula
N
Xp ke ese AX, + 5a 5

Use this formula to find the fifth root of 50, correct to three significant
figures. [Hint: start with x, =2.]
474 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 24a

10 The product of the roots of the quadratic equation

x* —px+q=0
is g, so if x, is an approximate value of one of the roots, the other could be
written g/x,. Use the fact that the sum of the roots of this quadratic equation
is p to find a new approximation to the first root. Hence deduce the iterative
formula

ei q
gion Pe ae
r

Use this iterative formula to solve the quadratic equation

x*—7x+3=0
giving your answers correct to three significant figures.

Iteration — the test for convergence

24.4 In the preceding sections we have seen that an iterative formula
Nay = 1X)
can be used to produce a sequence of values of x,
5 lePS ee te
the value of x, being selected by trial and error. We have also seen (but not
formally proved) that, provided the sequence tends to a limit, which we shall call
X, then x = X is a root of the equation
x = f(x)

In this section we shall examine the conditions under which we can expect the
sequence X,,X,X3,X4, ... to converge. (Example 1 will be used as an
illustration, so the reader is advised to read through this example again before
proceeding.)
Fig. 24.2 shows the graphs of y=x and y=f(x), where f(x) = 5 — 2/x. The
graphs intersect at P(X, Y).
The x-coordinate of the point P, that is X, is a solution of the equation
meat)

This is the root of the equation which we expect to obtain from the iterative
formula

Xt i f(x,)

The diagram in Fig. 24.3 shows an enlargement of the region around the point
P in the previous diagram. It also shows the points P,, P,, P3, ..., whose
coordinates are (x1, ¥1), (x2, 2), (X3, 3), -.. respectively, where x,, 7, X3,... are
the successive approximations given by the iterative formula.
 Iterative methods for solving equations 475
y= x

y = f(x)

xv

Figure 24.2

Figure 24.3

Since the point P,, whose coordinates are (x,, y,), lies on the curve y = f(x), the
y-coordinate is given by

Yr = f(x,)
and this in turn is equal to x,,,, so the coordinates of P, can be written
(x,, X,+1)- This lets us produce the following geometrical method for construct-
ing the points P,, P,P3, ... (see Fig. 24.4). First mark the point (x,, x),
remembering that x, is selected on a trial-and-error basis. From P, draw a line
horizontally, i.e. parallel to the x-axis, and call the point where this meets the
line, Q,. The points P, and Q, have the same y-coordinate and Q, lies on the
line x = y, so the coordinates of Q, are (y;, y;). But y; = x2, so these coordinates
could be written (x, x). From Q, we now draw a line vertically, i.e. parallel to
the y-axis. The point where this meets the curve has the same x-coordinate as Q,
and so its coordinates are (x, x3). This is the point P,. We now repeat the
 1 24.4
476 Pure Mathematics
space
operation to construct the subsequent points Ps, P,, Ps, ...., but because
is limited, only the first few points are printed.

Figure 24.4

In this diagram we can see the points P,, P,, P3, ... getting closer and closer
to the point P itself, and so the x-coordinates x,, x, X3, ... will be getting closer
and closer to X, or, to put it more formally, x, X, as r> oo.
Although the function f(x)=5—2/x has been used in this illustration, a
diagram like that in Fig. 24.4 could be drawn for other functions provided f'(x)
lies between 0 and 1. If the gradient is greater than | the picture is quite different.
Fig. 24.5 shows the same construction applied to the graph of a function whose
gradient is greater than 1. In this case, each step moves P, further and further
away from P.
y=x

Figure 24.5
 Iterative methods for solving equations 477
The diagrams in Fig. 24.6 show the corresponding constructions for graphs
whose gradients are negative.

(i) (ii)

y= f(x)

~1<f'(x)<0 f'(x)<-1 y = f(x)

Figure 24.6

The first diagram (in which — 1 <f’(x) <0) shows the points P,, P,, Ps, ...
getting closer and closer to P; in other words, the sequence x,,X>,X3, ...
converges when |f’(x)| < 1. In contrast the second diagram (in which f’(x) < — 1)
shows these points moving further and further away from P, and so the sequence
X1,X2,X3, ... diverges when |f’(x)| > 1.
From these diagrams we can conclude that the sequence x,, x, X3, ... will
converge if |f’(x)| < 1. To ensure that this sequence converges rapidly, the initial
approximation should be as close as possible to the exact root and the function
f(x) should be selected so that |f’(x)| is as small as possible.
(A more rigorous proof is beyond the scope of this book; any reader who
wishes to know more should consuit a more specialised textbook. This topic
usually comes under the heading ‘Numerical methods’.)

Example 3 Show that one of the iterative formulae

(a) Xp+1 = (x,7 + 3)/5, (b) Xt = 5—3/x,,

produces a convergent sequence for x = 5, and the other does not.

In iterative formula (a),
x? +3
(===
pas
f'(x)=—
(x) 5

hence,
Rgds toe
Since |f’(5)| > 1, formula (a) will not produce a convergent sequence when x ~ 5.
478 Pure Mathematics 1 24.4

In formula (b),

3
f(x) =5=—
x;

3
Med) =a
x

hence,
3

(45) =— =0.12
i) DS

In this case |f’(5)| < 1, so formula (b) will produce a convergent sequence when
wD.
(Note. These formulae were used earlier in this chapter, see pp. 471-472.)

Exercise 24b

Which of the following iterative formulae should, according to the test in the
preceding section, produce a convergent sequence, x;, X7, X3, ..., in the region of
the value of x indicated? (These iterative formulae were used in Exercise 24a.)

1 tz 2%, 4
Li =3(%+—)) xe: Riise gies 7 Fe x = 2

x, +1 1
3 Xa = 5 5 x = 0.2. 4 Xp+ or tee AAO.

x +1 :
SX eid 70 sat Suseila 60 sip SILO nil, anBea

10 2x,>+
10
BLY items ale th sia eoke a =.

10 50
9 = oe 10 sia (4542) | Xow
Xy
r

The Newton—Raphson method

245 We now come to a particular method of iteration known as the
Newton-Raphson method (it is frequently called Newton’s method). Through-
out this section we shall be considering the task of solving an equation of the
form F(x) =0 and the exact root we are seeking will be denoted by X.
As with all iterative methods, the first step is to find an approximate root. This
can be done quite conveniently by drawing the graph of y = F(x). The exact root
is the x-coordinate of the point where the graph crosses the x-axis. Fig. 24.7
shows the graph of y = F(x) and the point P(X, 0).
 Iterative methods for solving equations 479

Figure 24.7

Now consider the enlargement of the region surrounding P, which is shown in

Fig. 24.8.

Figure 24.8

In this diagram, the point Q is near the point P and its x-coordinate x, is an
approximation to the exact root X, i.e. x,» X. The coordinates of Q then are
(x,, F(x,)). Newton’s method consists of drawing a tangent to the curve at Q,
and, if this line meets the x-axis at R, using the x-coordinate of R as the next
approximation to X. In other words R is the point (x, ,,, 0). It is clear from the
diagram that x,,, will be a better approximation than x,.
(The reader is advised to draw the corresponding diagram for a graph whose
gradient is negative, and also to consider the effect of F(x,) being negative. From
these diagrams the reader should be able to see that Newton’s method will yield
the desired approximation, provided F’(x) is not zero near the exact root.)
From the diagram in Fig. 24.8, we can produce a formula for x,,;,1n terms of
the function F(x) and x,.
We know that

NQ = F(x,)
480 Pure Mathematics 1 24:5

and by elementary trigonometry

N
ote = tan &
RN
N
1.€. N= Q
tan a

But, since the line RQ is the tangent to the curve at Q, tan « is equal to the
gradient at Q. In other words
tana = E (x;)
/

So we can write

ees)
TE(,)
Now, from the diagram we can see that
OR =ON—RN

‘OR = %:—
F(x,)
ends Oe)
and since Newton’s method is to use the x-coordinate of R as the new
approximation, we have

F(x,)
V4, =,
F'(x,)

Example 4 Verify that the equation x* — 5x — 40 =0 has a root between x = 3

and x = 4. Use the Newton—Raphson method to find this root correct to three
significant figures.
In this example,
F(x) = x? — 5x — 40
Putting x =3 gives
F(3)
= 27—15—40 = — 28
and, putting x = 4,
F(4) = 64-20 —40= +4
Since F(x) has changed sign between x = 3 and x = 4, the graph of the function
must cross the x-axis in this interval, so there is a root between 3 and 4. (This
assumes that F(x) is continuous between these points; special care must be taken
if F(x) is known to have a discontinuity near the root being investigated.)
The Newton-Raphson iterative formula is

F (x,)
oinF(xy)
Xr+d =X,
 Iterative methods for solving equations 481
and, in this case

Foy 5x 40
and, differentiating,
F')=39- —5
So, the iterative formula to solve this equation is

calaaace x, — 5x, — 40
Xr+1 =, 3x,2—5

As |F(4)| is much smaller than |F(3)|, the root appears to be nearer 4 than 3, so
we start with x, =4, then
64 — 20 — 40
x,=4
48 —5
4
a pee
43
=e
(Note. The value of x, is printed here, correct to four significant figures. If you
are using a calculator, each intermediate value should be stored in the memory
for use in the next iteration. It is important to understand that calculating x, as
accurately as possible from a particular value of x, does not mean that the root
has been found to the same degree of accuracy; at this stage it would be unwise
to claim that more than the first one or two significant figures have been
determined.)
This value of x, should now be substituted into the Newton—Raphson
formula. This gives
x3 = 3.904(45)
In view of the very small change between x, and x3, we could now safely claim
that, correct to three significant figures, the root is 3.90.

This example illustrates some of the virtues of the Newton—Raphson formula.

Firstly, provided F’(x) is not zero near the root, it is unnecessary to check
whether the sequence converges. Secondly, the sequence converges very rapidly;
in other words it is only necessary to calculate a few values of x, in order to get a
very accurate answer.

Example 5 Use the Newton-Raphson formula to solve the equation

?—sin@=1
giving your answer correct to three significant figures.
_ (This is the equation which arose from the problem in §24.1.) Firstly, the
equation must be arranged in the form
é—sin d—1=0
482 Pure Mathematics 1 24.5

and note that the function needed is

F(6)=6—sin 0—1
and consequently
F’(8) = 1—cos 6
The iterative formula we require is
é,—sin 0, — 1
Oe. ise 6, ;
1 —cos 6,

Starting from 0, =2 (see §24.1, and remembering that 6 must be measured in

radians),

2—sin2—1
= = 1.93595
eue 2 1 —cos 2

and

03 = 1.93456

and hence

0, = 1.93456

(These values have, for convenience, been rounded off to six significant figures.)
As the changes in 0,, 63,04, have been so small, we can fairly confidently
conclude that, correct to three significant figures, the root is 1.93.

Extreme care should be taken when rounding off numbers which have already
been rounded. If, in the example above, 6,, 0; and @4 had been rounded to four
significant figures, they would have read
65 = 1.936
65 = 1.935
6, = 1.935
Rounding @, to three significant figures would have given (wrongly) 1.94.

Exercise 24c

Use the Newton-Raphson method to find the root of each of these equations
which is near the given value. Give your answers correct to three significant
figures.
l x > 4x’ — x= 12.— 0 ape Sa Doxt See Gt 1Gia, seen:
3.2 sin. O.= 6; 0, =2, 4x? — 5x2 A> x 5
5 x°=10x+10; x, =3.5. 6 3tan0+40=6; 6,=1.
7 x*—4x3—x?+4x—10=0; x,=4.
8 x? = Sx.432+ Pad,
 Iterative methods for solving equations 483
f Verify that the equation x* — 2x — 5=0 has a root between x = 2 and x = as
and find this root correct to three significant figures.
10 Find, correct to three significant figures, the smallest positive root of
5x Sood

Exercise 24d (Miscellaneous)

1 Use the iterative formula

1 N
X41 =5(% +— ], where NeR*
2 x
to find the square roots of (a) 200, (b) 450, (c) 700, (d) 1000.
Repeat No. 1, using the Newton—Raphson method to solve equations of the
form x? —N =0.
Prove that the iterative formula formed by applying the Newton—-Raphson
method to the equation x* — N =0 can be written
| N
ges Sia me reaE:

(In other words prove that the iterative formula explained in §24.1 can be
deduced from the Newton—Raphson formula.)
Prove that if X is an exact root of an equation f(x) =0, then substituting
x, = X in the Newton—Raphson formula gives x,,, =X.
Verify that the equation 10 cos x — x = 0 has a root between x = 1 and x = 2.
Using x = 1/2 as a first approximation, show that the next approximation,
given by applying Newton’s formula once, is 51/11.
Sketch the graphs of y= x and y =4 cos x, and, from your sketch, estimate
the value of x such that x =4 cos x.
Use the iterative formula x,,, =4cos x, to solve this equation.
nN Solve the equation x = 5 cos x (see No. 6), by the Newton—Raphson method.
The equation 5x =cos x has a root near x = 0.5. Solve this equation using
the iterative formula x,,, =0.2 cos x,.
Sketch, on a large scale, the graphs of y=x and y=0.2 cos x near this
root and mark the points P,(x,, x2), Qi(x2, 2), P2(X2, x3), Q2(x3, x3),
P3(x3, 4), Q3(x4, x4), etc. (see §24.4) to illustrate that the sequence
Ki PX2H%3,U 1) Converges:
Repeat No. 8 for the iterative formula x, ,, = 10 — 15/x,, starting at x, =8.
Find the quadratic equation which is solved by this iterative formula and
check your answer by applying the quadratic formula to this equation.
10 Show that the cubic equation x? — 3x + 1 =0 can be arranged in the form
1 —3x
(a) x=4(x7 +1), (b) x= we

By applying the test in §24.4, show that only one of these arrangements could
be expected to produce a convergent iterative method, starting at x, = 0.2. -
Use this arrangement to solve the equation.
484 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 24d

11 A cuboid has volume 100 cm3, surface area 150 cm?, and its length is twice its
breadth. What are its dimensions?
12 When the height of water in a hemispherical bowl is h, the volume of water in
the bowl is n(rh? — +h3), where r is the radius of the bowl. Find the height of
the water when half the volume of the bowl is filled.
13 If 1pay £100 on January 1st for fifteen consecutive years and draw £2100 on
January 1st of the next year, what rate of compound interest do I receive?
14 A donkey is tied by a rope to a point on the circumference of a circular field
of radius r. If the donkey is to be allowed to graze half the area of the field,
how long should the rope be?
15 Show graphically, or otherwise, that the equation x* — x — 1 =0 has only
one root and find the integer n such that the root « satisfies n<a<n+l.
An iterative process for finding this root is defined by

x, =1, 4 [x

for all re N*. Obtain, to three places of decimals, the values of x, and x3.
Show, on a sketch graph, the line y=x and the curve y=(x +1)",
indicating on this graph the relation between x,, x, x3 and the root «. (L)
16 Find, by the Newton—Raphson method, the solution of the equation*
x? + 20In x = 400
giving your answer correct to three significant figures. [Hint: let x, = 15.]
(O& C)
17 Show graphically that the equation x? = 7 log, x + 2.347 has two real
positive roots.
Taking x = 2.2 as an initial approximation to the larger of these roots,
obtain a second approximation by writing the equation in the form
x = ,/(7 logy x + 2.347) and using an iterative method.
Work to three decimal places and give your answer to two decimal places.
(O & C: MEI)
18 Using the Newton—Raphson process, solve the equation
fee ie + 1) ie 2)
giving your answer correct to three significant figures and showing that you
have achieved this degree of accuracy. (C)
19 A solution of the equation x = f(x) is to be attempted using the iteration
X,+1 = f(x,), starting with an initial estimate x,. Draw sketch graphs showing
y=x and y=f(x) to illustrate the following possibilities regarding the
convergence towards, or divergence from, the root x =a.
(a) x; >a and the successive iterates (approximations) steadily decrease,
with the value a as a limit.
(b) x, >a and the successive iterates are alternately less than a and greater
than a, but approach a as a limit.

*The function In x is the natural logarithm of x; in order to do this question the reader will need
to
know that its derivative is 1/x. See Book 2, Chapter 2.
 Iterative methods for solving equations 485
(c) x; >a and the successive iterates get steadily larger.
Use an iterative method to find a non-zero root of the equation
x = arctan (2x) correct to 2 significant figures. (C)
20 Show that the equation .* — 6x + 1 =0 has a root between x = 0 and x = 1.
Three possible rearrangements of the given equation in the form x = F(x)
are
x = ¥/(6x — 1)
x =4¢(x? + 1)
Eee — 5x41
Only one of these rearrangements will provide an iterative method, of the
form x,,, = F(x,), which converges to the root between 0 and 1. Use this
rearrangement to find this root correct to 3 significant figures. (C)
Chapter 25

Groups
Introduction
25.1. Before starting to study this book, the reader was probably already
familiar with the algebra of the real numbers, and in the course of the book, we
have discussed the algebras of complex numbers, matrices and vectors. We have
seen that, although many of the underlying principles of these topics are similar,
there are important differences: in matrices, for example, AB is not always the
same as BA. Since the early part of the nineteenth century, some of the most
influential mathematicians have devoted much of their attention to the underly-
ing structure of algebra, and, in the course of their research, they have produced
new and unusual forms of algebra. Among the most important figures in these
developments were Abel (1802-1829), Galois (1811-1832) and Klein
(1849-1925). Readers who are A level candidates may be interested to note that
Galois was only seventeen when he produced some of his most original work,
and Abel was only nineteen when he solved one of the most famous problems in
mathematics — he proved that it is impossible to find a general solution of the
quintic equation.
In this chapter, we shall be looking at one of these algebraic structures, the
group; Abel, Galois and Klein all made major contributions to group theory.
The actual term ‘group’ was first used by Galois.

Latin squares
25.2 Look at the twelve tables in Fig. 25.1. They are all examples of Latin
squares — their chief characteristic is that each of the elements employed
appears once, and once only, in each row and each column.
These tables should be read like a ready reckoner; the ‘product’ XY is to be
found in the space which is in the row labelled X and the column labelled Y
(Fig. 25.2). For example, in table (vi), go> =r and rq =e; in table (xi) DBS"
Notice that the order of the elements can make a difference. In table (x), for
instance, CA = D, but AC = B.

Qu.1_ In table (vi), find p(qr) and (pq)r.

486
 Groups 487

(iv)
AKO
ea

(vii)

(ix)

4
Figure 25.1

Qu. 2 In table (vi), solve the equation qx =r.

Qu.3 In table (xi), simplify (AB)(CD).
Qu. 4 In table (xii), solve x? = B.
Qu.5 In table (x), show that C(BD) 4 (CB)D.
 Pure Mathematics 1 Oe
488

Figure 25.2

From Qu. 1-5, it can be seen that the Latin squares in Fig. 25.1 demonstrate
many algebra-like properties and that questions containing instructions like
‘solve’, ‘find’, ‘simplify’, can be asked about them. However, they also contain
some properties which look rather peculiar. In Qu. 5, for instance, we saw that
C(BD) was not the same as (CB)D.
In order to restrict the algebra to a structure which is fairly closely related to
the algebra of real numbers, we shall impose on the Latin square two further
important restrictions:
(a) there must be an identity element, that is, an element e, with the property
ex = xe =x, where x is any of the other elements,
(b) if x, y and z are any of the elements used in the Latin square, then
x(yz) =(xy)z. This is the associative law.
The first of these restrictions eliminates table (iv) and restriction (b) eliminates
table (x).
A set of elements which can be arranged as a Latin square and which has the
properties (a) and (b) above is called a group. (A more formal definition is given
in §25.8.)

Isomorphisms
25.3. Look at tables (ii) and (iii) in Fig. 25.1. Are they really different? Certainly
they employ different symbols, but if we change the 0, 1, 2 of table (ii) into e, p
and q respectively, we see that the basic structure of the two tables is exactly the
Same; we say the two groups are isomorphic. The reader should now try to
produce a group with three elements which has a structure which is different
from the structure of tables (ii) and (iii). (It should not take long to discover that
no other structure is possible.)
 Groups 489
Now look at tables (v) and (vi): they appear to be different, but, as we have just
seen in tables (ii) and (iii), this may be due to the use of different symbols. Let us
change the e, p, q and r of table (vi) into 0, 2, 1 and 3 respectively. This is called a
one-to-one correspondence, and we write it in the following way:
e- 0, po 2, qo l, reo3

Table (vi) now reads as shown in Fig. 25.3.

eee et §S
0 o2) oy om
og Ue AS | es |
a el eee del ae
Figure 25.3 pas UU! COR

At first sight this appears to be different from table (v), but if we re-write it with
the numbers in the order 0, 1, 2, 3, we obtain the table shown in Fig. 25.4 and we
can see that this is identical to table (v). So, tables (v) and (vi) are isomorphic.
i llHet a

Figure 25.4
Qu.6 (a) Use the one-to-one correspondence

eo0, po2, qo3, rel

to show that tables (v) and (vi) are isomorphic.

(b) Set up a one-to-one correspondence between the elements of tables
(v) and (vii), and hence show that they are isomorphic.
Qu.7 Explain why tables (v) and (viii) are not isomorphic.
Qu.8 Show that any group of four elements is isomorphic either to table (v) or
to table (viii).
There are two, and only two, distinct groups with four elements. Their group
tables are shown in Fig. 25.5.
(i) (ii) |2 ingvich) 42

Q‘N\N Ge VM Ah ve
au\a e c/0b
Dalibs GC eV ta
Figure 25.5 we Wie 15h tae fe

The table in Fig. 25.5(ii) represents the group known as the Klein group; table
(i) represents a cyclic group (see §25.5). Notice that in the Klein group the
product of any element with itself (which can be seen in the diagonal of the table
which goes from the top left-hand corner to the bottom right) is always equal to
e, the identity element.
490 Pure Mathematics 1 255

The table used to specify a group is often called a Cayley table, after Arthur
Cayley (1821-1895), the Cambridge mathematician who made many important
contributions to the development of modern algebra.

Exercise 25a
The questions in this exercise refer to the Cayley tables in Fig. 25.1.

Given that I= ( ')and J = ( ; a write out the Cayley table for I

and J under matrix multiplication.

Show that this is isomorphic to the group represented by table (i). What is
the identity element?
2 In table (xi), solve the following equations, 1.e. find x and y:
(ay Cx =A; (b)" Dit ==; (c} yO=D; (d) yYD=A.
3 In table (xi), simplify
(a) B(CD), = (b) (BC)D, — (c) C(DE), _— (d) (CD)E,
and verify that B(CD) =(BC)D and that C(DE) =(CD)E.
If x is any element of a group and e is the identity element, then the element
x* such that x.x* = x*.x =e, is called the inverse of x.
Copy and complete the table below, showing each element of table (vi) and
its inverse:

Nn Repeat No. 4 for table (xi).

Complete a Cayley table showing the products of the (complex) numbers,
1,1, —1, —1. Show that this table represents a group which is isomorphic to
the group represented by table (vi).
Complete a Cayley table for the set of products of the complex numbers

at | Lie i Gime gee

Gas, a ca aleae
ca 7 b spies
5 SAN5!

Show that this table represents a group which is isomorphic to the group
represented by table (ii).
Complete a Cayley table for the products of the four matrices,

I —
fons,
inn)
. A =
Mans akg Bele oti Cn(
0-1
=
=—15 0
=
|
oa)
Show that this table represents a group which is isomorphic to the group
represented by table (vi).
9 Complete a Cayley table for the products of the four matrices,

ra(7 |yenama ye omentapi wma eal

 Groups 491
Show that this table represents a group which is isomorphic to the group

ne y e l ) m y
represented by table (vii) (the Klein group).

a 2 )
10 Complete a Cayley table for the products of the eight matrices,

Bale aloe Se(wne | :2- (_1 -)

Further groups
25.4 The groups introduced so far in this chapter have arisen from the Latin
squares in Fig. 25.1, from complex numbers (Exercise 25a, Nos. 6 and 7), and
from matrices (Exercise 25a, Nos. 8, 9 and 10). In this section, and the next, we
shall look at two further situations which give rise to groups.
One very fruitful source of examples of groups is finite arithmetic (mod n)
where ne Z~. [This concept may be new to some readers; however, it is
not very complicated! In finite arithmetic (mod n), only the integers less
than n are used. They are added or multiplied in the ordinary way, but any
multiple of n is discarded, e.g. 3x 2=6=1 (mod 5); 6x 7=42=2 (mod 8);
5+6=11=4(mod 7). Table (vii) in Fig. 25.1 uses all the products of 1, 3, 7 and 9
(mod 10).]

Example 1 Draw a Cayley table, showing all the products of 1, 2, 3, 4 (mod 5).
(See Fig. 25.6.)

—Wr WN me
Bw]
bv WY]
Re
Ww

Figure 25.6 4 4 3 2 A]
PNW

Notice that this is isomorphic to the cyclic group. (Rearrange the elements in the
order 1, 2, 4, 3.)

Example 2 Draw a Cayley table, showing all the sums of the integers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,
(mod 5). (See Fig. 25.7.)
1 2.063 —.4
0 | 0 1 Zea sted 4
1 1 Del atDat Heist
Jets) nara Soke od ace 0) 1
3 S504 ee. 0 1 2
Figure 25.7 414 0 1 2 3

Example 3 Show that the integers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 do not form a group when they are
multiplied (mod 6).
 1 25.4
492 Pure Mathematics

In the table representing a group, every element must appear once and once
only in each row and column (the Latin square property). We can see that the
this
table of products of 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 (mod 6) (See Fig. 25.8) does not have
property.

1 2 3 4 5
1 1 2 3 4 5
2 2 4 0 2 4
3 6 0 3 0 3
4 4 Z 0 4 Z
Figure 25.8 5 2) 4 3 z 1
(An extra element, namely 0, has also appeared.)

Cyclic groups
25.5 Itis convenient, at this stage, to introduce another technical term which is
used in group theory; the number of distinct elements in a group is called the
order of that group.
We have seen in §25.3 that there are just two groups of order four, the cyclic
group and the Klein group. Their Cayley tables are shown in Fig. 25.9.
(i) ee ee ares ir I P [got bR
eT Te FP sae he jo ja oe eee
At Ae ts OB P| Po tig steel
|Mattie oneal ume ie GO. O2_: Sian
Figure 25.9 C1 en RliRt Oo (pea
(Notice that in this case J is being used for the identity element; this is the
normal practice when capital letters are used to represent the elements.)
We must also introduce another technical term here, namely the period
of an element. (Powers of an element are formed like powers of a number, i.e.
C* =C x C, etc.) The period of an element X is the smallest positive integer k,
such that X* = J. In Fig. 25.9, table (ii), each element has a period of 2. In table
(i), A has a period of 2, but what are the periods of B and C? If we list the powers
of these two elements, we obtain:

CSC,” C* =A, C*=2CA=aB, C= CR= I

and B'=B, B*=A, B*?>=BA=C, Bt*=BC=!
So we can see that both B and C have a period of 4. Notice also that the
successive powers of B (and C) produce all four elements of the group. We say
that B (and C) is a generator of the group. A generator of a group will always
have the same period as the order of the group. In the Klein group, shown in
table (ii), there is no element which will generate the group.
Qu.9 Find the period of each of the elements in table (xii), Fig. 25.1. Which
elements generate the group?
 Groups 493
Definition
A group which can be generated by the powers of a single element is called a cyclic
group. The standard symbol for a cyclic group of order n is (a

For a given positive integer n, it is a simple matter to write down the Cayley
table C, generated by an element A. Suppose that

A =A AB A=CoAt=D and Ai =I

(Remember that the period of A is equal to the order of the group, which in this
case is 5.) Then the Cayley table is as shown in Fig. 25.10.

I Aerie oe 2
I I amend GD
foe Swe 6D eal
B B Cc D I A
ore) ogOeil 8 a A B
Piewre 25 10 oD 1 Dixy J sO? Te Ew

If, instead of using the distinct letters J, A, B, C and D, we use the powers ofthe
generator A, then the table looks like Fig. 25.11,

Figure 25.11 A*| A* I AP” Arar AP

and if we write it out again, omitting the letters and recording the powers only,
we obtain the table in Fig. 25.12. (In the case of Iwe write I = A° and we record
the 0.)

O- f. 2 32-4
COD oe) Crating ame RTs
ja See” RA,PN Pd |
Dh 3 Ae I
OS ee | ot Re
Pisgte se ioe 4 | 4 0 5Ie 3

Now we have seen this table before (see Fig. 25.7). It is the table for addition
(mod 5). Consequently, C,, the cyclic group of order 5, is isomorphic to the
group of the sums of the integers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, (mod 3).
The argument which has just been applied to C;, could be applied to any
cyclic group. Hence we can conclude that C,, is isomorphic to the group formed
by adding the integers 0, 1,2, 3, ..., (n—1), (mod n).
 Pure Mathematics 1 25.6
494

Symmetry groups
25.6 In this section we shall be considering the symmetries of some plane
figures (solid objects can also be symmetrical, but plane figures are easier to
draw on a flat page!). Consider the rhombus in Fig. 25.13.

Vy

eats
Sele 6 ha
Figure'25:13

A rhombus illustrates the two kinds of symmetry which can be found in plane
figures; it can be reflected in the two axes, and it can be rotated in its own plane,
about O, through 180°. Most people have an intuitive feeling for symmetry, but
if it is necessary to spell it out in words, we could say that a symmetry is a
transformation of the figure in which the image coincides with the original position
of the figure. In order to distinguish between the four vertices we shall mark each
one in a distinctive manner. Fig. 25.14 shows the effect on the rhombus of the
four symmetry transformations:
H — a reflection in the x-axis
V —a reflection in the y-axis
R — a rotation about O, through 180°
I — the ‘no change’ transformation, i.e. the identity element

initial
position

first
transformation ae

I H

Figure 25.14

Now consider the effect of applying a second (but not necessarily different)
transformation. (There is a convention in this subject, that ‘apply transformation
X and then apply transformation Y’ is written YX, and any subsequent
 Groups 495
transformations are written on the left of any existing ones. This is the same
convention as that used in composite functions; see §2.10.) There is not sufficient
space to show all the sixteen possible pairs of transformations chosen from I, H,
V and R, but Fig. 25.15 shows the effect of applying H and then one of the others.

initial
position

first
transformation

second ee
transformation _ 4

<at> CO
IH = H HH = I VH =R RH= V

Figure 25.15

The remaining pairs are left as an exercise for the reader. (A copy of Fig. 25.13
cut out from a piece of cardboard is a useful aid.) The results of the combined
transformations are shown in Fig. 25.16; the four pairs shown in Fig. 25.15
appear in the column labelled H.
first transformation

I Haan, R

second I I Hie Vi R
transformation H|H I R Vv
Vv Vv R I H
Figure 25.16 RiPR fv H AI

The reader should, by now, be able to recognise this table; it is the Klein group.
Other groups can be produced from the symmetries of other symmetrical
polygons. The regular polgons give rise to an especially important set of groups
— the dihedral groups. The dihedral group produced by a regular n-sided
polygon is always written D,. The symmetry transformations will consist of n
rotations, through angles which are multiples of 360°/n, and n reflections, so
there are 2n elements in the dihedral group D,. We shall now examine D3, the
dihedral group of the equilateral triangle, in detail.
As in the previous example, we start with the figure in its standard initial
position, with its vertices marked (Fig. 25.17), so that we can distinguish between
them. The diagram also shows the three axes of symmetry marked ¢, d and e.
496 Pure Mathematics 1 25.6

Figure 25.17

The six elements of D; will be

I — the identity
A — a rotation, in the plane of the triangle, about O, through 120°
B — a similar rotation, but through 240°
C — a reflection in axis c
D — a reflection in axis d
E — a reflection in axis e

The effects of these six transformations on the standard triangle are shown in
Fig. 25.18.

initial
position

EPS ‘pee
ESR te Hie TOT
aa ae : ‘Ya aE
first pre Se h Oo Dn. a
transformation _ eae

BARRA AD
Figure 25.18

There is insufficient room to show the thirty-six combinations of two

transformations, but to illustrate the procedure, the six transformations ob-
tained by making transformation C, and then one of the others, are shown in
Fig. 25.19.
The remaining results are left as an exercise for the reader. The full set of
results appears in Fig. 25.20. (The results shown in Fig, 25.19 appear in the
column headed C.)
 Groups 497

initial
position

first
transformation
iS
Ay / WSS

I REAL
POOR OSTEwe
ME yapeas
|
E
second ee . /B oN ae eee
transformation= ee 4 / \ ~ ~S
vg
<<

Figure 25.19

I
A
B
C
D
Figure 25.20 E >SoA
|= a
Ppl
AMO
> DAMmM>r—wl
a rR aS
eo
6 |>was
OmMAIA ms

This group has an important feature which does not appear in any group of
order less than 6 — the order of the transformations matters, for example,
DA = E, but AD =C. Groups in which X Y = YX, for all pairs of elements X
and Y are called commutative (or Abelian) groups. The dihedral group D; is not
a commutative group.
Note that in Fig. 25.20, the elements are not symmetrical about the leading
diagonal (the one that goes from the top left-hand corner to the bottom right). In
an Abelian group, the Cayley table is always symmetrical about this diagonal.

Exercise 25b

Construct a Cayley table for each of the following groups:

1 The products of the integers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 (mod 7).

2 The sums of the integers 0, 1, 2, 3 (mod 4).
3 The cyclic group C,, generated by an element x, such that x® =e, the identity
~ element.
4 The dihedral group Dy, i.e. the symmetries of a square, using I for the identity
element, R, R?, R*, where R is an anti-clockwise rotation through 90°, for the
498 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 25b

rotations, and A, B, C, D for the reflections in the axes marked a, Db: é a ip

Fig. 25.21.

Figure 25.21

5 The dihedral group Dg, i.e. the symmetries of a regular hexagon, using I for
the identity element, R, R?, R*, R*, R°, where R is an anti-clockwise rotation
through 60°, for the rotations, and A, B, C, D, E, F for the reflections in the
axes marked a, b, c, d, e, f in Fig. 25.22. (Since there are 144 results to find, it is
suggested that this might be done as a class exercise.)

Figure 25.22

Subgroups
25.7 In the preceding sections the reader has met a fairly wide selection of
groups and has probably noticed that in several of them it is possible to spot a
 Groups 499
group within the group. In Fig. 25.1, table (vi), for instance, the elements e and Pp
form a group of order 2, and in table (xi), the elements I, A, B form a group of
order 3. Whenever a subset S of agroup G is itself a group, we say S is a subgroup
of G. (We may regard the whole group, and the identity element alone, as two
rather special subgroups of G. If it is necessary to exclude these two special cases,
we use the phrase proper subgroup.)

Qu. 10 List all the subgroups of the group in Fig. 25.1, table (vii).
Qu. 11 List all the subgroups of the group shown in Fig. 25.1, table (xi).
Qu. 12 List all the proper subgroups of C,, the cyclic group generated by an
element x.

Group theory
25.8 As with any other technical subject, the deeper one goes into it the more
necessary it becomes to ensure that all the terms used are clearly defined. In this
section we shall define and illustrate some of the more common terms used in
group theory. (Some of them have already been mentioned.) In these definitions
it will be convenient to use S to represent the set of elements under
consideration.

(a) A law of binary composition.

This is any rule for combining two elements to produce a new element; for
example, adding a pair of integers, finding the product of a pair of rational
numbers, adding a pair of vectors, finding the product of a pair of 2 x 2 matrices.
If we wish to have a symbol to represent a law of binary composition and we do
not wish to use +, —, x or ~, it is usual to use a small circle 0; however the
symbol is frequently omitted altogether, as it is in ordinary multiplication.

(b) Closure.
We say a set S is closed, under a binary operation 0, if, for any pair of elements a
and b which belong to S, the ‘product’ aob also belongs to S. For example, if we
add a pair of even numbers, the result is also an even number; the product of a pair
of 2 x 2 matrices is another 2 x 2 matrix; the sum of two vectors is another vector:
these are all examples of closed operations. On the other hand, the sum of two
odd numbers is not an odd number; the scalar product of a pair of vectors is not
another vector: these are examples of operations which are not closed.

(c) Ap identity element.

This is an element e of the set with the property that, given any element x of the
set S, eox =x0e =x. (When capital letters are used it is usual to use IJ for the
identity element.) We have already seen many examples of identity elements, e.g.

the matrix ; A is the identity element when multiplying 2 x 2 matrices, the

number 1 is the identity element when multiplying real numbers, and the number
0 is the identity element when adding real numbers.
 ! aS
500 Pure Mathematics

(d) An inverse element.

=e,
If xis any member ofthe set S, then the element x*, such that xox* =x*ox
is called the inverse of x. (It is frequently written x '.) When adding integers, the
inverse of an integer a is the integer — a (e.g. — Sis the additive inverse of 3} in
multiplication, the inverse of the (non-zero) rational number a/b is b/a (e.g. 2/5 is

the multiplicative inverse of 5/2). In the multiplication of2 x 2 matrices es

: 3 -—7 b > 06) BusgTie 2G I 0

is the inverse of Lott es) ecause > 3 sap orggype Si\igie fz).

(e) Commutativity.
A pair of elements a and b are said to commute if aob is equal to boa, i.e. the
order does not matter. If every pair of elements of a group commute, we say the
group is commutative. (Commutative groups are frequently called Abelian
groups, after the young Norwegian mathematician Henrik Abel, who did much
original work in this branch of mathematics.) Note that not all groups are
commutative, vide Fig. 25.1, table (xi).

(f) Associativity.
The law of binary composition is said to be associative in the set S if, for
every triplet a, b, c of elements of set S, ao(boc)=(aob)oc (ie. the position
of the brackets does not matter). Clearly both addition and multiplication
of real numbers is associative, but division is not, e.g. 72 + (6 + 3) = 36,
but (72 + 6) + 3 = 4. Both addition and multiplication of complex numbers are
associative and the same is true for addition and multiplication of (compatible)
matrices.
Qu. 13. Which of the following sets are closed under the given law of binary
composition?
(a) Even integers; multiplication.
(b) {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}; multiplication (mod 7).
(c) Prime numbers; addition.
(d) Complex numbers; multiplication.
Qu. 14 In which of the following systems does every element have an inverse?
In the cases where there are elements which do not have an inverse, give an
example of such an element.
(a) Rational numbers; multiplication.
(b) Non-zero complex numbers; multiplication.
(c) 2 x 2 matrices; multiplication.
(d) {1, 2, 3, 4}; multiplication (mod 5).
With these technical terms at our disposal, we can now state the formal
definition of a group.

Definition
A group is a set of elements {e, a, b, c, ...} and a law of binary composition, with the
following properties:
(1) The set is closed under the law of binary composition.
 Groups 501
(2) The law of binary composition is associative.
(3) There is an identity element.
(4) Every element has an inverse.
Notice that a group does not have to be commutative and that the number of
elements does not have to be finite.

Example 4 (a) Show that the set {0, 1, 2, 3} under addition (mod 4) forms a
group. (b) Show that the set {1, 2, 3} under multiplication (mod 4) does not form a
group.

(a) The table of addition (mod 4) is shown in Fig. 25.23.

eet ero 3
DO ett — 1255 3
wei 2 3
2 pees. SOND
Fireweso se Sp se eT 2

By inspection, we can see that it is closed; and since it is derived from ordinary
arithmetic, it is associative. The identity element is 0.
The table below shows that every element x has a corresponding inverse x*.

ee 0 1 2D 3

x* 0 3 Z 1

Hence it does satisfy all the group properties.

(b) The table for multiplication of the numbers 1, 2, 3 (mod 4) is shown in
Fig. 25.24.

Figure 25.24
Although this exhibits some of the group properties, it does not exhibit them all.
It is not closed and the element 2 has no inverse. Hence it is not a group.

Example 5 In a given set S, with a law of binary composition ©, there is a left

identity e, that is, an element e with the property that if x is any member of set S
then eox =x, and aright identity f , that is, an element f with the property that if
x is any member of set 8, xof=x. Prove that e=f.
Consider the ‘product’ eof. Since ¢ is a left identity, eof=f, and, since f is a
right identity, eof=e. Hence e=f.

(Formal proofs, such as that in Example 5, are common-place in university

level books on group theory; they will be kept to a bare minimum in this book.)
502 Pure Mathematics 1 25.8

We shall now prove that a group, as defined in this section, will have a Cayley
table which exhibits the ‘Latin square’ property which was used to introduce this
topic in §25.1. The ‘Latin square’ property requires that in each row (and in each
column) each element should appear once, and once only. We shall prove this for
a row; it is left as an exercise for the reader to prove it for a column.
Consider the row corresponding to the element a. This row contains all the
products of the form ao x, where x is any member of the set S. It is necessary to
prove two things:
(1) that, given an element b, it must appear somewhere in a’s row, i.e. it must
be possible to find a solution of the equation aox = b.
(2) that, if aox =aoy, then x = y. (This ensures that each ‘product’ appears
once only in a’s row.)
The proofs are as follows:
(1) Consider the product a*ob, where a* is the inverse of a. We know that
such an element exists (inverse property), and we know that a* ob is a member of
set S (closure property). If we put x =a*ob into the left-hand side of the
equation aox =b, we obtain
aox =ao(a* ob)
=(aoa*)ob (associative property)
=eob (inverse property)
=) (identity property)
Hence x = a* ob is the solution we require.
(2) Given that aox =aoy, multiply both sides by a* (we know that such an
element exists by the inverse property), hence
a* o(aox) =a* o(aoy)
(a* oa)ox =(a* oa)oy (associative property)
eox=eoy (inverse property)
x=y (identity property)
Hence, if aox =aoy, then x= y.

Exercise 25c
In this exercise, it may be assumed that every set mentioned is associative under the
given law of binary composition.

In Nos. I-5, a set of elements S and a law of binary composition o are given. In
each question say whether the set S is, or is not, a group under o. If you decide it
is not, give a clear reason for your decision.
1 The natural numbers; multiplication.
2 The odd integers (positive and negative), together with zero; addition.
3 The non-zero rational numbers; multiplication.
4 Numbers of the form 2*, where k € Z; multiplication.
5 Non-singular 2 x 2 matrices; multiplication.
 Groups 503
In Nos. 6—8, a finite group is given. In each case find a standard group e.g. a
cyclic group, to which it is isomorphic. Draw up a table showing each element
and its corresponding inverse.

6 {1, 4, 7, 13}; multiplication (mod 15).

7 The complex numbers, e= 1, a=}+(./3/2)i, b= —44+(,/3/2)i, c= —-1,
d= —4—(,/3/2)i, f=4—(./3/2)i; multiplication.
8 The 2 x 2 matrices

I=
Healbeal
1).
A
Siae-g bse! teatcae
—!1 0
=
1 £0
—
—1 0 A

multiplication.
9 Verify that the functions I(x)=x, A(x)=1/(1— x), B(x) =(x—1)/x,
C(x)= 1/x, D(x)=1—x, E(x)=x/(x—1), form a group when they are
combined by forming composite functions. Tabulate each element and its
inverse and, in the same table, show the period of each element. Is this a
cyclic group?
10 Prove that, with a restriction which you should specify, the numbers of the
form a+ b,/2, where a, b € Q, form a group under multiplication. What is
the inverse of a+ b,/2?
11 Repeat No. 10 for the complex numbers a+bi, where a,beR, under
multiplication.
12 Find a subset of the integers 1, 2, 3, ... 11, which, under multiplication
(mod 12), forms a group.

Cosets
25.9 Most of the finite groups which we have met so far in this chapter have
been groups of fairly small order. In order to develop the subject further we need
to look more closely at a group of higher order than those we have examined up
to this point. By way of example, we shall look at the group whose Cayley table
is shown in Fig. 25.25. (It is actually the dihedral group Dg.) Notice that the
elements of the group are not scattered in a random fashion, they appear in tidy
3 x 3 boxes; as we shall see, this is no accident. But first, we must meet another
important technical term — coset.
(In the remainder of this chapter, the symbol o for the rule of binary
composition will be omitted. The product of a pair of elements x and y will be
written xy, just as in elementary algebra.)

Definition
If H = {e, a, b, c, ...} is a subgroup of a group G, and ifx is any member of the
group G, the set of products

Rte eb ec; 2°.}

504 Pure Mathematics 1 250

is called the left-coset of H with respect to x. Similarly the set

Vex ake DME, cot
is called the right-coset with respect to x.

This rather bare definition may be difficult to assimilate at the first reading, so
let us consider a particular group. Look at the Cayley table, in Fig. 25.25.

[os BM CODane ee ee
: iF
rar Aj SBisk@ol (DAR Oi Sy
A | A) BYSTs WD UT ERO Op RAR Creat anes
Biel eB teh) AE C.D Reet een
ClC1£i Dal 5 sBrylid pec te ee
Dipl Di gC Ag yl (Bp ees eSBU On Brae
Bie Dive C i Bin A Pigalle sites “AReeOmeD
ee Se lone eee = = f---------- rcccccccce

PP Pe OPT IS) ye SU een re eee

O-+0O'"°R PT. US AS Bie ee ee
RY ERE OTS Oe ee
S'S Cl FP? RO Crs Fee ae
Se eee Frertrtcrcs-c

Telit(Saag ess Oarac? anttteleD ausCul

160 een tane
Figure 2525 U | UT «S-; R OQ =Pi, & Do) Cape
This group has several subgroups. We shall consider just one of them, the set
{I, A, B} which can be clearly seen in the top left-hand corner of the Cayley
table. We shall call this subgroup H.
(The reader’s attention is drawn to the fact that the letters H, G etc., which
represent groups will be printed in a special typeface, but the letters which
represent individual elements are printed in italics.)
The cosets JH, AH, BH are {J, A, B}, {A, B, I} and {B, I, A} respectively.
These can be clearly seen in Fig. 25.25; they are the first three elements in each of
the first three rows of the table. Bearing in mind that sets which contain the same
members are equal (see §2.6), we see that
YH =Ah =6H
In the next three rows of Fig. 25.25, we can see the three cosets CH, DH and EH.
Once again notice that they are equal, i.e. they are equal to {C, D, E}. The next
three rows contain the cosets PH, QH and RH and we can see that they equal the
set {P, Q, R} and, in the final three rows, we can see the cosets S H, TH and UH,
which are equal to {S, T, U}.
The set of elements in G, then, can be broken down or partitioned into four
distinct cosets, namely {I, A, B}, {C, D, Et, {P, Q, R} and {S, T, U}. This is a
particular example of Lagrange’s theorem, which will be proved in the next
section. Lagrange’s theorem states that if H is a subgroup of a group G, then the
order of H is a factor of the order of G. (In the case of the group in this section, the
order of H was 3 and the order of G was 12.) The proof of Lagrange’s theorem
 Groups 505
follows the method outlined above, that is, it sets out to partition G into distinct
cosets, each containing h elements, where h is the order of H. The reader may
find it helpful to refer back to this particular case while reading the general
proof.

Lagrange’s theorem
25.10 Lagrange’s theorem states that if G is a finite group oforder g and H is a
subgroup of G, of order h, then h is a factor of g.
Notice that if H is an improper subgroup, that is, it is either {I}, where J is the
identity element, or G itself, the theorem is trivial, so we need only prove it when
H is a proper subgroup of G.
Before embarking on the proof, we shall prove three emmas. (A lemma is a
minor theorem which forms part of the proof of a more important one.)

Lemma (1) The h members of the coset xH are distinct.

Proof This follows immediately from the fact that they all come from the same
row of G, and so, by the “Latin square’ property, they must be distinct.

Lemma (2) [fx is not a member of H, then the coset xH and H are disjoint sets.
Proof (The method of proof in this lemma will be reductio ad absurdum, and so
the first step is to assume there is an element of xH, say the element xa, which
does belong to H.)
Suppose that xa=b, where be H, then, multiplying both sides by a~ 1 we
obtain

(xcalenh= ba-*
hence
saa 1)=ba* (associative law)
xe=ba™! (because a _' is the inverse of a)
x=ba™' (because ¢ is the identity element)

Now b is an element of the subgroup H and so is a ', and since in any group
‘multiplication’ is closed, it follows that ba ' is a member of H. Hence xe H.
However this contradicts the fact that x does not belong to H, so the assumption
that xa belongs to H is false. Hence no element of xH belongs to H, ie. the sets
xH and H are disjoint.

Lemma (3) If y is not a member of the coset xH, then the cosets xH and yH are
disjoint.
Proof The proof of this lemma is very similar to that of Lemma (2) and so it is
left as an exercise for the reader.
The stageis now set for the proof of Lagrange’s theorem.
506 Pure Mathematics 1 S10

Let H = fe, a, b, c, ...} be a proper subgroup of G. Because it is a proper

subgroup, there is at least one member of G which is not a member of H; let this
element be x. Consider the coset xH. By Lemma (1), we know that xH contains h
distinct elements and, by Lemma (2) we know they are different from the h
members of H. So the sets xH and H together account for 2h members of G. If
this exhausts G then g = 2h and the proof of the theorem is complete. But if xH
and H do not exhaust G, there must be at least one more element of G
unaccounted for. Let this element be y and consider the coset yH. Once again,
Lemma (1) tells us that it contains h distinct elements; Lemma (2) tells us they are
different from the members of H, and Lemma (3) tells us that they are different
from the members of xH. So we have now accounted for 3h members of G; if this
exhausts G, then g = 3h. Failing that, we repeat the argument. Since G is a finite
group, we must eventually reach a stage when G is exhausted. When this
happens, the elements of G will have been partitioned into a number of distinct
cosets, each containing h elements. In other words g is a multiple of h, which
completes the proof of the theorem.
It follows from Lagrange’s theorem that if the order of G is a composite
number (i.e. not a prime number) then any subgroup of it must have an order
which is a factor of g. For example, if G is a group of order 12 then any proper
subgroups it may have must have 2, 3, 4 or 6 elements (but Lagrange’s theorem
does not say that such subgroups must exist.)

Qu. 15 Find all the proper subgroups of the group D, in Fig. 25.25 and verify
that their orders are factors of 12.

There is a very important corollary to Lagrange’s theorem; if the order of a

group is a prime number, then it can have no proper subgroups. Consequently no
element can have a period which is less than the order of the group (if it did, this
element and its powers would form a proper subgroup), and hence the group
must be cyclic. So any group of order p, where p is a prime number, is
isomorphic to the cyclic group C,.

Generators
25.11 In §25.5 we saw that some groups can be generated by a single element;
that is, every element; in the group can be expressed as a power of a single
element, called the generator of the group. It will be remembered that such
groups are called cyclic groups and that all cyclic groups of the same order are
isomorphic to one another. Not all groups, however, are cyclic; the Klein group
(see Fig. 25.9 (1i)), for instance, is not cyclic. We can say, however, that it is
generated by two elements P and Q, because the only remaining element R can
be expressed in terms of P and Q; indeed in this particular example R is equal to
PQ. When it is possible to express every element of a group in terms of just two
elements x and y, we say that the group is generated by x and y. In a large and
complicated group it may be necessary to have a large number of generators.
Example 6 illustrates a group of order 6, generated by two elements p and
r.
 Groups 507
Example 6 A group of order 6 consisting of the elements e, p, q, r, s and t
(e being the identity element) has the following properties:

q=p’, S=pr, t=p’r and pi=r?=s?=e

Draw the Cayley table of this group.

Without any working, it is possible to complete part of the Cayley table, as

shown in Fig. 25.26.

CL Dida il Vas t

comes p. qh r Bs ot
Pave? > jf" Ss
LL en
rotor e
‘4 ES e
Eieure 25.20 5 1

In order to complete the p row, consider the products ps and pt:

ps=p(pr) =p’r=t
pt = p(p*r)=p*r=er=r
To complete the q row, we look at the products qs and qt:

qs=(p*)(pr) =p’r=er=r
qt =(p*)(p*r) = p*r=pr=s
Before we tackle the next two rows, notice the following useful identities.

Since s* = e, and s = pr, we can write

(pr)(pr) =e
and, on removing the brackets,

prpr =e (1)
[In the next few lines, we shall follow the usual rule of “doing the same thing to
both sides of the equation’, but, because multiplication in this group is not
commutative, we must make it clear whether the given element is to be placed on
the right or on the left of the existing terms.]
Multiplying on the right by r,
prprr =er
hence, noting that r* =e,
prp=r
and multiplying again on the right by p*, we obtain

pr=rp’=rq
If, on the other hand we had multiplied (1) on the left by p?, we would have
 Pure Mathematics 1 Zoi
508
obtained

rpr =p =q
and multiplying this on the right by r gives
ip— on

These identities are very useful for completing the remaining rows of the Cayley
table. For the r row, we require the products rp, rq, rs and rt:
pa qr=t
ig=pr—s
rs=rpr=q
rt =rp*r =(pr)r = pr? = pe=p
To complete
the s row, we must find sp, sq, sr and st:
Sp'= prp =
Sq = prq=ps=t
sr = prr = pe=p
st = prp’r =(prp)(pr) = rs =q
The final row is left as an exercise for the reader. The complete Cayley table is as
shown in Fig. 25.27.
Con Pom aa Se ae

C460 PeeDee Ge AIS 00 ck

PUMP. BGeGeay SHY tlulon
Y PrQreeneipart ier ios
| Re CR TSM em Gee op
So) Seis WCE ps sehr
Figure 2527 seipitice see? Fam p ie

Exercise 25d (Miscellaneous)

Whenever the symbols I or e are used in this exercise, you should assume they are
intended to represent the identity element. When you are required to prove that a
certain system is a group, the formal definition in §25.8 should be used.

1 Show that the set {1, 3, 5, 7} forms a group under multiplication (mod 8).
2 Compile the Cayley table for the set {3, 6, 9, 12} under multiplication
(mod 15). Name the identity element and draw a table showing each element
and its inverse.
3 Show that the set of matrices of the form (, on |, where p,q € R, forms a
q
group under matrix multiplication. (The associative property may be
assumed.)
4 Given that x and y are two elements of a group G, and given that x has a
period of k, show that yxy‘ also has a period of k.
 Groups 509
5 Consider the Latin square in Fig. 25.28.

I A Conver ie * Fr aG
I I Aeeeombe foo fh. 8G
A A I G F E D C B
Bris Ff Ca TE OY, RR Bead @
eS) "Fore? fT oe a DD
DB). DD (Gea F per Eyal Cai xBe = 1A
Pett BCE De aA or GT
Pe ees Cw eee a) 3
Pieme oe GG h'G DY AB. Cc.” T | acl

(a) Find the group which is generated by G.

(b) Find the group which is generated by A.
(c) Find the group which is generated by A and F.
6 Using the Cayley table in No.5, find all the left-cosets of the subgroup
ti, AP
7 Given that f(x)=(1+-x)/(1—x), and combining functions by forming
composite functions, show that f generates the cyclic group C,. List the
functions which make up this group.
8 Given that the elements x, y and (xy) of a group all have a period of 2, show
that xy = yx.
9 Prove that the set of integers {1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8} forms a group under
multiplication (mod 9). Find the period of each element and show that the
group is isomorphic to the cyclic group C..

10 Given that M is the 2 x 2 matrix ( a; ae ),

show that
—sina cosa

ane =e cos 2a sin a)

— sin Je—-cos 20

cosna sin na
Prove by induction that M” af ),where ne Z*. Hence
—sinna cos na
show that if « = 2n/N, where N € Z*, M generates the cyclic group Cy.
11+ Prove that the group in Fig. 25.29 can be generated by R and S, provided
Ri= 5 =(k5y =I.

I I
P P
QO |
R | R
SPs
Poctrersow Tt ve D|
WO
AY
> YH
DAA™~Ov]
ARYA
V=O]O WIY A~WORWAY|
O>RA!

+These questions could be undertaken by several students working together.

510 Pure Mathematics 1 Ex 25d

12+ A group G is generated by two elements x and y, such that

4)
xia x= yg andy Xy= yx
Prove that x3y = yx and x?y = yx. Hence show that the group contains
exactly 8 members: e, x, x7, x°, y, yx, yx? and yx°. Write out the Cayley table
of G. é
13+ A group G is generated by three elements x, y and z, which satisfy
x3 = y* = 7? = (xy)? — (yz)? 2

Prove that (a) zx = xz, (b) yz = zy, (c) yx = xy. Hence find all the members of
G, expressing each one in the form x“y’z*, where a,b,ce Z*.
14 Consider the Latin square in Fig. 25.30.
Oo aay Oa ee
Piss R> voWaic Vase Pi die quia 2
esi Xo aS. Petit Wa¥Ox aha: vUyeV:
Re tO gees. XX") Re Vie U
5 Visi Ya Us —S Pi =aOnt F
Usie® otiQainKRess 3 Used! anWoadkkX
Ve op Clerk Sov Ona Verred RisidO
Wad Reales Vo QObas W , Moms: RP
Ficure:25:30— 7X- i, We Uo Re kee Veeos
(a) Simplify: (PQ)R, P(QR), R(SU), (RS)U, (VW)X, V(WX).
(b) Name the identity element.
(c) Assuming that the associative law is satisfied, show that this Latin square
is a group.
15 In No. 14, find two subgroups of order 4. Partition the group into the four
left-cosets with respect to the subgroup generated by the element S.
16 The multiplication table for the set {e, a, b, c, d} is given in Fig. 25.31.
re: Pee ee

@ ) € ex@uaab aachied
Gis) ersten DB
Bl ibedatwe s7 Gen 6
CT Cr 0 ae Cee TE
Figure.25.31 odode ¢@ aa. bo “é
Using this table, determine (ab)c, a(bc), (bc)d, b(cd). Ascertain which of the
group axioms are satisfied by the given set under the given multiplication.
Find two subsets from the above set which form a group under the given
multiplication. (L)
17 (a) Prove that the set of non-zero reai numbers form a group under the
operation defined by xo y = 2xy. State the identity of this system, and give
the inverse of x.

+See previous page.

 Groups 511
(b) A set of four 2 x 2 matrices forms a group under matrix multiplication.

Two members of the set are G ')and ({ Ak Find the other

1 0 -1
members and write out the group table. (L)
18 Show that the four matrices

505 se) il a3
Acat O<1' 6 B= 0-1 0
40 4 -4$ 0-4
04 0 Te
Saves |p D=| 7 0 ~/5
0 Vi 0 bee 0
form a group under matrix multiplication (which may be assumed to be an
associative operation). Give the operation table (i.e. the Cayley table) for this
group.
Determine whether or not this group is isomorphic under multiplication
to the group consisting of the four matrices
1 0 wy Gj i +6 ey mG
e=(5 1} o-( 0 At R=(, ra s=( in ee
19 Prove that the integers {..., —3, —2, —1, 0, 1, 2, ...} form a group G under
the operation of ordinary addition. Give an example of a proper subgroup.
Prove that the powers of 2 {...,%,4,3, 1, 2,4, ...} form a group H under
ordinary multiplication.
Establish an isomorphism between G and H and give the subgroup of H
corresponding under this isomorphism to your previous subgroup of G.
(C)
20 You are given that the set of real 2 x 2 matrices with non-zero determinants
is a group G under multiplication. Show that the set S of all matrices of the
ay —A
form A = )(with a, and a, taking real values, but not both zero) is
@ ay
a subgroup of G. Is it Abelian (i.e. does AB = BA for all A, Be S)? Given an
arbitrary element A€S, find an element C eS (if there is one) such that
C? =A. If there is one is it unique?
Find an element J € S (if there is one) such that J? = —I, where I is the
identity matrix.
Comment briefly on the relationship between the set S and the set of all
complex numbers (x + iy).
(Oxford Colleges Entrance Examination)
Appendix
Elementary algebra — revision
The object of this Appendix is to give the reader some extra practice, if it is
needed, in the algebraic manipulation which he or she will meet in this book.
Readers who are confident about their command of algebra may omit the
Appendix; others may find it useful to ‘brush-up’ particular topics. Some
teachers may wish to use it as a preliminary course in basic algebra before
embarking on the rest of the book.

Simplification
Example 1 Simplify (x + h)* +(x — h)’.
(x +h)? +(x —h)? =x? + 2xh+ h? + x? —2xh+h?
= 2x? + 2h?
= 2(x? +h?)

Exercise 1
Simplify:

1 (x +h)? —(x— hy. 2 (x +h)? +(x —h)?.

3 (x +h)? —(x—h)?. 4 x(1 — 2x?)
+ 2x(1 — x?).
y—3 2 2y—1 3
5 ante} fd 33
X%s-5 5 ° 3 4°
3t? + 2t3
7 (2./t—3)(1 +,/t). es i”
what ctinlt (1+¢t)? (141)
1 1
ti30 nx xy
9 * . 10 :
Gi 2) Geee ed
xy

512
 Appendix Elementary algebra — revision 513

Factorisation
Example 2 Factorise 2x(2x + 1)? + (2x + 1)(4x? — 3).
(When factorising an expression like this, it is important to spot any common
factors; in this example (2x + 1) is a common factor.)
2x(2x + 1)? + (2x + 1) (4x? — 3) = (2x + 1) [2x(2x + 1) + 4x? — 3]
= (2x + 1)(4x? + 2x + 4x? — 3)
= (2x +:1)(8x? + 2x — 3)
= (2x + 1)(2x — 1)(4x + 3)

(Note that if an expression can be factorised, this should be done.)

Exercise 2

Factorise:
1 35x? +x —6. 2 2x?
= 98.
3 2x? —xy—y?’. 4 xy+ay+xb+ab.
5 xy+3y—2x—6. 6 x(x + 1)? +(x + 1)(x? — 3).
7 (x + 3)(x? + 3) + x(x + 3)”. 8 5(x+ 1)? + 7x(x+ 1).
9 (x + 3)?—(x—7). 10 (x — 2)? + 5x(x — 2).

Fractions
Example 3 Express as a single fraction:
1 2 1 1
Ostia t
1 ys 1 1 —3x vi 2 s 2+x
eti ay rx
— = — X
bax 1—3x 2+
_ (1—3x)+2(2 + x)
(24+ x)(1 — 3x)

_1-3x+4+2x
(2x) (13x)
5—-x
~ (2+ x)(1
— 3x)
1 1 b2 a?

© ab! ae
Poa
a? + b?
a*b?

(In this part, notice that a*b° is the lowest common multiple of the original
denominators a*b and ab*.)
514 Pure Mathematics 1

Exercise 3

Express as a single fraction:

Leeks } Sear
xy Veax
1 fe 1
St, es ae ihatb

> Khan .
coe ee Es
1 1 1 1
ee
1 D. 8 Bs 2
Wel Feiss ae 8 Be
n 1 1 1
, 10 +1
Ee) ae) (x+1)? (x41)

Further simplification

Exercise 4

Simplify:
2T —2t 1
72k 2 Ye tt s(x)

Dede TA
1-t HTL ie

5 N(4N2—1)+3(2N 4+1)? Ls. grea nak

J(a+b) J(a+b)
a/b+c/d g & thy —x*
1+.ac/(bd) h
: Pes x? 0 | Y= 2¢/(1'+
t?)
VU+x?) (1 +x?)(1 +x?) 1+2t/(1+t?){°

Completing the square

(Completing the square is a very useful technique which appears in several
different contexts. It depends on the identity

(A + B)? = A? + 2AB + B?
as the following example illustrates. In each of the questions below, there is a
number missing wherever a box has been printed.)
 Appendix Elementary algebra — revision ot )
Example 4 Complete: (Ox + 0)? = 25x? + 70x +
Comparing this incomplete statement with the identity above and, in
particular, comparing the term 25x? with A? in the identity, we see that A = 5x.
Comparing the middle terms, namely 70x and 2AB, and bearing in mind that
A=5x, we can see that B=7. Lastly, the final term on the right-hand side
should be B* and so the missing number in the last box is 49. The complete
statement is
(6x4 JY =25x7.4570%4.49

Exercise 5

Complete the following:

1 (x4 37 =x? + 0x49. Dix)
=x — xe e
3 (3x + 2)? = 9x? + Ox44. 4 (x+ 0)? =x?+10x+ 0.
§ (x =O)? =x? = 14x40: 6 (2x+ O)? = Ox? + 12x+
7 (x +3)? =x?+0x+0. 8 (4x— 0)? = Ox? —x4+ D.
9 (Dx? + 3)? =.100x* + 60x? + O. 10 (4x+ Oy)? = Ox? +4xy4+ Oy’.

Changing the subject of a formula

—k x—h
Example 5 (a) Make y the subject of — = oo
Mee
(b) Make x the subject of m= ;
— x i

Yuk) wih
(a) at ob
Multiply both sides by a:

y—k=ax
(x —h)
b

=F (eh)
Add k to both sides:

= ae:—h) +k
(b) (This is slightly harder because x appears more than once; the purpose of
the first few steps is to rearrange the equation so that x appears once only.)
sear@
m=

tom ad
516 Pure Mathematics 1
Multiply both sides by b— x:
mb—x)=x+a
-,mb—mx=x+a

Add mx to both sides and subtract a from both sides:

mb—a=x+mx
= x(1 +m)

(This has achieved the first objective; x now appears once only.)
Now, divide both sides by (1 + m):

mb—@ _
1+m

: mb —a
ive, 3
l1+m

Exercise 6

In each question, the letter which is to be made the subject is printed at the end
of the line in brackets.
Ly=mx+c, (m).
2 b=a(l1—e), (e).

3 y? =(x+a)? —(x-a)’, (x).

sg a 0»
5 3me
=(4 +3m)(c —4), (0).

uf! ;
6 ax—x+1-—b=0, (x).
|
1T=252 j=,

8 ran ft
se (g).

9 2x+2y+2mx —4my+1=0, (m).

10 2x —3y—3mx+2my—2m+4=0, (m).

Linear and quadratic equations

Example 6 Solve the equation $(2x — 3) —4(x — 2) =2.
$Qx-3)-$(x-2)=4
 Appendix Elementary algebra — revision oly
Multiply both sides by 6:
3(2x — 3) — 2(x — 2) =7
6x =9=—2x+4=7
(Be very careful over the + sign in front ofthe 4: this is a very common source of
error!)

Simplifying the left-hand side gives

4x—5=7
4D

and hence

E15

[It is a wise precaution to check the answer by substituting x = 3 in the original

equation. The L.H.S. gives

3(2x — 3) —$(x — 2) = 3(6 — 3) 43. —2)

x os 1

Example 7 Solve the equation tx —t* = Tx — T’, expressing x in terms of t

and T.
Mee=a Fs — 77
Ee 1X ef — T"
Factorising this gives
x(t — T) =(t— T)(t+ T)
Dividing both sides by (t — T) we have
x=(t+T)
(However, it should be noted that the final step, namely dividing by (t — 7), is
only permissible if t # T, because one must never divide by zero. If t does equal
T, the original equation is true for all values of x.)

Exercise 7

Solve the following equations:

ee
1 2x+1=16— 3x. 2, 3 <= 5 aa),

x 1 ee a!
eet 7 + hor 2°
B97 = 17x + 21 =0. 14.
6 x? =5x4+
518 Pure Mathematics I

Pee Epes;
Xibies- ie oo”

In Nos. 8—10, express x in terms of the other letters.

Mul gC xX
8 9 5x? — 16tx + 3t? =0.
Nets te)
10 tx? + (tT —1)x -—T=0.

Simultaneous equations
(The reader will have solved simultaneous equations before, but the method of
substitution may be new. In Example 8, substitution is merely an alternative to
other possible methods, but in Example 9, it is the only way the equation can be
solved.)

Example 8 Solve the simultaneous equations

7x+2y=11 (1)
4x+y=7 (2)
Equation (2) can be rearranged to give
y=7-4x
Substituting (7 — 4x) for y in equation (1):
7x + 2(7 — 4x) = 11
Removing the brackets,
Ix + 14=8x=11
~ 14=x= 11
. x=3
Putting x = 3 in equation (2) gives
12.Faye 7
oy=-5
Hence the solution is x = 3, y= —S. (This should be checked by substituting
these values into equation (1).)

Example 9 Solve the simultaneous equations

Xe ey? = 25?
2y+x=10r

giving the answers in terms of r.

From the second equation we have
x = 10r—2y
 Appendix Elementary algebra — revision aL9
Substituting this into the first equation gives

(10r — 2y)? + y? = 25r?

Removing the brackets,

100r? — 40ry + 4y? + y? = 25r?

ie. 100r? — 40ry + Sy? = 25r?
~. 5y? — 40ry + 75r? =0
After dividing both sides by 5, this becomes
y? — 8ry+ 15r? =0
.. (y — 3r)(y
— 5r) =0
Therefore either y — 3r = 0, or y—5r=0.
peor *or Sr
Substituting these values into the equation 2y + x = 10r, gives
either 6r+x=10r, ie, x=4r
or 10r-+-x=10r ie, x=0

Hence the solution is

x=O0= and y= 5r
or
x=4r “and -y=3r
(It should be carefully noted that each solution consists of a value of x and a
value of y.)

Exercise 8
Solve the following equations:
1 7x + 4y= 10, 2 6x+y=9,
5x + 3y =7. 4x-—y=11.
3 5x+2y+1=0, 4 yy’ =4x,
yo TX +43. y=x.
5 xy = 64, 6 y*=4x +1,
4x — y= 60. y=x41.

In Nos. 7-10, express x and y in terms of the other letters.

7 2y=x+4e, Sty x4 i’,
S5y=x+25c. Ty=x+T’, t# T).
(where
9 xy 1, 10 x? — y* =16a’,
Px y=t*— it. y = 3x — 12a.
520 Pure Mathematics 1

Equations of higher degree

(Equations of degree more than two can be very troublesome to solve unless
they can be factorised. However when factors can be found, the same idea which
is used in the solution of quadratic equations by factorisation may be used,
namely that a product of real numbers (see §2.1) can only be zero if one of the
factors is zero.)

Example 10 Solve the equation x* — 5x* + 6x =0.

Since x is a factor of each term in the equation, we can re-write it as
x(x? — 5x + 6) =0
and on factorising the quadratic, we have
x(x — 2)(x —3)=0
Hence
x=0 of x=2=0° or x—3=8
Therefore x =0! or 2, or 3:

(Notice that although it is tempting to “divide through’ by x, if we do so, we lose

the solution x = 0.)

Example 11 Solve the equation x* — 5x? — 36 =0.

(Although this is an equation of degree 4, we may treat it as a quadratic in x”.)
X*—5X —36=0, X¥ =x?
where
Factorising:
(X —9)(X +4) =0
ie. (x? —9)(x?+4)=0
The factor (x? + 4) cannot be zero (not, that is, unless we use complex numbers,
see §10.6), so if x is a real number we must deduce that
x?-—9=0
x?=9
Therefore.x = +3, or —3;

Exercise 9

ee the following equations. In Nos. 6-10 express x in terms of the other

etters.

1 x°—4x=0. 2 x= 7x7.
3X =O, 4x? = 17x? + 16 =0.
5 9x* 4. 5x7 — die (), 6 x°+kx?=0.
 Appendix Elementary algebra — revision BYA
7 (x — a)? — b*(x —a)=0. 8 x>+a’x=0.
9 x*—a*=0. 10 (x—p) =q°.

Exercise 10 (Miscellaneous)
1 Simplify:
(a) ./{(a —b)? + 4ab}, (b) (a + b)? — 3ab(a + b).
2 Factorise:
(a) K*(K + 1)? + 4K 4+ 1), (b) N(N + 1)(2N +7) + 6(N + 1)(N 4 3).
3 Express as a single fraction:

a Leu S, 27, 1 (b) 2 2N +3

(x—h)? (x +h)?’ (N+1)(N+3) (N+1)(N +2)
4 Simplify:
2n+1 1
(a) (b) N{(N + 1)(2N + 1) +9(N + 1) 4 12}.
n?(n+1)? n?’
5 Complete the following:
(a) 7x + O)? =49x?4+42x+0, (b) &4+0)?+0=x?4
7x + 13.
6 Make x the subject:
(a) u=./(3x + 3), (b) u = 5x? + 1.
7 Solve the following equations, expressing x in terms of a:
1 1 3
(a) 5a) +<(2x+a)=—, (b) 7x? + 4ax — 3a? =0.

8 Solve the following equations, expressing x in terms of c and t:

(a) c/t =(x —ct)/t?, (b) x —c/t = —t?(x + ct).
9 Solve the following simultaneous equations, giving the answers in terms of a:
(a) 7x —4y + 5a=0, (b) y? =Aax,
9x —Sy— a=0. 4y = 3(x —a).
10 Solve the following equations, giving the answers in terms of k:
(a) x°+k?x=0, (b) x®°—7k*x? —8k° =0.
Answers
Chapter 1
Qu. 1 (= 3, 2),(2; = 3), 10,0).
Qu. 3 (a) 13, (b) ./41, (c) Jer —p)? +(s
Qu. 4 >a) (5, 6), (b) (— 1, 4), (c)
(— 3, — 3), (d) N

Qu. 5 —a) 4, (b)3, (c)—5, (d) —44, (e)

0, SN — p), (8) — 1, (h) b/a.
q)/(r
Qu. 6 whol
Qu. 7 .
|Sis
i eae:
Qu. 8 3, (b) —4, (c) 6, (d) 3, (©) — 1/(2m), (f) a/b, (g) 2/m.
Qu. 9 oov
5S)=
—_~—
—S rallel,
] (b) perpendicular, (c) neither.
Qu. 10
Qu. 11
Qu. 12
Qu. 13
Qu. 14
Qu. 15
Qu. 16 bya apn (4) 2,(¢) a/p.
Qu. 17 y=3x+4,
(c) y=3x—1,
(d) y=4x 42,

Qu. 18 ba, yh Feet Be Ge aes, ()

—In, = nn.
Qu. 19 EG, (b) wee een ye
Qu. 20 x —2y— 26=0, (b) 5x +2y—1=0.
Qu. 21 x —2y—19=0, (b) 12x + 5y—1=0.
Qu. 22 y—y, =m(x — x,).
Qu. 23 (a) (43, 1), (b) (1, 5), (©) (0, ©), (d) (—a, c —a).
Qu. 24 No. They are parallel.
Qu. 25 (=7, 0),(3,0).

Exercise la, page 4

1 (a) 4, (b) 5, (c) 6, (d) 13, (e) 74, (f) 10.
2 (a) (3, 2), (b) (3, 3), (c) BIE 3), (d) (0, 3), (e) (my of ma? 3), (f) (as 6, ae 7).

522
 Answers 523
Page 4
R|
-
PA'S 9)0wete |
lw— nN 'so) v2) N

joa DeyRas es
ies)
fe)

Exercise 1b, page 14

(a)2,(b) —5, (©) yoLows

(a) ts(b) 11} fe) ./3a) — 1/73.
(a) eas - Stet(c)perpendicular, (d) parallel,
(e) perpendicular, (f) neither.
50; (33,44). 7 4./34;(3, 13). 8 10, 1, 2,26; +2, +4.
— 27, —1, 1,27; —2, 0, 2. 10 (a) yes, (b) no, (c) no, (d) yes.
3
(a) (4, 0),(a5) 0), (0, — 12), (b) (4, 0), (4, 0), (0, 2), (c) (0, 9), and touches
x-axis at (3, 0), (d)(9, 0), and cuts y-axis, touches x-axis at (0, 0),
(e) (— 1, 0), (0, 25) and touches x-axis at (5, 0),
(f) (1, 0), (—1, 0), (3, 0), (—3, 0), (0, 9).
13 (a) y=x, (b) y= —x, (©) y=4x, (d) y=5x —4, (€)x= —5,
(f) y= —4x4+5.
14 (a) y= 11, (b)x =4, (c) y= 6x= 10, (d) y= — 8x 4 2, (€)y= —4x—-1.
15 y=§x. 16 M(0, —3); S(5, — 1). 17 (a) (b —q)/(a
— p), 7, (b) —3

Exercise Ic, page 18

1 (a) 4x — y—1=0, (b) 3x —y+ 11 =0, (c)x —3y—17=0,
(d) 3x + 4y — 41 =0, (e) 3x —6y —4=0, (f) 20x + 12y+ 31 =0.
2 (a) 3x — 4y + 21 =O, (b) Sx + 4y — 23 =O, (c) 3x + 1ly —35=0,
(d) x —5y —19 =O, (e) 2x + 3y —7=0, (f) 2x —y+1=0.
3 AG AN @) (43 F407. =77) OD =7).
4 (a) 3x —4y + 1 =0, (b) 5x —2y + 16 =O, (c) 7x — y— 28 =0,
(d) 3x —4y —6=0.
- 2x —S5y+19=0. 6 26x +4y—21=0.
7 7x — 10y — 70 = 0; 7x + 10y = 0. 8 2x—7y—3=0. 9 £.
10 (2, —5). 11 4x —3y—13
=0; 5. 12 x+4y—15=0.
13 Tx —4y — 43 =0. 14 (0, 0), (16, 64). t5 0/52 elie,

Exercise 1d, page 19

5x + y—33=0.
2x + 7y — 14=0; 2x —7y—14=0.
(a) 3x — Sy + 14 =0,(b) 3x + Sy — 14=0, (c) 2x + 5y + 14=0.
mm, = —1, (a) Sx #2y — 11 =0, (b) 2x — Sy— 16 = 0.
(0, 0), (2, 3), (5, —3); y= 0, 9x + 2y—21= 0, (24, 0).
(a) 3x + 2y +5 =O, (b) 2x + 7y—19= 0, (c) 2x + 5y+ 11 =0.
(a) 2x — 3y — 14 =0, (b) 3x +2y—8= 0, (33, 75).
/85, 6x + Ty — 85 = 0. 9 (1, 8), 52. 1f (a) ABS AC=-135(b) 12, 78.
MK
=
NOAA
AWN
— oy ty17 = 0,723. 42y —9'=0,(3,'3)) G, 9), 3/5:
13 x—y=0)2x
524 Pure Mathematics 1

Page 20
14 x+3y+2=0,x-—3y—4=0. 15 x+4y—9=0.
16 3x+4y+1=0, 4x-3y—7=0.
17 13x—8y=0, 4x + y—30=0, x -2y4+12= 0, (22, 22).
18 x+2y+4=0, 8x—y+15=0 , 10x + 3y—45=0. 19 (2./3,44/3).
20 (—11, 3), 174. 21 3x+4y 4x
—15=0 ,
—3y—1=0.
22 3x+2y—2=0;4x+y4+1= 0,
(—%, 4). 23 13x+ y—22=0.
249. 1S; 2a,

Chapter 2
Qu.1 (a) F, (b) T, (c) F, (d)F.
Qu.2 (a) —2.5, (ees eee —5, (d) +,/3, —,/3.
Qu.3 (a) ‘3 x ER, x #3},
R, (b) {x: = x< 10}, {y:yeR,O<y},
(c) {x: x ER, |x| <5}, {y: yER, |y| <5}, d) fu: xe R, x A £5},
{y:yeR, y<Oory>s}; ()R, {y: ye R, O<y<qs}.
Qu.4 (a) many-to-one, (b) one-to-one, (c) not a function, (d) many-to-one.
Qu.7 Odd. Qu.8 2. Qu.9 9. Qu. 10 7.389. Qu. 11 1.
Qu. 12 0.5.

Exercise 2a, page 27

te (@) {4951625}, (b) 41,4; 452, 5}, (C) (2.4, & S10), (d) 3.9 1a a,
2 (a) {0, 1,4, 9}, (b) {—24, —6,0, +6, +24}, (c){0, 1, 16, 81},
(d) {ta yak
3 (a) {1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81},(b) {9, 16, 21, 24, 25},
(¢} (1, 2,354, 5.0, Loa Sel) ta, Lolo ous, tote eee
4 (a) F, (b) T, (c)T, (d) T.
5. 14, 293);
6. (4) (S10 15 45h 1a. 98 35, OL ret ga 98},
(b) multiples of 35, (c) 19, 14, 2, 31.
7 (a) {3, 6,9, ... 18}, (b) {4, 8, 12, 16, 20},
(c) {Hy 45 57s Bo 10S oa ers cl O21 749: 20},
i.MI 23s Gogo. IU. Tie booth body Ls 193,
(e} (1)2;5,.7, 10 , 11, 13, 14, 17, 19}, (f) the same as (e).
8 (a)0. , (b) 0.385 714, (c) 0.27.
a
10 (a) 35, (b) 7, (©) Njw
Exercise 2b, page 32
1 (a) 1, (b) 126;(0) 12 VED. 0 ~2141, 6 p16) 21:26)
3 {y: LD a 4 {y: yeRO<y<l}. 5 {:xeER<
,x25}.
6 fg: xt+ 5x? +1, gf: xt (5x + 1)”.
7 (a)(5+h)?=25+10h+h?,(b)10+h. 8 2a+h,
9 (a)8,(b) — 1000, (c)
4,(d)125a°, (e) a3/27, (f) a? + 3a2h + 3ah? + hi,
+ 2h, (h) 3a? + h?.
(g) 6a*h
0 (a) 56, (b) 91, (c)2,Fix(x —21)/7.
at
 Answers 525
Exercise 2c, page 37
18 (a) translation a to the right, (b) translation a vertically upwards,
(c) ‘stretch’, x k, parallel to the y-axis, (d) reflection in the x-axis,
(e) reflection in the y-axis.

Exercise 2d, page 46

1 (a) x =7, (b) x = —3, (c) x = — 0.2, (d) x =(a—1)/5.
2 (a) t=7, (b) t=5.5, (()t =4, (d)t=1at5.
3 (a) f- *(x) = 24 — 2x, (b) £7 (x) = 3 + 2x, (0) f- *(x) =4(5x — 1),
(d) f" *¢x) =(7 — 10x)/3.
(a) f(x) = 9x/5 + 32, (b) f(x) = x/180 4 2, (c) f(x) = x/2n,
(d)f" 4(x) =2(x + 9) — 7.
(a) Ft: t+ /(t— 5), (t > 5), (b) Fh: tt 07/25, (Q) Fh:trhe Yt+5,
fale ie et — 1.
(a)g *: xt 1/x + 3, (x 40), (b) g's x (1/x— 1)/2, (x #0),
(c)g-': xt 4—3/x, (x £0), (d) gb: xt x/(2 — x), (x £2).

Exercise 2e, page 52

(a) 2.5, (b) 0, (c) a0, (d) 0.
(a) 6, (b) 10, (c) 75, (d) oo.
(a) £(0) = 1, (b) not possible, (c) not possible, (d) 3.
(a) continuous, (b) discontinuous (c) discontinuous, (d) continuous.
= + 3, f(3) = 4, f(— 3) = —2.
nhwn

Exercise 2f, page 53

1 (a) {8, 23, 48, 83, 128}, (b) {4, 3,3, 4, 3}
2 (a) 6, (b) 12, (c) 30, (d) —60.
3 (a)2, (b) — 10, (c) — 12, (d) 2(a—5).
4 {2t:teZ,t>0}, non-negative integers.
5 (a) 5(x + 1)%, (b) 25x? + 1.
6 (a) 5x, (b) 7 —x, (c) (7 — x)/5, (d) 7 — 5x.
tescate) < p< 1}.
8 gf(x) =x/(x? + 2x — 15), x £0, 3, —S.
9 (a) one-to-one, (b) one-to-one, (c) many-to-one,
fgh(x) = 10/(x? + 5) +2, {y:2<y<4}.
10 @=5, b=7.
11 (a) 7, (b) 1.
x >0}, {y:0<y<4}, /(4/x— 1), {x:0<x <4},
12 (a) {y:0<y <2}, (b) {x:
fy:0<y< oo}.
13 f(x) =x’, pe O.

Chapter 3
Qu.1 The circle.
Qu.2 90°.
526 Pure Mathematics 1

Qu.3 PQ >0, QO-0, PQ/QO =§.

Qu.4 3, 24, 2.1, 2.01; 2.
Qu.5 Q-P; gradient of PQ gradient of tangent at P; 2.
Qu.6 4.
Qu.7 —3, —2, 1,4.
Qu.8 (a) 6x, (b) 10x, (c) x, (d) 2cx, (e) 2x, (f) 2x.
Qu.9 4x3.
Qu. 10 6x’.
Qu. 11 (a) 12x”, (b) 20x°, (c) 2ax, (d) 4nx"~*, (e) k(n + 1)x"
Qu. 12 (a) 3x? + 4x + 3, (b) 16x? — 6x, (c) 2ax + b.
Qu. 13 (a) 12x? — 4x, (b) 2x — 1, (c)S.

Exercise 3a, page 68

1 1ox*5. 2 DA he 4 5. Se 6 10x —3.
7 12x3?—6x?+2x—-1. 8 8x°+x7—4x. 9 3ax* +2bx +c.
10 18x?-8. 11 (5x7 +4.3x. 12 —1. 13,0. pV WhiBoEea 5
15 ax —2b. 16 4x +2. 17 6x —3. 18 x?—1. 19 2x —1.
Me 6m. nell’xt.. 922 Seed, 23 ea eee
26 3; —4. 27 —5;4. 28 28; — 36. 29 9; — 24. 30 (4, 16).
31 (12, =8),(2:8) 32 0,0). 33 (3, —3) Psa eiai.o)
35 (2-12), 36.0, 1), 44). 3 ee
38 (1, 4), (3, 0).
Exercise 3b, page 71

1 (a) 4x —y—4=0, (b) 24x — y— 46 =0, (c)x + y—1 =0, (d) 8x + yp—5=0,
(e) 18x + y+54=0.
2 (a)x+4y—18=0, (b) x + 24y — 1204 =0, (c)x —y+1=0,
(d) x —8y —25 =0, (e)x —18y + 3=0.
3 9x—y—27=0;x+9y—3=0. 4 16x—y=0;x+ l6y=0.
5 2x—y-—10=0. 6 4x+y—3=0. 7 y+4=0; y—23=0.
8 y—10=0;y+17=0.

Exercise 3c, page 72

1 6,6x—y+2=0,(—?,
—3). 2 10x — y— 16 =0,(—4,
— 56).
3 5x—y—1=0, (2,4),(4-8). <4 dx — 2y 45 0,(2, $0)
5) (oN (Oy (2, Of p= 2x x4 po 120, pode 4,
6 x —- 4 3 0 y= 016 9),
pie pees ly per ee
8 (42.0),x 224-2 Ox +3y— 20, 0,1).
9 y=3xt2y=3x+6. 10 (—/3, —4./3),0,0),(/2,4,/2)
1362 001; hese Aion moa. ai
13 6x—y—9=O,(1, I. 14 2x +y+ 16=0,(— 16,16)
15° 2x—y—1=0, 6x—3y—8=0,4,/5.
16 4h, y—k=4h(x—h), y=+12x. 17 (1, 4),(3, 12).
18 (a) f: x 3, gs x H+ 2x, (b) 3, 20, (©) (3x + 4)?, 6(3x
+ 4).
 Answers O27
Chapter 4
Qu.1 6.1 m, 12.2 m/s.
Qu.2 (a) 1.0m, 10 m/s, (b) 4.9 (2h + h?) m, 4.9(2 +h) m/s.
Qu.3 9.8 m/s.
Qu.4 = (a) 24.5m, 24.5 m/s, (b) 11 m, 22 m/s, (c) 2.0m, 20 m/s,
d) 4.9 (4h + h*) m, 4.9 (4 + h) m/s; ae
Qu.5 = (a) 6.9, 23.6, 50.1, 86.4 m below top, (b) 11.8, 21.6, 31.4, 41.2 m/s,
) 26.5 m/s.
Qu. 6 a) 19.8, 29.6, 39.4, 10 + 9.8t, m/s,
b) straight line through (0, 10) of gradient 9.8.

Exercise 4a, page 78

1 (a) 10.5 m, 10.5 m/s, (b) 13, 15, (15.4 — 4.9h) m/s, (c) 15.4 m/s.
2 v=24.5 —9.8t, (a) t =0, 5 seconds, (b) 19.6, 29.4, 29.4, — 29.4 m; 14.7, 4.9,
—4.9, — 34.3 m/s, (c) below ledge; falling, (d) t = 2.5; 30.6 m, (e) 2.4 m.
3 v=3+2t; (a) At O, 3 m/s, (b)t =0, or —3,
(c) t= —3, 7m from O on the negative side, (d) — 3 m/s.
4 (a) 0, 8, 9, 8,0, —7 m; on AO produced.
(b) 6, 2, —2, — 6 m/s; moving in direction AO.
(c) t= 3; 9 m from O, on OA.
5 (a) 11.59 a.m., 12.03 p.m., (b) 3, 1 km, (c) & km/min = 173 km/h,
(d) 4 km/min = 20 km/h.
6 (a) 11.57 a.m., 12.02 p.m., (b) 3, +4 km, (c)33km/min= 202 km/h,
(d) +km/min = 30 km/h.
7 29.4 m/s.

Exercise 4b, page 80

1 2.5 m/s”. 2 3 m/s”. 3 (a) 18 km/h per s, (b) 64 800 km/h?.
4 (a) 3.6km/h per s, (b) 1 m/s?, (c) 12 960 km/h?. $16.25 Ss.
6 —1.5 m/s; —5. 7 130 km/h.

Exercise 4c, page 83

1 (a) +5.6m, +0.7 m/s (up), — 9.8 m/s? (decreasing speed),
(b) + 1.4m, —9.1 m/s (down), — 9.8 m/s? (increasing speed),
(c) —12.6 m, — 18.9 m/s (down), — 9.8 m/s? (increasing speed).
2 24.9 m, 29.8 m/s, 9.8 m/s”.
3 (a) 31.5 m, —4.2 m/s, (b) t = 24, (c) 32.4 m, (d) 2.5 m,
(e) — 9.8 m/s? (constanp)
4 (a) 18, 54, 114 m/s?, (b) 58 m/s’.
5 (a) t=2, (b) t =4, 34 m from O on OA; t =2, at O, (c) 35, $5 m, (d) 3 m/s,
(e) 1 m from O, on OA; towards O (— 1 m/s); increasing (a= —2 m/s”).
6 9m from O on AO produced (s = — 9); towards O (+ 15 m/s);
decreasing (a = — 14 m/s”).
7 (a) After0,1,2, (b)2,— 1,2 m/s; — 6,0, +6 m/s”, (c) 0m/s”.
0m/s, (d)
528 Pure Mathematics 1
Exercise 4d, page 84
1-0 mays: 2 16 m/s, 14 m/s”. 3 84m/s, 4 m/s”.
0 cm/s, —4-cm/s”, 13s, 18 cm.
(a) 1, 3s, 4,0 cm, (b) —6, + 6 cm/s’, (c) —3 cm/s.
0 cm/s, 16 cm, (— 24 cm/s).
NAN (24n — 5) cm, (24n + 7) cm/s, 24 cm/s?.

Chapter 5
Qu.1 = (a) 2x — 4, (b) 6x, (c) 6x2 — 10x, (d) 2x — 2, (e) 3x* — 4x — 3.
Qu.2 (a)(1, 2), (6) (—4, — 53), ©, —4).
Qu.3 (a), highest, (b) Z, lowest, (c) — 3, lowest, (d) — ¥, highest.
Qu. 4 (a) — 4x5, (0) —6x~73, (0) —6x 4G) —4% em
(f) 4x S39 05x? 22g) Sr FE OK:
Qu.5 A, Emin., D, F max., B, C infl; G max., I min., H infl.;
K max., J, L, infil.
Qu.6 (a) neg., pos., decreasing, (b) pos., pos., increasing,
(c) neg., zero, neither.

Exercise 5a, page 91

1 (a) 6x — 2, (b) 10x + 4, (c) 2 — 4x, (d) 6x + 1, (e) 48x + 6.
(a) (—23, — 84), (b) (za, 748), (c) (G. —4), CG) (8,7 x6).
(a) 24, lowest, (b) — 6, lowest, (c) $, highest, (d) — 25, highest.
(a) — 24, least, (b) 4, greatest, (c) 16, greatest, (d) — 64, least.
12.1 m, 14s. 7 50m
by 50m. 8 10cm.
CSA
kWN250 m, 500 m, 125 000 m?. 10 50m, Ss. 118 2icm: oxcm:

Exercise 5b, page 97

1 (a) 0, infl., (b) 0, y max., (c) 2, y max.; 3, y min., (d) — 3, y max.; 5, y min.,
(e) —6, ymax.; — 1, y min., (f) 1, y min.; 3, y max., (g) — 3, y min.; 4, y max.,
(h) — 6, y min.; 1, y max., (i) —5, y min, 3, y max.,
(j) — V5, y max.; 0, infl.; ./42, y min., (k) —2, y max,; 2, y min.
2 (a) —*y, min; 42, max., (b) 0, max.; — 27, min., (c) 0, max.; — 235, min.,
(d) —2, max.; + 2, min., (ce) 422, max., —9 min.
3 (a) (—2, 16) max.; (2, — 16) min., (b) (5, 233) max.; (3, —7) min.,
(c) (0, 0) min.; (2, 4) max., (d) (4, 3) min.,
(e) (34, 18143) max.; (12, — 144) min.
4 (a) 0, min., (b) 3, infl., (c) 0, infl.; #2, max., (d) 19, infl.; 3, min.
5 18cm*;x=1. 6 744cm*;x=%. 7 2cubic feet.
8 8/ncubic feet. 9 ¥/(5/n) cm; 2,/(5/n) cm. 11 4cm.
1 26, 6,3 Cm.

Exercise 5c, page 100

1 (0, 0), (3, 0); (0, 0) min., (2, 4) max.
 Answers 529
Page 100
max., (4, — 32) min.
, 0); (5, 34) max., (1, 0) min.
), (0, 2
( , O) min., (1, 1) max., (2, 0) min.
( ) infl., (6, — 432) min.
0), (+ 3, 0), (0, 9); (0, 9) max., (+ /5, — 16) min.
(— ;(— 2, — 48) min.
(14, 0); (0, 0) max., (1, — 1) min.
( ); (— 1, 2) max, (0, 0) infl., (1, — 2) min.
wWN
Rh
OMAAM
OO
m
\aa
( ); ( — 1, 3) max., (0, 0) min.
Exercise 5d, page 102
2 v = 6t? — 22t + 12, a= 12t — 22; (a) 4 m from O on BO produced (s = — 4),
(b) away, (c) 8 m/s (v = — 8), (d) decreasing, (e) 2 m/s? (a= + 2).
) (a) 3m from O on OB (s = + 3), (b) away, (c) 4 m/s (v = — 4), (d) increasing,
(e) 10 m/s? (a = — 10).
4 After 42 s; s = — 433.
5 (a) 100 m from O on OA (s = + 100); approaching A at 40 m/s (v = + 40);
retarding at 14 m/s? (a = — 14), (b) t= 34 tot = 12, (c) t= 73.

Exercise 5e, page 103

1 (a) (1, 6) max., (3, 2) min.; (b) (— 1, 15) max.; (2, — 12) min.;
(c) (—1, 2) max.,(1, — 2) min.; (d) (1, — 1) min., (—4, 52) max.;
(e) (0, 0) max., (— 2, — 16), (2, — 16) min.; (f) (— 4, 34) max., (1, 1) min.
(—2, 27) max., (1, 0) min., (— 34, 0).
+ 1. 4 (a) max., (b) inf. S$ y= by lyy=0.
24,x+3y—7=0. 7a=2,b=—-4,c=—-1. 8 x+t?y—4t=0.
4x -—y+15=0. 10 256 cm?. 11 32m.
(a) 44 cm?, (b) 4 cm’. 13 <4, (17x? — 16x! + 8/7), min. 16 48 m?.
2nr(r + h); (a) (12/r) —r, mr(12 — 7), (b) r = 2. 18 (a) S cm, (b) 6 cm.
V = mr?(5 — 2nr), 125/(27n) = 1.47 m?. 20 10m by 10m by 5 m.
6 cm by 3 cm by 4 cm. 24 20.
AP? = x* — x? + 1, ($./2, 4), (—4./2, 9).

Chapter 6
Qu.1 (a) 2x +c, (b) mx +c, (c) x? +c, (d) 3x? +c, (€=) 3x? +6, (f) 3x + x* +6,
(g)5-.. -4x3 +c, (h)$ax? + bx +.
—1 1 —1 cs
Qu.2 (a) 2, Te ape: (b) Sr aly Gots a Ke, (c) —2x"!+¢,
oh

x : ‘
Qu.3 — +c is meaningless.
0
530 Pure Mathematics 1

Qu. 4 y=4x +18. A straight line of gradient 4 through (— 2, 10).

Qu. 5 p=154+9.81t,
s= 15+ 4.90507.
Qu. 6 +9.8m/s (rising), —9.8, —29.4 m/s (falling); 14.7, 14.7 m (above
start), — 24.5 m (below).
Qu. 7 (a) 9, (b) 42, (c) — 6, (d) 35.
Qu. 8 124m
Qu. 9 (a)131m past O, oe 5 m past O, (c) 7 m past O, (d) 100 m short of O.
Qu. 10 (a) 72, (b) 9, (c)36,(d) 21.
Qu. 11 (a) 34, (b) 9, (©) 2, (d) — 8, (ce) 238) (f) 93.
Qu. [2 25;
Qu. 13 (a) 9, (b) 81.
Qu. 14 22.
Qu. i"Nn Re

Exercise 6a, page 108

1 (a)4x +c, 4x3 4+, 4x? +4x? +c, $x3 4+ 6x? +9x+c, —Zx *+0,
2x
Paes
346;
: 1
(b) 4at? +¢, #t* +¢, 40° —4t? —2t+c¢, —-t "+e, -t14+3t4+P4+¢
n

()ay"* +c, —ky* =3t* y * +c.

+6, 3y° —y+6=ut +c, (d)x=t+t ‘+06,
+c, (C)s +4at?
(a) y=ax3 +c, (b)s
() y= t+ Jag Ot 4 ent) A —xie pie fxr
3 x—6y + 34=0. Aas, +5x — 25. 5 y=x41/x—8h.
0). 7 (4,0 );y 944 = 4F. 8 s=312+8/t—8.
6 (1, 0), (3,
9 A=c=— 3x71 4x7 2 4x73 44x74; 42.

Exercise 6b, page 112

1 v=204 9.81t; s = 20t + 4.90¢7.
2 v= —1249.8t; s= —12t+4.9t?; —2.2 m/s (rising), +7.6, + 17.4 m/s
(falling), —7.1, —4.4 m (above ground level), + 8.1 m (below).
3 (a) s = 3t + 3, (b) s =2t? —t—6, (C)s=t3 + 30? — 2t — 13,
Osa + 5t+2t>1—7.
(a) 32, (b) 328, (c) —21, (d) 16.
(a) s= 2t7+ 3t+c, 14m, (b)s=423 —3t+c, 34m;
Os = 30° —$t? + 2t+, 32m; (d)s=4t? + 3t + 1/¢ +c, 17942m.
b Ar +B;s= $At® + Bt +e.
is ee Heh Ores as ia tae
(v= —74 + 10-42 ,S= —74t + 5t?—
(d)v=$t?7+5,s=h0° Mares epee sh s=7t*+ct+9H— ¢
(a) 133m pastO, (b)24 m past
O, (c) 8 m past O, (d) 74m ;
(a)s= —5+ 6t—t?, 5m; (b) 13 m.
(a)14 s; (b) 8.1m; (c) 7.7, 2.9 m.
(a) 40 km, (b) 20 km/h, (c) 30 km/h.
(a) 134 km/h, (b) 20 km/h.
35 m/s, 28 m/s?.
 Answers 531
Page 114
14 k=6; 4800 m.
15 (a) After 4s, — 64 m/s; (b) 27 m; (c) 16 m/s, 64 m/s.
16 (a) 11.595.a.m., 12.014 p.m. (b) s=44(5 + 18t+ 122? 8t%); (c) 20 km/h;
i 30 km/h.

Exercise 6c, page 121

1 (a) 383, (b) —2, (c) 102, (d) 36433. 2-50.

3 (a) 26, (b) 584, (c)22G, (a2. 454. 5-1 6 —§,22
7 (a) —24, (b)4, (9) 2, (@)sree) 1: ~ 09144
10 (a) (0, 0), (4, 8), 53; (b)(— 2,42),
(1,3),135; (©) (— 1, 0), (3, 4), 103
11 (a) 96, (b) 60, (c) 14.
ist.
Exercise 6d, page 122
1 y=3—3/x
+ 1/x?. 2 f(x) =x?—= 1 + I/x. 3 202. 4 —41,
5 63. 636. 7 4(423—27t? +600), 4t—9, 74, 74.
8 42m, 1 m/s’. 9 14 m/s’, 44 m. 10 y=x? —3x? + 4x + 8, 103.
11 102. 14 (t? —4t +3) m/s, 1,4m. 15 20 m/s, 467 m.
16 3, —1 m/s’, 114m, 1, 6. 17 16 m/s, 422 m, 854 m. 18 9 m/s, 3 m/s?.
19 9 m/s, 6 m/s’, 24 m.

Chapter 7 hay
2
Qui (a) -4x, (6) - 6740-5, @ - 3.03.0 -3-@
hohe ‘ é' ” 1 1
(h) — <@, (i) 2x 2+4-¢, (j) —2x '+6,(k) ~~ +e-— 346
1 2
(m) — rae ae isa
1 2
Qu.2 (a)$x~ 12, (b) —3x >, Ox ‘WMiasO.7 aye O57
saws th) — 57s Wx +6 (j) 4x5? +6, (K)2a/x? +6,
() 3./x* +c, (m) 2./x +¢, (n) eo +e.
Qu.3 (a) 2x + 4), (b) 3(x +2), (c) 63x + n (a)—4(5—2x), (€) 3(x + 4)?,
(f) 6x?(x? + 1), (g) 6x(5 + x7), (h)—(2/x?)(2 + 1/>), (i) —ox-(1 —x*);
(j)3(4x— 7).
Qu.4 —2)(x? —x —1),
(a) 2x +3,Ky2x(2x? + 1), (c) 4(x
(d) 2(x + 1) (x + 2) (2x + 3).

Qu.6 (a) and (b)gee

—_,—
i
532 Pure Mathematics 1

Qu.7 (a) 1, (6) dy22, 6) 2x, (#) 2vGh Oy +xGatdydH:Oxy HG,

2 mah
dy

dy
(8) y? + 2xy5.
X
2x —6y+3
6x —2y+2°
2X Ay
3y? —x
2 6 1 Zs
Ong (a2xa—.,2 => (€)
x xX Gat Gee
1 1
Qu. 11
pe 2a

Exercise 7a, page 129

1 (a) 4(2x + 3), (b) 24(3x + 4)3, (c) —2(2x + 5)72, (d) 23x — 1) 72,
(e) (3 — 2x) 3/2, (f) 123 — 4x)~4
2 (a) (3x + 2)* +c, (b) (2x + 3)? +c, (c) —4(3x — 4) +0,
(d) 42x + 3) +e.
m4 4 arg ia
3 Maa? Morag © 2J(3x + 1)’ 4) soy DP"
4 (a) —3(2x —3)"' +¢, (b) 3./(3x + 2) +¢, (©) 2(2x — 1)'* +c

5 (a) 18x(3x2 + 5)?, (b) (18x? + 10) (3x3 + 5x), (c) =e — 4)~ 2/3,
(d) pe — 8)(6x3 — 4x)~3, (e)—‘Gyanlion — 5x) 753,
say 1\?
6 Qs
Bx2 a Ora aro Sais 3° () S(1-+),
—2x
(e) 3(x? — 1)*/5 Fs

1
~ a) 3(3 — a
is ule ag (a 2) % a FQ ay
1 34) gee 6 1 =1/2
nile
(c) a —_ 3) (4+ 5} (d) 5 («— ~) (:
+ =)

; —3./x ie ear
1 —1 x 7]
(@) (a7?
Soe pz? pT ame a ye? x2

9 oe
oe x) ap
Gop e Og amie @t
—

af Ue? —eed)
./x)
43/2

Jx(l —./x)3°
ig —2(/x + 1) !
Si
Ae
do tea y? (0)Jue +2 Jx)2 9 353RG —2/JxpP”
(d)PERT = Ya xyi
 Answers 533
Exercise 7b, page 132
1 1458 cm?/s. 2 16x cm?/s. 3 4+cm/s. 4 3cm/s.
5 Decreasing, 8x cm?/s. 6 24. 7 1/(82) cm/s. 8 1/(2n) cm/s.
9 ~cm/s. 10 (a) 6 cm, (b) 4cm/min. 11 30. 12 +.
IS 0.27 cm/s. 14 4.8 litres/min.

Exercise 7c, page 136

1 x(5x + 2)(x + 1). 29x" 4-1) (x* 4-1), 3 2(2x — 1)(x + 1).
! — 4x 2(x—1) . :

8 2x = —3,/x. 9 ty—x(x+ 1)(x a: :

— 1)7(4+ 7x + 7x?).
2x? —x+1
10 biGtesih
ran
A x(2 + 3x?) x(2 + x?) i (x — 1)(3x 4+ 1)
f(i+x?) af (U4 x?)F" Dc?
a x(— 2x? + 2x? + 3x — 4) 2x +5
Jee — 1 2/(x
+3)J(e +2)
1 —1 1
Medes Udiesy 08 Ga Ot.
10 (4x + 5),/(x + 2) BA (2x + 5),/(x + 1)
2/(x + ee 2./(x + 2)°

Exercise 7d, page 139

‘ 3t
by +4. 2 -1,4}. 3 4: 4 —3. 5 (a) > (b) Vx.

6ERHL3.
a 10502.
—2y y(2x — y)
ss 8
8 @.(a)-, 0
1 t
(b) —.
2(x — y= 1) 9(t + 2)? 4y
— 3x
2 f7
9 2t—-t’. 10 ——--—.
ef 2a 11 At4 3) : 12 3y = 4x ;

Exercise 7e, page 141

1 8xcm?’. 2 9%. 3 (a) 2.000 83, (b) 5.01. 4 4x.
5 6p/p= —ov/v. 6 (a) 14, (b) 14. 7 1.6 cm?. 8 4%.
9 2%. 10 (a) 25.04, (b) 10.0166. 11 14%.

Exercise 7f,— 142

1 (a)— saetT? (b) (n + 1)x", (c) 4(2a — 1)x?*~?, (d) 2mx?"~}, (e) a if

2 @ alm
5 oy6(0) Tamn eo ele) —n’x he, (a)xt +c.

3 Da. (b) 4nx't/2"—1, (c) 2(1 — n)/x", (d) —fnx 70/2,

n
(e) Sinx: Girt.
534 Pure Mathematics 1

Page 143

4 (a) — 2x-8M-1, (hy 4x74, (€) = a5 27 Fd— lee

Se
n

oo
See
xD),

3x? 3
5 (a) 8x(x?
+ 3), (b) Tax2=y me

1 Z x a
wn(5+5 yes 4

(2,/x + 1) 2x
2s Ay x) (0) Oe J x(/x—
1)?
2x —2
() 50x sna oe
(5x — 3)(x — 1)
7 (a) x(5x — 2)(x— 1), (b) (4x + D(x + 17% — 1)”, © 2,/
(x —
yas bax —64-- 2 teal
- G5) B70 ga Fea
x? 1+x
; ORES TF oye
ag O- I
foe
=1)”
1
(d) 2,/x/
(x — N(x — 1)"
10 (a)
4-1) gy He DD
(x + 2)?’ (> = 1)?
11(
(2x — 5)/(x
+2)
EPRICESIN Rash me Ti
_ (1—./x)(1 —x,/x)
aa VJ {x7 = 13(x7 + DY? .) J x(x? — 17
haats 3x —2y
13 —1. 14 Rees 15 pea

167 17 ae 18 —1. 19 1%, 20 3%. 21°2%"

22 (a) 4.021, (b) 6.083. 23 12x? — 12x —9, — 24, 24. 24 i = __

a
3x”
+ 4x 3x? "8k 8
25 3,
3 —2.
4 26 5xx —4y=9.
y, 28 ——____
2(x + ii
,__—_.__..
A(x + iv

29 14, 145, 2,2.

30 42 Sef2x tan 2x, (b) 2 sin x cos x, (c) cos x — x sin x, (d) 3 tan? x sec? x,

COSA x.
ae
3t 3(1
+ t?)
31 Ai? ay” ~ 16t(t? —13 32 1%. 33 —%,/5.
bt
35 y=3x+4, ($,4), 3y+x=24. 36 = m/s, La — bt”) m/s?.
s
 Answers B35)
Page 144
37 xsint+ycost=asint cost, x cost —y sin t =a cos 2t.
39 0, 0, minmin.; —Y—,
25/5 max max.
40 x sin 6—ycos 0 =2a0 sin 0, x cos 8+ y sin 0 = 2a0 cos @ + 2a sin 0.
41 0.082 cm?.
1 1
43 (a) Breton
6x sin (6x 8)| (by)
Lalaectiby sec «(x +ce1), Ok
os esos (c)—__—_—.,
gees

SéC* 3s
(d)
2,/tan x, (1 — tan? 2 x) 3/26"
Cee AS oe,
ies a)
47 min. (0, 0), max. (—2, —4). 48 —1,2,k = —13,19, —8. 49 2, —3.
50 min. (—5,§), max. (— 1, 0).

Chapter 8
Qu.1 60 +50/n; 60.
Og. 28) (4) doco x + G3 (b) 5x" 4 3x cj ().gx"” +,
(d) —t?7 +4213? —3t+ce.
Qu.3 (a) 173, (b) ze,(©) —53.
Qu. 4 (a) (i) A cone, vertex C,
(ii) two cones with common base, vertices A and C, (b) sphere,
(c) hemisphere, (d) ring internal dia. 4, external dia. 8, (e) cylinder.
Qu.5 (a) 3172/5, (b) 56n/15.
Qu.6 (a) ($, 0), (b) (3, 3,/2/8).

Exercise 8a, page 149

4 (a) 3x*/? + c, (b) $x>/* + ©, (c) 3x9? +c, (d) fkx*? +6, (€) 2x"? +6,
(f) 3x?/3 + c, (g) $x>/° + c, (h) $x*/> +c, (i) 3x9? +6, (j) Hx? +6,
n
(k) 2x5 +c, (I) —3x*? +c, (m) a+1 xlat 1)/a ar C, (n)

n—
= x18 + 6,
foyax pax Ie, (p) ex? + 4x"? + c, (gq) ox? — 4x7" — 6x +0,
(r) 3(x + 2)7/? +c, (s) $(x? — 3)?? +c.
5 (a) —4, (b) 21, (c) 123.

Exercise 8b, page 158

1 (a)4x3 —3x? + ¢, (b) —2x 14+x7? +6, (c)4at*? + bt—ct™* +k,
(dix? 2x99 + 2x $x°4 46, ©) ty? +4y32 yy 17+ o,
(f) 3s8/9 + $59/3 4 3577 +.
(a) 263, (b) 253, (c) 144, (d) 343, (€) 215, (f) 244.
(a) 12, (b) —314, (c) 1s.
(a) 9, (b) 114, (©) 12, (d) 2(,/3 — /2).
wWN (a) 44, on the negative side of the y-axis, (b) 43, (c) 14.
neh
536 Pure Mathematics 1

Page 158
6 184. 7 —36. 8 284. 4, (by2.
9 (a)
(a) 103, (b) 14, (c) 44, (d) 44, (€) 208, ff208
11 (a) :; (b) oe (c) a (d) ce (e) 413, (f) 134,
12 Other points of intersection (2, 4) and (3, 4); 14.

Exercise 8c, page 164

(a) 1441, (b) 281/15, (c) 21, (d) 167/15, (e) 2/105, (f) 31/4.
(a) 187, (b) 91/2, (c) 9631, (d) 34-7, (e) 3n/5, (f) 30/10.
(a) 81/3, (b) 256n/15, (c) 81/3, (d) 161/15, (ec) 1281/105, (f) 7/3.
(a) Sn, (b) 64/15, (c) 32n/3, (d) 47.
tor2h. 6 Far. 7 66l4ncm*. = 8: 1296 cm?. 9 578xcm?.
1 2740 cm?. 11 167/15. 12 37n/10. 13 374n. 14 8x.
1wr
= 45n/2.
aAonh

Exercise 8d, page 170

(a (72, 0), (b) (0, 3), (©) ($, 0), (d) (0, 3).
(, 0), (b) (0, 75).
(a) (8, 3)Wea (c)(4> 10), (d) (3,7).
(0,4), (d) (Z, 0), (©) (F, 0), (F) (0, ae ).
(a) (14,0), (b) (3, 0), (c) (0,
zh above the base.
ar
8 .

94cm.
(4r/(3m), 4r/(37)).

Exercise 8e, page 170

1 0,@)4,(b)-2. 2%. 3 AQ, 19),B(4,3,3/5.., 4 1340
5 128n,16n. 61220. Tydsn 9 y=2x-2. 10 104
1 255m. 13 68,13. 14 53,28. 15 34,78.
20 kee 211 8,2. 22 pls 23 $n,4. 24 $n,8.

Chapter 9
Qu. 1 (a) 2, (b) 6, (c) a, (d) ab, (e) 18, (f) 80, (g) 4a, (h) 6, (i) 35, (j) 16, (k) 36,
(1) ab.
Qu.2 (a) 3, (b) 3, (c) 9, (d) 2, (€) 8, (f) 243, (g) 16, (h) 8.
Qu.3 ‘0° =1’ would have to be derived from ‘0"—0"=0%, but division by
0, or by 0”, is meaningless.
Qu. 4 Bases: (a) 10, (b) 10, (c) 3, (d) 4, (e) 2, (f)4, (g) a.
Logarithms: (a) 2, (b) 1.6021, (c) 2, (d) 3, (e) 0, (f) — 3, (g) b.
Qu.S x =log, a, y=log, b, x + y=log, (ab), x —y = log. (a/b).
Qu.6 x=log,a,nx =log. a".
Qu.7 (a) 10, (b) 100, (c) 0.1, (d) 1, (€) 0, (f) 4.
 Answers 537
Qu.8 (a) a, (b) 2°,(c) 1/a, (d)1,(©) 0,(f)4.
Qu. 9 (a) 3, — 3; (b) — a 33 (c) — —3; (d) —3, =f.
Qu. 10 (a) x? we ee ee 0,(b) x? 3x2 =0, (c) 8x? + 4x —3 =0,
(d) 3x? — 2x =0.
Ou.11) 423°)
Qu. 12 Polynomials.

Exercise 9a, page 174

1 (a)5, (b)3,(c) 48, (d)5, (€) a/b, (f) 15, (g) 21, (h) p/q, (i) 1/(4p), (j) 9a/(2b).
2 Oe (b) 2 3, (c) 3/3, (d) 5/2, (&)3/5, (f) 11/10, (g) 5/3, (h) 4,/2,
(i) 6/2, (j) 7/2, (k)Fea(1)16/2.
3 (a) 18, (b) \/12, (c) /80, (d) \/24, (©) 72, (fF)216, (g) / 128,(h) /1000,
Gs, Gs; &) <5. 0) ~/3-
4 (a) /5/5, (b) /77, Ne—./2/2, (a) 23/3, (e)6/2, (f) 2/4,(g) — 3/2,
(h) 3,/6/8, (i) 2 —1, (j) 2+ /3, (&) (4 +./10)/6, (1) 6 — 2,
(m) (,/5 + ./3)/2, (n) 3,6+3,/5, (0) 3 +.2,/2, (p) (3.2+ 2,/3)/6
Exercise 9b, page 175
1 (a) 3./2, (b) 6,/3,(c)4,/7, (d) 5./ 10, (e) 28,/2, (f)0
2 ie25.5, (b) 2.26, (c) 3.15, (d) 19.5, (e) 0.354, (f) 0.260.
3 =. + 4,/2, (b)aE: ()—1+/2, (d) 4— 2,/3, RING
+ 3,/2, (g))$./3, (h 45/5, (i) a+ Tr 3 (j) 3 a + 754/25 (1) 0.
4 DAS HS (c) —7 + 3,/6, (dae We
(ec) 3 + 2,/2, (f) /2
5 (a)2—./2, (b) 4(2 + /3), (c) —(2 + V3), (d) 2+ 3, (0) 3 +.22,
(f)6 +4,/2.
Exercise 9c, page 178

1 (a) 5, (b) 3, (c) 2, (d) 7, (€)2, (f) 1, (g) —2, (h) — 1, (i) 16, (i) 9, (k) 125, (1) 343,
(m)§,(n) 3, (0) 1, (p) §.
2 (a) 1, (b) 4, (©) 1, (d) 4, (©), (f) 2, (8) 9, (h) 1, (i) 27, (i) — 6, (k) 1, (1) a,(m) 4,
(n) 3, (0) 43, (p) 5.
3 (a)4, (b) 4, (€)5, (d)&, (©), (f) 2, (g) 2, (h) 9, (i) 13, (i) 12, (k) 12, (st.
Exercise 9d, page 178

1 (a) 16, (b) 36, (c)4,(d)6, (e) 14, (f) 15, (g)3, (h) &, (i) Ze, (i) 27, (k) 24, () 64,
(m) $, (n) 1.1, (0) 125, (p)5.
2 (a)4, (b) 1, (©)4, (d)2, (©) 2, (f) L.
(a) 2-",(b) 3"*1, (c)4,(d)3,(e) 12, (f) 10".
(a) x7 7/12, fy2,ie) x ie ()y 4 (1.
n
hW
@ sey (b) mica oa Ox,
3+ 2x

1
© qa /a—=)"
538 Pure Mathematics 1

Exercise 9e, page 180

1 (a)log, 16 =4, (b) log; 27= 3, (c) logs 125 = 3, (d) log;, 1 000 000 = 6,
(e)log,» 1728= 3, (f) log,, 64 =3, (g) logo 10 li 4, (h) loge 1 0,
(i) logy 0.01 = —2, (j) log, 3= — 1, (k) nid) 2)= 2 (1) logs 4= —4,
(m) log,)3 81 = —4, (n) log, 1 = 9, (0) logie 2= — 4 (P) loge 1=0,
(q) logg, 27 =3, (0) logijis 4= — 4, (s) log _2/3 3=2,(log-3(—3)— ©
(u) log, c= 5, (v) log, b = 3, (w) log, r = q, (x) log, a=c.
ao a} (b) 3? = 9, (c) 5? = 25, (d) 10° = 100 000, (e) 2’ = 128, (f) 2 pa
(g) 372 =4, (h) 41/22, (i) e® = 1, (j) 2717 =3, (k) a? = x, (I) 34 =",
(m) a‘ = (n) x? =z, (0) q? =r.
3 (a) 6, (b) 2, (c) 7, (d) 2, (e)5,(f) 0, (g)4,(h) 2, () 3, G) — 1, (K) 3, = 1.
Exercise 9f, page 182
1 (a) log a + log b, (b) log a— log c, (c) —log b, (d) 2 log a + 3 log b,
(ce) —4 log b, (f)5 log a+ 4 log b — 3 log c, (8) 2 loga, (h)
4log b,
(i) 4 log a+ 4 log b, (j) 1 + lg a, (k) —2—2 lg b, (I)4 log a—4
log b,
(m)4 log a+ log b —4 log c, (n) log
b + 4log a—4
log c,
(o)4+41ga—3lgb—JFlge.
(a) log 6, (b) log 2, (c) log 6, (d) log 2, (e) log (ac), (f) log eee (g) log (a*/b),
(h) log (a*b*/c), (i) log \/(x/y), (j) log (p/Y/q), (k) 1g (100 a?),(1)1g (10a/,/b),
(m) lg (a*/2000c), (n) Ig (10x°/,/y).
ined3, (b)2,(c) 2, (d) 1, (€) log 2, (f) log 7, (g) log 5, (h) 0, (i) 0, (J) 3, (kK) 2,
Si:
PS (a) 2.322, (b) 0.6309, (c) 0.3155, (d) 1.161, (e) — 2.585, (f) 6.838.
(a) 3.170, (b) 0.7211, (c) 1.042, (d) 2.303, (e) 1.145, (f) — 0.6309.
(a) 3.119, (c) 1.297, (c) 23.14, (d) 0.7936, (e) 0.3674, (f) 0.000 759 7.

Exercise 9g, page 187

1 (a) I} (Ds +, —33 (c)5, =<; (d) re == 13,(e) iF at (f) l, Pate (g) 4, 1;
(h)3,—2.
(a) x? — 3x-+4 =0, (b)x?+.5x4 6=0, (c) 2x? 3x—50,
(d) 3x? + 7x =0, (e)x? —7=0, (f) 5x? — 6x +4 =0, (g) 36x? + 12x +1=0,
(h) 10x? + 25x — 16=0.
(a)27, (b)2,(c) — $, (d) — 93.
(a)3,(b) 5°, () $$, (d)8.
(a) 72, (b)5,(c) —2, (d) — 32.
(a) x? — 39x + 49 = 0,(b) x? — 7x — 1 =0, (©) x? 4 35x — 343 <0.
(a) 2x7 + 4x + 1 =0, (b) x? — 4x +2 =0, (c) x? 6x 4+1=0.
4x* — 49x + 36 =0.
35.
EO.
SW
AIAMN
UB
No
ay (a) — be/a?, (b) (b? — 2ac)/a?, (c) b(3ac — b?)/a?, (d) — b/c, (¢) (b? — 2ac)/(a0),
(Bh) (b= dake + 2a?c*)/a*,
—_we (a) ax* — bx + c =0, (b) ax? + (b— 2a)x +a—b+c=0,
 Answers $39
Page 188
(c) a?x? + (2ac — b?)x + c? =0, (d) cx? — bx +a =0, (e) a?x? — (b? — 4ac) =0,
(f) a?x* + 3abx + (2b? + ac)=
ee 9 38
8 (a) ay* + y(b—2a)+a—b+c=0
B+1; (b) ay*
,0+1,
+ by? +¢=0,
+,/a, +./B; (c) a*y? + (2ac — b*)y +c? =0, a?, B?.
19 (a) ay? +(b—4a)y+ 4a — 2b+c=0, (b) cy? +by +.a=0,
(c) ay* — 4ay? + (6a + b)y? —2(2a + b)y +at+b+c=0,

Exercise 9h, page 190

Dita) 12-12, —6_ 050; & —2), or (&«+ 2); (b) —1,,0, —2; 19, —21, (x — 1),
(c) 0, 6, — 2, 88, — 24, x, (d) 3, 0, 0, 3, 3, (x — 1), or (x + 1).
2 (a) 2, (b) 18, (c) — 11, (d) —1, (e) 2, (f) —23.
3 (a) —3, (b) — 10, (c) 2, (d) 4, (e) 4, (f) 2.
4 (x+3)(2x—1). 5 (2x — 1)(2x + 3)(3x 4+1).
6 (a) (x — 1)(x + 2)(x — 3), (b) (x + 1)(x — 2)(x — 3), (c) (2x + 1) (x — 2) (x + 2),
(d etait} (e) (x + 2)(x + 3)(2x+ 1), (f) (x? + 1)(2x
— 1).
a= 3,b= 72. 8 p=1,q= —3. 9 a=3,b= —1,c=—2.
10 a@=2,b= —1-c= —2.

Exercise 9i, page 191

1 (a) 5,/5, (b) ./2, (c) 18./3. 2 (a) 18.9, (b)6. 9, (c) 0.642.
3 (a)(11+6./2)/7, (b) 1342/2 4 (az, a (b) 8, 27.
cae
3

5 x—3x3_20. 6 (a)8, (b)2.

7 (a) 1.079 18, (b) 0.653 21, (c) 0.592 72.
8 (a)2+2lga—3lgb—4lgc, (b) 1.602 060.
9 (a) 0.698 970, (b) 1.255 273, (c) 0.176 091.
10 (a) 14, (b) 3.17. 11 (a) 7.525 cm, (b) 4.402 cm.
12 —3, —4;9x*?—31x+1=0. 13 1,9; —3.
14 (a) 74, (b) x? +5x—2=0. 150 = 33h: =.463.
16 (x —1)(x + 2)(3x —2). A703: 18 (x + 1)(x —5)(3x + 1).
19 a=1,b=-—1. 20 p=12,g=4

Chapter 10
Qu.1 (a) 37, (i); (6) O, (ii); (c) — 8, (iii); (d) 17, (i.
Qu.2 f(t)<30.
Qu.4 (a) +8i, (b) +./7i, (c) +31, (d) —3 + Si.
Qu.5 3451.
Qu.6 = (a) -+ 31, (b) + 5i/3, (c) (1 + 5i)/2, (d) (3 + 5i)/34.
Qu.7 3+3i.
Qu. 9 (a)[a+c, 0], (b) Lac, S i [a—c, 0], (d) [a/c, 0].
Qu.11 —y+ix, —x-Iy,y
Qu. 12 (a)5, (b)1, (c) 1, (d)1,a (f) /2.
Qu. 13 (a) 45°, (b) 0°, (c)—90°, (d)—45°, (e) 60°, (f) 120°, (g) — 20°, (h) 70°.
540 Pure Mathematics 1
Exercise 10a, page 198

1 (a) 14, 1, (b) 3, —7, (c) 2.5, (d) 9, — 3,

3+./89
2 ity —Stve TE 4 :

EL is = zeae seal3
a —13+./15 Tee a0gd
3 (a)

4 (a) eee ha (b) 0, 48, (c) no real solution, (d) 5, +.

5 2(x-24"*)( ‘at,

(b) 5(x + 1.2 + J0.24)(x 2 = /0.24),

(xe) (x4 3),

6 a)
8 |k| <12.
10 (a) 3, (b) 5, () 10, (d) —17.

Exercise 10b, page 203

1 (a)ee—i, (b)1, (©)i, @) —1,,€) —1, @) =i, (gt

2 (a)Bia (b)9,(c)
1—Si,(d)2k
3 (a)) —7+22i, (b) 8 43, (c)2, (d) 25, (e) u? + v?, (f) 2x? — 2y? + Sixy,
(g) — 3q + 2ip, (h) p? + 4q?.
s ae eee
BOE4+7i Oa ee
Os. OF
x +iy
y, 4/3
5 (a)) —5+ 121, (b) —9 — 401, (c) x?—y? mI>ixy,
6 (a))= —2+2i, (b) —2 —2i, (c) —4(1 +i).

7 (2) Soh) sa adv (d) 4(—1

+ 2).
10 4,-—14+21.

Exercise 10c, page 209

1 (a) ,/2, 45°, (b) /13, 146.3°, (c) ,/13, — 146.3°, (d) 5, —53.1°, (e) 5, 143.1°,
(f) 1, 60°, (g)1,120°, (h)1,180°.
2 (a)1,(b)i, (©)—1, d) i, ©) 1,(f)4./3 +44, (4/3 —4i, (h) —444,/3i,
(i) oS eee (j) Tay3 +41. v ay ss
3 (a)5,53.1°, (b) 13, 22.6°, (c)4, —53.1°, (d) gy,—22.6°, (€) 65, 75.7°,
(f) 5, —53.1°, (g) 13, —22.6°, (h) 65, —75.7°, (i) 25, 106.3°, (j) 169, 45°.
4 21, —2+ 2i, —4; 45°, 90°, 135°, 180°.
 Answers 541
Page 210
5 (a)¢+3/31,i, —44 5,/ 31; 30°, 60°, 90°, 120°, (b) 2 + 2,/3i, 81, —8 + 8,/3i;
30°, 60°, 90°, 120°.
=p
6 ((7207220,
) + 2abi carey©)
8 (ac — bd) + i(ad + bc).

Exercise 10d, page 210

1 (a) ©, (b)4, (c)4,(d)3, +i, -i.

2 (i)(a) —4, (b) —4, 7/5, (c) — 4, 7/5, (d) —4, 7/5.
(ii) (a) D, (b) W, (Cc) +/(7/5), (d) +./(7/5), + 2i.
3 (a) 101, 10, 90°, (b) (3 — 41)/5, 1, — 53.1°, (c) 16, 16, 0.
4 (a) (3 + 2i)/13, 4i, (b) i 5, 63.4°, nS) — 26.6°, 3 +1, 4+ 31.
6 Either a=1/,/2, b=1/,/2, or a= —1/,/2, b= —1/,/2;
py? 6 2, on 24 21), 9-3/2.
7 (a)3, —1,1+i, (6)(—1+ J3i/2.
8 +(3 +2i)
9 aie. 45°; 4, 90°; J 2/4, 135°; 4, 180°.
10, §-4j,2—jox? — 3(1 x + 2 + 3)) <0.

Chapter 11
17, 133°” 29
rts bs 20 a)
7 0 -(0)(29 )(c)(20 7), ( 6 5 )
Qu.2. (a) {2Ay 20 g 5
0 1 0 -1 Sn
Qu.5 (| (4 5):(, 4;

Exercise 1la, page 219

3-34 6 eal LRA 1 10 LisSalter?
. (5 3 51) (§ 2 (si 5 (5 1 fl
2 PS=(3240 7500 10500 6600 9540 9900).
38
3 (a)(19 31), (b) re a (c) not possible, (d) ea

a b 2 0) 6 )
eye 2
he
20 (14.4
oie
ell 7) barat a aa
4 Pome s) 6 ( 7(
542 Pure Mathematics I

Page 220
: (‘P2429 i922
8 (f 4 9( ah 10 (a){ 29 —1 62],(b) | 9 —4
oor me {+ (ez 24 0

Exercise 11b, page 224

1 (a) 1, (b) 14, (c) 30, (d) 1.
(a) 0, (b) +, (c) a? + b?, (d) ad— be.
(b), (c), (d).
(a) 28, (b) +4, (c) 1, 4, (d) none.
7-4 5 -—3 7/20 — 11/20
nan
bhWN
@(_ | 5) (3 Site a
4 1 aan #
i) Pa (= oe

Exercise llc, page 225

ee 10 se eet —2
@(_ 5 7) 5( “)@3(_ _)
, (d) not possible.

2 Wa(Ya Ya) aly 4 i eit nic,

|
3 15( 5 ss}
oa —
ie)
0)
Pe

9 23(-5 aC) ree

=O’ 304 372
6 3 4 (39
135 521 (=)
mat

“——"
a =
oO
Nv
aes

Exercise 11d, page 238

1 (a) Reflection in x-axis, (b) reflection in y-axis, (c) rotation through 90°,
(d) reflection in x + y =0, (e) shear parallel to x-axis.
2 (6, 17), (22, 29), (9, 38); 6, 150.
1
3 ek ‘nc ; rotation, through 90° clockwise.
4 na’, nab.
5
4/5 —3/5 0 5
(3 45) (¢ a
6 Rotation and enlargement, a? + b? = 1.
 Answers 543
Page 238
7 Enlargement, with scale-factor ,/2 and reflection in the line
y =(tan 225°)x; A=./2, m= tan 223°.
8 Reflection in y =(tan «)x, where cos 2a = 3/5.
9 B-«.
10 cos 20 =cos? 6 — sin? 0, sin 26 = 2 sin 0 cos 0.

Exercise lle, page 239

1 @)(~31)- 2 1) (e) not possible,(2) ; 4 a

5 —7 1 4 —3 1/-—5 3 .
2 (3 3 5 (_§ 5)5( i _ 3)(@) notpossible

1 a —b cos @ —sin 6 0 a :
ie a? + b? (; 4)(b)& 0”. cos il(c) ts ay(HOE prtssiblet
—11 iv 53
4 ( 3) OC oa
Sass = Ty,
Ge{I9s 11)5(39>
15), (31, 35); 216.
Fie os
Boi tS 25) (21, 1
eee yO \ ete Je =k
9 0-2 0O 2 3 —2 -1
0 O -—2 —L.- =D 1
16.05 45.8 18.3
a Caer (b)Gel (C) bal
12 Ms ve k= (2 anal ; rotation about the origin, through
Len sin@ cosé
an angle — 0; cos 20 = cos? 0 — sin? 0, sin 20 = 2 sin 0 cos 0.
0 0
£3. An)
tall
eS
1) BIW
Pl AIF
Ne

e +be ab+ A)
fy ac+ced bce+d?
15 M? =I; —1. 2x = 3y, 2v = —3u; reflection in 2x = 3y.
16 k= 2/,/5; rotation, 26.6°, clockwise.

Chapter 12
Qu.1 (a) 56; (b) 210.
on pees ©|
(n—r)!r!
544 Pure Mathematics 1
Exercise 12a, page 244

Ler: 2.300, 3 24, 120. 4 243. Doh 2: 6 24.

7 27000. 8 120. 9 900. 10 120. 9B (Ais> 12 48.
13 5040. 14 168. 15 336, 144. 16 3 628 800, 3 628 800. 17 78.
18 80. 19 10 368 000. 20 40 320, 384.

Exercise 12b, page 247

1 (a) 6, (b) 24, (c) 120, (d) 90, (e) 210, (fF) 1320, (g) 330, (h) dg, (i) 4, (j) 20
(k) 120, (1) 2520.
Gh ia tay A 12) n! pues mode (i ieSo ei 52!
2 @y Og Og Oop ©Gor Paar©ar ™ aor
: n! (n+ 1)! (2n)! n!
OF =por 9 Gaps ™ Gr —par Gon
3 (a) 20! x22, by515, (c) 13! x12, (d) 14! x 19, (e) n(n
+2),
(f) (n —2)\(n—2),(g) (n — 1)(n +2), (h) nl(n + 2).
16! 22! 18! 37! (n+ 1)! (n + 2)!
4 @) par © Tae Oa © toner © nG@oreyrOnm@ortDe
Exercise 12c, page 250
1 282 240. 2 362 880, 40 320. 3 6720, 1680.
4 24x 17!, 48 x 16!. 5 ao Eas 6 181 440. 7 20 x 10!.
8 768. 9 16. 10 144. 11 30 240. 12 60 480. 13. 528.
14 1 404 000. 15 2400. 16 11 520, 276 480. tf 23: 520)
18 100. 19 138 600. 20 34 560, 31 680.

Exercise 12d, page 253

1 (a) 45, (b) 15, (c) 35, (d) 126, (e) 70, (f) 4n(n —1), (g)En(n — 1) (n — 2),
(h) zn(n —1), (i) n(n+ 1), (j) 2n(n + 1).
2 78. pp 30 OPA" 2.F Sy 6 BUR 7 one eee
9 792.) . 10.200., | 11 495.) £12 840: . 13 182) 014 420.
15 11550. 16 34650. 17 25200. = 18 2142. —-19 31.733.
Exercise 12e, page 254
1 2160: 2 1960. 4 15 120. 5 5040, 240. 6 360, 240.
(Bree 8 $n(n— 3). 9 48. 10 120 960. 11 2520.
12 240, 15 552. 13. 277 200! 14 4200. 15 5120. 16 504.
17 876. 18 1013. 19 1 693 440. 20 300. 21 319.
22 646. 23 28 732. 24 6006. 25 240. 26 (a) 917, (b) 296.

Chapter 13
Qu.1 (a)9,11; (b) 14, 17; (©) 16, 32; (d) ae, de; (©) 53, 6°; (f)8.45 (B)25, 36,
(h) 720, 5040; (i) &, 285; (i) —4, - 5 (kK)1,-1, Ove, —#.
 Answers 545
Qu.2 (i) (a) 6, 8; (b) 8, 16. (ii) (a) 0, — 6; (b) 3, 14.
Qu.3 = (a) 34, (b) 16.
Qu.4 8, 124,10.
Qu.5 2ac/(a+c).
Qu.6 = (a) n(2n + 1), (b) §(n + 1)(n + 2)(2n + 3), (c) 4(n — 1)?nn?, (d) n(2n — 1),
(e) 3n(2n + 1)(4n + 1), (f) n?(2n — 1).

Exercise 13a, page 258

1 (a) 15, Veg (c) 0.1, (e) 5, (g) n, (i) 1, (j) —7, (I) —0.2.
2 (a) 75, 147; (b) — 34, — 82; (c) hak — 3). (d) — 148, 52 — 2n;
(e) — at eis Dy (f) 799, 3 + 4n.
3 (a) 23, (b) 13, (c) 31, (d) 21, (e) 91, (f) 13, (g) 2n, (h) n, (i) n, (j) (l—a)/d +1.
4 (a) 2601, (b) 632, (c) 420, (d) 288, (e) 250.5, (f) 604, (g) 121x,
(h) 5n(2a + n— 1), (i) $n{2a + (n— 1)d}.
5 (a) 444, (b) — 80, (c) 20 100, (d) — 520, (e) n(2n + 4), (f) En(11 —n).
2 7 33, —72. Be 9 14,4. 10 7500.
tea 1s 32 14984" 14 60.
Exercise 13b, page 260

1 (a)3,(6),
(c) —2, (d) —1, (f)
a,(g) 1.1, (J) 6.
2 @)ox2", 1 ae (b) 10(3ras(ar- (33(8) 3(8)" ”
(d) 3(—4)’, 3(—4)""_*,. (©) 4(—3)*, 4(—3)"_* (f) 3()8, 3(4ieee
3 (a)9, (b) 8, ae (d) 8, LS Bs
4 (a) 2'° —2, (b) 4(3°
— 34), (c) 0.03(27 — 1), (d)— 205 {(3)° — 1},
1—r"
ee al =
5 (a) 2(3!?
~1),(b)$81 —(4)?9},(©)—4(2°°
~1),(d)16{1+(4)"7},
(epi (1.472 +4), (f)1- (3Wo (g) 3(2"
—1), (h)zhee aie
6 224,1574. 7-+3,4+3. 86,134. 9 £10 700000.
Oot a1? $2 te AGA 2% 1,5,/2-—7) 14 1023.

Exercise 13c, page 265

ye 2550, ZS: 3 98. 4 3, —3,3. 5 16 400. 6 432.
7 4,2. 8 17, —2, 10th. 9 14,2, 24. 1053,4;,5, fx) 1a £3,219,
11 —2,1,4,7, 10. 12 —3, —2. 13 18. 14 18th, 655 360.
15 14. 16 —9,5. 17 2, 4, 6, 8, 10. 18 5808. 19 6, 8, 10.
20, 24, 5, 75, 10. 21 £2270. on £19 INO.

Exercise 13e, page 270

1 (a) 1°+234+3°+4?, a eedigg+n’, (c)24+64+...+(n? +n),
@-st+s5+ pep
e BER +2 +25 (f) -14+4-—9 +
16,
+n", (h) —444 1412,
(g)1+27+...
546 Pure Mathematics 1

Page 270
n—2. n=I n
rye
(i) n(n — 1) +.(n+ 1)n + (n+ 2)(n + 1),G) cae
5
oeul 5 1
n

1 1
ya" ce), mi(m+ 5), (f) 2
ie ok
2 (a) dim, (b) dm, ( 1

5 i’
+ 1)
> m(2m
coe acy a (1
8)>eels
6
=st)y 2 ee + 1 —1)"*4m(2m
+ 1), ((b) nln — 1)(2n =D (c)n?(2n + 1)?, (d) n(n + 2),
3 (a) (n+ 1)(2n
(e) $n(3n + 1), (f) MED Toh |g) in(2n? + 3n + 7), (h) $n(n + 1)(n + 2),
(i) 4n(n + 1)(2n + 7), (j)$n(n+ 1)(2n+ 1), (k) $n(2n — 1)(2n + 1),
(1) 4n(n + 1)(n? +n 4 2), (m) gen(n + 1)(n + 2)(3n + I).

Exercise 13f, page 272

1 (a) ee (b) 24, (c) aD (d) 53, (e 3, (f) Te (g) - (h) 405

2 (a)$, (b) 34, (©) 38, (d) 235, (©) Loan, (f) 2330
3e4
err
5a 0077 940

Exercise 13g, page 273

ly 1683500 2 20. dee Sette ti 2! Bae Sea
9; 2 29s-an 4119.8 04034 it Sian Ge ee
14 2,345. 1535. 16 4,—12,152,57%. 18 4n(2n? + 3n + 13).
19 (ar+b)/(r+1),(br+a/(rt+1). 20 3,12,48,3x4"-1, 21 13,9.
I 1—(n+ 1)x"+nx"*?
23'1,2,2:-
2 26 =
ae {)) eee
= (1 — x)?

Chapter 14
Exercise 14a, page 278
1 (a) a’ + Sa*b + 10a%b? + 10a*b? + Sab* + b°, (b) x3 + 3x7y + 3xy? + y3,
(c) x* + 8x3y + 24x?y? + 32xy> + 16y*, (d) 1 — 4z + 627 — 423 + 24,
(ec) 16x* + 96x3y + 216x7y? + 216xy> + 81y*, (f) 64z> + 482? + 127 + 1,
(g) a® — 6a°b + 15a*b? — 20a°b? + 15a2b* — 6ab> + b®,
(h) a? — 6a2b + 12ab? — 8b3, (i) 81x4 — 108x2y + 54x2y? — 12xy? + y4,
(j) 8x3 + 4x? + 2x + sh, (k) x9 — 5x3 + 10x —10x7! + 5x73 —x75,
(1) fox* + x7 +6 + 16x? + 16x+4,
(m) a’ + 7a°b + 21a%b? + 35a*b? + 35a°b* + 21a7b> + Tab® + b’,
(n) a” — 5a®b?+ 10a°b* — 10a*b® + 5a7b® — b!°,
(0)a®° — 3a*b? + 3a7b*— b®.
2 (a) 14, (b) 194,((c) 10/2, (d) 160,/6, (e) 98, (f) 40,/2.
3 324 BOs 80? + 40x? + 10x* + x>, ANS
4 1tx43x24 dex? + hext, 1.104.
5 64— 192 + 240x* — 160x? + 60x* — 12x5 + x°, 63.616 96,5:
 Answers 547
Exercise 14b, page 281
(a)) 448x°, (b) 1080u3, (c) — 3168¢7, (d) E20 ys
(a)) 84x°, (b) — 14 080x3, (c) 945x*, (d) 190x?.
(a) $25, (b) 540, (c) 6048, (d) 1386.
(a) 120, (b) — 9120, (c) 4320, (d) 5670.
(a) 15x?, (b) 20.
(a) 70, (b) 33.
(a) 6, (b) 14, (c) — 16.
3/(5x).
8/(45x).
b(r + 1)/{a(n—r)}.
m (a) 1 + 10x + 45x?
=
WN
Rh
OAUDMN
OO
et
— + 120x3, (b) 1+ 3x + 9x? + 43x3,
(c) 1 — 11x + 55x? — 165x3, (d) 1 + 12x + 66x? + 220x3,
(e) 256 + 512x + 448x? + 224x3, (f) 128 — 224x + 168x? — 70x3.
(a) 1.105, (b) 1029.13, (c) 0.965, (d) 253.96.
13 (a) 1+ 3x + 6x? + 7x, (b) 1 + 12x + 54x? + 100x3, (c) 1 — 4x + 2x? + 8x3,
(d) 32 + 80x + 160x? + 200x?, (e) 1 — 8x + 36x? — 112x3,
(f) 128 + 448x — 224x? — 2128x3, (g) 81 — 216x + 324x? — 312x3,
(h) 81 + 108x + 54x? + 120x°.

Exercise 14c, page 285

1 (a) 10, (b) 5, (c) — 1/8, (d) — 15/128.
4 (a) 1 — 2x + 3x? —4x3, —1 <x <1; (b)1+4x—4x?4+
9x3, -l<x<l;
(c) 1 +3x +3x? —7x3, —1<x <1; (d)1—x—4x? —4x3, -Lex<;
(e) 1 —3x + 3x? —3x3, —2<x <2; (f) 1+3x4+42x? + 138x3, —4<x <4;
(g) 1 —3x + 9x? —27x?, —4<x <4; (h) 1 —4x?, -1<x<1;
(i) 1—4x —4x? — Ffx3, —1<x <1; (j)1—x+3x? —3x3, —4<x <4;
(k) 1 —x +3x?—4x3, —2<x <2; (I) 1—3x+3x?+4x3, -4<x<};
(m)4—4x +4x? —7#x°, —2<x <2;
(n) /2(1 —4x —3yx? —qogx*), —2< x <2;
(0) /3(1 +3x — gx? + af87x°), —3 <x <3; |
(p) 4./2(1 —4x?), —/2<x</2; (qQhot+ixtax? +355x°, —3<x <3;
(r) J9(1 +$x°), —Y3<x<¥3.
3 (a) 1.000 500, (b) 0.9612, (c) 0.998 999, (d) 1.0099, (e) 1.0102.
4 (a) 1 + 2x + 2x? + 2x3, (b) 2 — 3x + 4x? — 5x?, (c) 1 -—3x + $x? — tex
(d) 1 +x +4x? +4x°3, (e:) —$4+ 4x —§x? + 76%", (f) 1— 2x + 3x7 —x’*,
(g) 3+ 4x + 7x? + 16x°.
5 Baa Be — 32x", 4795S:
6 t—4x—4x7?— Fx", 3.332 22.
fi 1 —4x — 24x? — 224x?3, 2.499 00, six.

Exercise 14d, page 286

24 ~252(3x) (Zy)"3252.
5 1
2 (a) 32x* + 40x? + 20x + = + BS t 32g? P)40V6.
548 Pure Mathematics 1

Page 287
3 a> —5a*b + 10a3b? — 10a2b? + S5ab* — b°, 77 400.
4 (a) a’! 4 11a!°b+ 55a°b? + 165a®b?, (b) 8064x°y°, (c) 5376.
5 x54 10x* + 40x? + 80x? + 80x + 32, x* — 8x? + 24x? — 32x + 16, 96.
6 4=28x-4 85x° = 146x545 5x5
7 (a) 16+ 96x + 216x* + 216x3 + 81x4, (b) 1 + 12x + 78x? + 340x?.
8 (a) 1—5x + 20x? — 50x°, (b) 1 — 4x + 10x? — 20x°.
9 (a) 1—3x + 6x2 — 10x? + 15x4, (b) 1024 + 1280x + 720x? + 240x*, 1159.
10 (a) 70 (2x)*34, 38, (b) 1 + 4x + 12x? + 32x?.
11 (a) 2520, (b) 1 + 4x —4x2, 2.080.
12) 14x — 8x7 32x, 1732 05.
13 a=2,6=7.
14. 3—5x+ 7x? —9x?:

Chapter 15
Qu. (7)-(_3).@(—1).(5)-(6):
2 _ 0) | 3

Qu. 2 (a) ,/20, 63.4°, (b) /18, — 45°, (c) 50, — :71.9°, (d) 2, 90°, (e) 3, 0°.
Qu.3 (2, 4).
Qu.4 (2, 3, 4).

Qu.s AB=DC= | 5

Qu.é —
13 1D
Qu.8 2x+3y+z=5.
Qu.9 x+2y+z=8.
Qu.10 —7S.
Qu.11 Xx, + y,y2+2,2, =0.
Qu. 12 101°.
Qu. 14 76.7°, 72.1°, 22.6°.

Exercise 15a, page 298

+ 0(,8).0(_2).16(~4).0(_2).6(_2).0(1)
6 12 —4 2 7 18

—1 1
)( “i (41).

is
(a) 5, 53.1°, (b) 13, 112.6°, (c) 10, — 90°, (d) af2,ia

— 4.331 + 2.5}.
WN
Ww
as, (a) (12, 114), (b) (21, 16), (c) (—21, —5).
 Answers 549
Page 299
6 (a) 3(e — a), (b) c—a, (c) $e —a).
7 +(at+b-+ec).

Exercise 15b, page 302

6 42 34 5.2 8.4
1 @($).(; (15 )o(52).(83).
1 2n+ 10m
m+n\5n—m

— 2, 3; 1.5, —0.5
3, —2; 2.4.

5 20+ 5t J3, 2045/3.

Fehe/B JONAS = Sel Sts)
2, —1.
23
+ 2te; OM =£0C; —1.
+ 4c; (2 -—0)b
— $b
3b, 3a + 3b, 4.
Cmnan
wm

w(3)m(a)o(3} (2)0( 2)
Exercise 15c, page 315
2 g 4 —3 2k

2 0 0 —6 —2k
2 4
(a) | 3 ], (b) (2).0(2 0
3 4
11 —5 a2 —10 11k
(a) zp , (b) 0 |}, () iS , (d) (1). ()
4 —23 — 7k
eres
3x —3y+z=1.
(7,
4, 9).
ee 10).
Te
~~
550 Pure Mathematics 1
Exercise 15d, page 321

1 (a)ate, (b)c—a, (c) 4a + fe, (d)$e —4a, (¢) Se, (f) de — 4a, (8) 2¢ — 4,
4a +¢, (i)
(h) ¢—4a, (j) —5a—Fe.
Ae
(a) 4(a + b), (b) 2b —a, (c) oa + rob, (d)ga + 2b, (ec) 3a — 2b.
(a) 0, (b) 12, 15, (c) 90°.
)
eSF ima)aS -

Srnnsbh
wn

13 3, 500s, 1000,,/10 m.
14 t=4a+4b,m=5a +b, OB:BK= 1:1.
15* (a) (41, = 3) ca cp:
17 3b—4e.
18 1:4.
(a) 7 (3i — 4j + 6k), (b) 81+ (4 +.A)j + 8k, (c) —9, (d) 4144.

Chapter 16
Qu.1 (a) sin 10°, (b) — tan 60°, (c) — cos 20°, (d) — sin 50°, (e) cos 20°,
(f) — sin 35°, (g) tan 40°, (h) — cos 16°, (i) — cosec 50°, (j) — tan 37°,
(k) — cos 50°, (1) — sin 70°, (m) — tan 50°, (n) cot 20°, (0) cos 67°,
(p) sin 50°, (q) — sec 38°, (r) — cot 24°, (s) — cosec 53°, (t) — sec 8°.
Qu.3 360°, 180°.
Qu.4 (a) 5, (b) /3/2, (c) 1/,/2, (d) 1/,/3, (©) 2, (f) 2/,/3, (8) 1, (h) /2.
Qu.5 (a) cot 0, (b) cosec 8, (c) — cosec 0, (d) — tan 9, (e) sec 0, (f) — cosec 8,
(g) — sin 0, (h) sin @, (i) — tan 6, (j) — cos 6, (k) — cos @, (1) cosec 0.

Exercise 16a, page 331

1 (a)0,(b)0,() —1, (d)—1, ©), (f) — 3/2, (g) —V3, (h) 3/2, @) — J3/2,
G)U2 (k) = 1/,/2, ) — 1/,/2, (m)—/3, (n)1,(0) 1/,/3.
180°.
(a) 180°, (b) 720°, (c) 240°, (d) 360°, (e) 360°.
WwW
&
An (a) 240°, (b) 225°, (c) none, (d) 230°, 310°, (e) 306.9°, (f) 300°, (g) 240°, 360°,
(h) 270°, 330°.
= (a) 30°, 150°, 210°, 330°; (b) 30°, 150°, 210°, 330°; (c) 15°, 75°, 195°, 255°:
(d) 674°, 1574°, 2474°, 3374°; (e) 10°, 110°, 130°, 230°, 250°, 350°:
(f) 90°, 210°, 330°; (2)45°, 135°, 225°, 315°; (h) 35.3°, 144.7°, 215.3°, 324.7°:
 Answers 551
Page 332
EA SIS... 345°: (Fy 37.8°%) 14222°917.8% 322.9%:
(k) 11.6°, 48.4°, 191.6°, 228.4°; (1) 23.9°, 83.9°, 143.9°, 203.9°, 263.9°, 323.9°.
(a) — 180°, — 45°, 0°, 135°, 180°; (b) + 60°, +90°;
(c) 0°, + 180°, — 19.5°, — 160.5°; (d) — 150°, — 30°, 90°; (e) + 120°, +180°:
(f) + 60°, + 90°, + 120°; (g) 0°, + 180°; (h) + 45°, + 135°;
(i) + 90°, 11.5°, 168.5°; (j) + 40.9°, + 139.1°; (k) + 90°, 41.8°, 138.2°:
(I) — 104°, — 45°, 76.0°, 135°; (m) 23.6°, 156.4°; (n) + 109.5°.
(Maxima first), (a) 1, 90°; — 1, 270°. (b) 3, 0°; — 3, 180°. (c) 2, 0°; — 2, 360°.
(d)3, 135°; — 4, 45°. (e) 3, 270°; — 1, 90°. (f) 5, 0°; 1, 60°. (g) 1, 270°;4,90°.
(h) 1, 0°; 4, 180°. (i) — 1, 120°; 1, 0°. (j) no max.; 0, 0°. (k)4,90°; no min.
(1) none. (m) none.
10 (a), (c), (d), (€), (g).
12 (a) 180°, (b) 1080°, (c) 60°, (d) 360°, (e) 540°.

Exercise 16b, page 337

1 (a) cos 6, (b) tan @, (c) cos 8 cot 8.
2 (a) sin 6, (b) tan 0, (c) cosec 6 cot 6.
3 (a) sec 0, (b) sec? 6 tan 8, (c) sin 6.
4 (a) cot 0, (b) cos 8, (c) cosec 6 tan? 8.
1
5 (a) a* cos? 8, (b) 7 Se 6, (c) acos 6 cot @.
1
(a) b* cosec? 0, (b) b* cot @ cosec 4, (c) ; sin 6 cos 0.
1 >
(a) a* tan? 6, (b) 3 cot 6, (c) sin 6.
0°, 60°, 300°, 360°. 9 270°. 10 45°, 63.4°, 225°, 243.4°.
26. R8S5>, 206.6", 315*: 12 60°, 300°. 13730 2415"°2158/27" 150°.

a | oe b2 ae
galas

(x—1? +(y-1?=1. 36 o{y—b)=ac. 37 G+ Gl.

ty =.
Voi sxety=2. 40 xy=1.
4 AL.
47
otis y)7 25. — y)°
Exercise 16c, page 338

1 (a) —cos 25°, (b) —tan 27°, (c) sec 51°, (d) sin 35°, (e) cot 46°,
(f) — cosec 36°. re
2 (a) — 1, (6) —4,/3, © V3, @) 4/2, © — 3/3, €) — V2, @) = 1, 4, 3.
ti (ya 150-- (B) 195 7315;(c) 36.9°, 323.1"; {d) DIF 11s, 20252925";
(ec) 37.8°, 142.2°, 217.8°, 322.2°; (f) 60°, 300°; (g) 80.5°, 299.5°;
(h) 14.4°, 105.6°; (i) 96.0°.
552 Pure Mathematics 1

Page 339
4 (a)0°, +180°; — 30°, — 150°. (b) +90°; —123.7°, 56.3°. (c) 30°, 150°; 90°.
(d) + 131.8°. (e) 30°, 150°. (f) + 66.4°, + 120°.
(g) 45°, — 135°; 63.4°, —116.6°. (h) +.60°; —23.6°, —1564°.
5 (a) max. 5, 90°; min. 1, 270°. (b) max. 4, 180°; min. — 2, 0°.
(c) max. 4, 60°; min. — 4, 180°. (d) max. 3, 180°; min. 0, 0°.
(e) max. — 1, 180°; min. 4, 0°. (f) max. 1, 45°; min. 4, 135°.
6 (a) tan 0, (b) cos 8, (c) sin 0, (d) —cot 0. (e) —cosec 6, (f) —sec 8,
(g) —sin 0, (h) — tan 8, (i) sin 0.
7 (a) cot? 0, (b) sin 6, (c) —cosec 8, (d) 1, (e) 1, (f) sec 0 cosec 0.
8 (a) 90°; 210°, 330°. (b) 41.4°, 318.6°. (c) 0°, 360°; 131.6°, 228.2°.
(d) 23.6°, 156.4°; 16.6°, 163.4°. (e) 60°, 300°. (f) 56.3°, 236.3°.
(2)55,15 195), S15 2aes
9 @4330 -3. 5: OF. 51@ -te=
18 b?x? —a’y? =a7b?.
19 (x—1)? +(y—-17 = 1.
20 ab? — xy? =a?y’?
21 xy? —47b* a7.
22. bix? 07 y* = x7".

25 y*(1+x)=1—x.
26 max. ,/2, 45°; min. —,/2, — 135°.
27 —36.9°, 90°.
28 18°.
29 x= 60°, y= 75", 345° xe 120°, py= 15 2835s x = 240. P= 165 2
x = 300°, y= 05": 195°;
30 (a) neither, 0 < y <2, (b) even, —1 <y <5, (c) neither, 5 <y< 15,
(d) even, O<y <2.

Chapter 17
Qu.3 (a) 0°, 112.6°, 360°; (b) 53.1°, 323.1°; (c) 48.4°, 205.3%: (d) 119.6°, 346.7°.
Exercise 17a, page 345
1 (a)4./2(/3 + 1), (6) 4./20/3 + 1), ©) 4./2(/3 + 0), (d)4./201 — 3),
(e) —4./2(/3 + 1), (f)4./2(/3 — 1), (g) 4./2(./3 — 1), (h) ees 1).
2 (a) &S, (b) 8, (©) 3.
3
4
5
6 —2.
7
8
9 (a) cos (x + 60°) = sin (30° — x), (b) cos (45° — x) = sin (45° + x).
(c) tan (x + 60°), (d) sin 26°, (€) sec 39°, (f) cos 15° = sin 105° = sin 75°.
 Answers 593
Page 346
7 (a) 3, (b) 3, (©) 3/3, (4) 0, (©) 4, (fF) 4/2, (2) 4/3, (4.6.
12 2.
13 (a)5, fs) Ec) 2, (d)2—./3.
16 (a) 9.9°, 189.9°; (b) 1574°, 3374°; (c) 49.1°, 229.1°: (56.5. 236:5%

Exercise 17b, page 349

1 sin 34°, 2 tan 60°. 3 cos 84°. 4 sin 0. SECOs4) .
6 tan 0. We cos30%. 8 sin 4A. 9 cos 0. 10 cos 60.
11 + tan 46. 12 3 sin 2x. 13 2 cot 40°. 14 2 cosec 20.
15 cos 0.

Exercise 17c, page 349

(a) 4, (b)1,(c)—3/3, (d) —4,/2, (e) 3,/2, (f) 2/3, (g)

1,(h) 2,/2.
(a) + 38,zs;(b) + 188 sks:
1 ais, — of
(a) — 7, (0)42)(e) 3-42...
Bre ee!eT: (b), +3043: (9,444, tas
(a)3, —3; (b)4, —2; (c)—4,3.
2—1.
90? 2120"; 240°, 270°.
0°, 180°, 360°; 60°, 300°.
1S". 27:
56.4°, 123.6°; 270°.
Sa OA) 210
0°, 180°, 360°; 85.2°, 274.8°.
0°, 180°, 360°; 120°, 240°; 36.9°, 323.1°.
0°, 180°, 360°; 30°, 150°, 210°, 330°.
45°, 225°; 121.0°, 301.0°.
18.4°, 161.6°, 198.4°, 341.6°.
(a) y = 2x? — 1, (b) 2y = 3(2 — x”), (c) y(1 — x”) = 2x, (d) x7y = 8 — x’.

Exercise 17d, page 353

90°, 330°.
94.9°, 219.9°.
114,3°,.335.7°.
204.6%, 351.7.
12:67 3 19.3°:
76. 7? 209.0".
2S. 15-20% 1°: 159.5°3.339,5°.
0°, 180°, 360°; 45°, 225°.
max. 2, 330°; min. — 2, 150°.
maxta/ 13, 33:7°;ming—4/ 135— 146.3°.
§53.1°;
554 Pure Mathematics 1

Page 354
13\ max. ,/5, 63.4°; min. — af 5; = 116.6".
14 Waf2e 45 90, 225%
15 5, 126.9°; —5, 306.9°.
16 2, 60°; —2, 240°.
17 (175298458 17 AIS.
18 af3s 170.5°; — See 8505":
19 1, 240°; — 1, 60°.
20 35; 53511-52335

Exercise 17e, page 356

1 cos(x + y)—cos
(x — y). 2 cos (x + y) + cos (x — y).
3 cos 40+ cos 20. 4 cos 2S — cos 2T. 5 cos 2x —cos 8x.
6 cos 2x + cos 2y. 7 cos A+ cos B. 8 cos B—cos C.
9 cos 2x. 10 cos 4x + cos 60°.

Exercise 17f, page 356

1 sin(x + y)+sin (x — y). 2 sin (x + y)—sin (x — y).
3 sin 46 + sin 20. 4 sin 2S + sin 2T. 5 sin 8x — sin 2x.
6 sin 2x —sin 2y. 7 sin 2x — sin 6x. 8 sin A +sin B.
9 sin A —sin B. 10 sin R —sin S.

Exercise 17g, page 359

1 2cos4(x + y) cos 4(x — y). 2 2 sin 4x cos x.
3 2cos(y+z)sin(y—z). 4 2cos 6x cos x. 5 —2sin3Asin}A.
6 2cos3xsinx. 7 2sin4AsinA. 8 2sin6@cos@. 9 ./3sinx.
10 ./2 cos (y— 35°). 11 —2cos 46 sin 0. 12 —sin x.
13 —2sin x sin4x. 14 2 sin 2x cos 80°.
15 2 cos (45° —4x +4y) cos (45° —4x —4y).
16 2cos (45° —5A +4B) cos (45° —44A —4B).
17 2sin (3x + 45°) cos (3x — 45°).
18 2sin(x + 45°) cos (x — 45°).
19 2cos (45°44 +4B) sin (45° —44 —4B),
20 2 cos (30° + 8) cos (30° — 6).

Exercise 17h, page 360

14 p20 90 5021 0% 270°, 330°> 45", 135°. 225° 1315"
15 10°, 120°, 240°, 360°; 72°, 144°, 216°, 288°.
16 02.180", 360°345°,135°>.225' 3157
17 0°, 72°, 144°, 180°, 216°, 288°, 360°.
18 4475", 355°.
19: (4529135°.225% 315%
20 6257205...
 Answers 555
Exercise 17i, page 361

0°, 180°, 360°; 41.4°, 318.6°.

9 0°; 180°, 360°; 60°, 120°, 240°, 300°.
10 41.6°, 244.7°.
Lt 79.8 347.6",
12° 9x = 4y* 218.
13. y(4—x?) =4x.
14 2(t + 2)?/(1 +t’).
15 (1+0/(1—0).
16 (13,.292.6"5 + 13,112:6°:
SLL —37, 251.12.
18. 73, 311.1n-2-413.".
21 60°, 120°; 30°, 90°, 150°.
22 0°, 45°, 90°; 135°, 180°; 60°, 120°.
23. 0°, 90°, 180°.
24 60°, 180°.
Pea ye 135. 30150

Chapter 18
Qu.1 54.1.
Qu.2 6.95.
Qu.3 (a) 6.49(5), (b) 72.4, (c) 32.2, (d) 43.8, (e) 76.3, (f) 123, (g) 32 600.
Qu. 4 (a) 6 deg/s, (b) 1 rev/min.
Qu.5 (a) 3000 deg/s, (b) 24 deg/h.
Qu.6 120° + 360n°, or 240° + 360n°.
Qu.7 4n+071.

Exercise 18a, page 370

1 (a) A= 48°, b= 13.8, c= 15.4. (b) B= 56.1°, a= 6.53, c = 5.04.
(c) C=45.1°, a= 231, b= 213.
2 (a) B=95°, a= 1.40, c = 1.80. (b) B= 19.7°, b = 4.63, c = 8.29.
(c) A = 32.7°, b= 244, c = 172.
3 (a) B=59.1°, A =72.6°, a= 19.6; or B= 120.9°, A = 10.9", a = 3.87.
(b) C = 26.7°, A = 24.3°, a= 4.18.
(c) B=55.5°; C= 96.25°, c = 17.9; or B= 124.5°, C = 27.25", c = 8.22.
4 (a) A =38.2°, B=81.8°, C= 60°. (b) A = 54.6°, B= 78.1", C = 47.2°.
(c) A = 64.2°, B= 43.5°, C=72.4°.
556 Pure Mathematics 1

Page 371
5 (a)a=13, B= 32.2°, C=87.8°. (b) b= 11.7, A=72.3°, C= 54.7°.
(c) c= 7.60, A = 82.6°, B = 54.2°.
6 (a) A=29.5°, B= 38.0°, C = 112.4°. (b) A = 17.9°, B= 120°, C= 42.1.
(iAH 35.89B = 49.3°° C= 94.9", ;
7. (a) A=11.6°, B= 73°, C = 48.4°. (b) a= 17.4, B= 33.8°, C= 41.9".
(c) A = 31.2°, B= 44.6°, c= 58.0.
8 1.43 km.
9 25.8 m.
10 1.0°.
11 347.3°, 3.64 n.mi.
12 200m.

Exercise 18b, page 373

1 (a) 90°, (b) 45°, (c) 60°, (d) 120°, (e) 30°, (f) 270°, (g) 450°, (h) 720°, (i) 900°,
(j) 240°, (k) 630°, (I) 135°.
2 haere (b) 4x, (c)4n, (d) aot, (e) $n, (f) $x, (g) $1, (h) Fn, (i) 31, (j) $7, (kK) 8,
(Il) 37.
3 *8'cm> Fl 4 “Oi6om, FY S: Gece 6s rad! 7 3cm?’.
8 4rad. 9 12cm. 10 4m’.

Exercise 18c, page 374

1 (a) 4n, (b) 6m, (c) n/900, (d) 5n/24. 2 (a) 72°. (b) 5°, (c) 105°, (d) 630°.
3 2.103 em. 4 3/n. 5 1.2 rad, 68.8°. 6 6.43 cm. 7 4.03 cm?.
8 (a) 151 cm’, (b) 62.4 cm?, (c) 88.4 cm?. 9 24.1 cm?. 10 22.4 cm?.
11 4r7(2n — 0 +sin 6).

Exercise 18d, page 376

1 (a) do rev/min, (b) 75 deg/s, (c) 7/1800 rad/s.
2 (a) 1200 deg/s, (b) 20/3 rad/s.
3 (a) 1536 rev/min, (b) 161 rad/s.
4 0.262 rad/h.
5 (a) 100x rad/s, (b) 652 cm/s.
6 (a) 3.89 rad/s, (b) 15.6 cm/s.
7 (a) 40x rad/s, (b) 1.57 m/s.
8 (a) 35.2 rad/s, (b) 336 rev/min.
9 1600 rev/min.
10 128 rad/s.
11 1.99 x 107’ rad/s, 30 km/s.
12 48 km/h.

Exercise 18e, page 378

1 45° + n360°, or 135° + n360°.
2. n360°.
 Answers 557
Page 378
60° + n180°.
270° + n360°.
120° + n360°, or 240° + n360°.
150° + n180°.
1/3 + 2nn, or 5/3 + 2nn.
3n/4 + nn.
m/12 + nm, or Sn/12 + nn.
1/6 + 2nr, or 1172/6 + 2nn; 5/6 + 2nn, or 72/6 + 2nz.
t/3. 12 17/4. 13 1/4. 14 —7/6. 15 51/6.
— 1/4. 17 —7n/2. 18 x. 19 0. 20 1/2.

Exercise 18f, page 380

1 fap a=— 15, B= 322°°C =878", (b)b =11:7; A = 72.3") C 54.7
(cjc=7.59, A =82.6°-B8 = 542°:
ce lain 13.4 — 116. C= 434 (b) a= 17.4.8 = 338°C 2 419*
(ope 57.9 A= 313°, B= 447°.
3 (a) C=99.4°, a=9.54, b = 5.23; (b) either, B = 38.9°, C = 109.9°, c = 9.00,
enteral 7 ce = e- (c) B= 1468", C = 13.2°, b= 24.0.
4 (a) 11.5, (b) 9.92, s not possible.
5 (a) 72°, (b) 150°, (c) 674°, (d) 105°.
lin 5 51 2n
6’ (a)— O00.
7 —*cm.
8 rad/s.
1
9 730 rev/min, 1———
ia rad/s.

10 —75 rad/s.
11 4n.
12 No solution.
13 (a) No solution, (b) 2 solutions, (c) 1 solution.
14 16.
15 (a) 210, (b) 21.
16 (cos «, sin «), (cos f, sin f).

Chapter 19
Qu.1 (a) 14, (b) 2, (c)4, (d)4, (e) sin a, (f) cos a, (g) §, (hn) 2, (i) sec” o.
Qu.3 2cos4(A + B) sin (A — B).
Qu.6 (a) —3 sin 3x, (b) 2 sin x cos x = sin 2x, (c) 4 cos 2x,
(d) —3 cos” x sin x.

Exercise 19a, page 387

1 (a)—2 sin 2x, (b) 6 cos 6x, (c) — 3 sin (3x — 1), (d) 2 cos (2x— 3),
(e) 15 sin 5x, (f) 8 cos 4x, (g)—6 cos $x, (h) cos 4(x + 1), (i) 2x cos x?
558 Pure Mathematics 1

Page 387
(d) sin 2x + ¢,
2 (a) —4cos 3x +¢, (b)4 sin 3x +¢, (c) —3 00s 4x + ¢,
3sin 4x +c, (g) — 3cos (2x + I) +e,
(e)4;cos 6x + ¢, (f)
3sin(2x — 1) +c, (i) —$ cosx +e.
(h)
3 (a) 2 sin x cos x = sin 2x, (b) —8 cos x sin x = —4 sin 2x,
xsin x, (d) 6 sin?
(c) —3 cos? x sin x,
x cos x, (e) — 12 cos®
cos x —sin x
f
OF 3x sin
h) —6 cos 3x
1Gin x)’ (8) 5 Teos x)” (h) sin 6x,
sin 3x3x = —3 sin 6x

sin 4x, (j) — 18 sin? 3x cos 3x,

(i) 4 sin 2x cos 2x = 2
p
(k) 24 sin? 2x cos 2x, O ana
4 (a) cos x — x sin x, (b) sin 2x + 2x cos 2x, (c) x(2 sin x + x cos x),
(d) cos? x — sin? x = cos 2x, (e) (x cos x — sin x)/x?,
(f) —(2x sin 2x + cos 2x)/x?, (g) (sin x — x cos x)/sin? x,
(h) x(2 cos x + x sin x)/cos? x, (i) sec? x, (j) — cosec? x, (k) sec x tan x,
(1) —cosec x cot x.
5 (a) 1m, (b) 2 m/s2, (c) 0.983 s.
6 (a)4ns, (b) —3./3 cm/s, (c) —5, 34, —3 cm/s”.
7 (a) 5, (b) —20.
8 (a) 0.841, (b) $./5, (c) 2/5.
ag2
10 2n.
11 Tes hee
12 Smet 2-
14 Nite
17 3.

Exercise 19b, page 390

1 (a) 2 sec? 2x, (b) —3 cosec? 3x, (c) 6 sec 2x tan 2x, (d) —cosec 4x cot 4x,
(e) —2 sec? (2x + 1), (f) sec (3x — 2) tan (3x — 2), (g) 6 cosec? (3x + 2),
(h) —2x.cosec? x”, (i) (sec? Rf 28/x):
2, (a).2 fan x sec? x, (b) 2 sec? x tan » (c) — 6 cot? x cosec? %
(d) — §cosec? x cot x, (e)—4 sec” 2x tan 2x, (f) —3 cosec? 3x cot 3x,
(g) sec? 2x tan + (h) 8 cosec* x cot x, (i) (sec? x )/(2./ tan x).
3 (a) tan x + x sec? x, (b) sec x (sec? x + tan? x), (c) x(2 cot x — x cosec? bx),
(d) 3 rae x(1 — x cot x), (e) — cosec x(cosec? x + cot? x),
(f) (x sec? x — tan x)/x?, (g) sec x (x tan x — 2)/x3, (h) x sin x,
(i) 2x sec? x tan-x.
4 (a)}tan 2x +c, (b) 3 secx +c, (c)2 cot4x +c, (d) —4$cosec shi + ¢,
xc x+c, or tan? x +c, (f) tan x +c, (g) secx +c, ya + cot 2x +¢,
(i) —4cosec 2x +c.
1 —4n.
2n.
(a) 2,/3, (b))5/5, (6) Sai3)
cot? x
OSerarnmn = cosec? x—1, —cotx—x+c.
 Answers 559
Exercise 19c, page 390
1 (a) 72°, (b) 150°, (c) 674°, (d) 105°.
2 (a) 11/6, (b) 5/18, (c) 5/12, (d) 2n/15.
3 (a) 0.909, (b) 1.14, (c) 3.90, (d) — 0.987.
4 10.5 cm.
5 toms 29.8".
7 171 cm?.
8 1.93 rad.
9 0.515 rad.
10 60°, 72°, 144°, 42, 2x, tn rad.
11 mt rad/s.
12 (a) 435 rev/min, (b) x/21 600 rad/s.
13 44 rad/s, 238 km/h.
14 6.9 rad/s.
15 42.4 rev/min.
16 (a) 1, (b)4, (c) —sin a.
18 (a) 3 cos 3x, (b) 3 sec? 5x, (c) — 2x sin x”, (d) —sin x/(2,/cos x),
(e) — 6 cosec? x cot x, (f) 2 sin x, (g) — 18 sec? 2x tan 2x,
(h) (cos 2x)/,/(sin 2x), (i) 12 tan 2x sec? 2x.
19 (a)
4sin 2x + c, (b) —4.cos (2x— 1) +¢, (c) 6 sin4x +c, (d)2 tanix tc,
(e) —cosec x +c, (f) 4 sec 2x +c, (g) —cosec x +c, (h)4 tan 2x +c,
a —tcos x? +¢.
20 (a) sin x + x cos x, Pes Teor e cen apn 2X,
(c) 2x tan x (tan x + x sec? x), (d) sec x(x tan x — 1)/x?,
(e) —(2 sin 3x sin 2x + 3 cos 3x cos 2x)/sin? 3x,
(f) cos x tan 2x + 2 sin x sec? 2x, (g) (x cos x — 2 sin x)/x°, (h) x? sin x.
23 (a) 5, (b) — 20, (c) 10.
24 (a) 4¢./15 cm/s, (b) 14 cm.
ZS (a) 1, (b) 4/3, (©) 2, (d) ¢.

Chapter 20
Qu.2 4x—6y—13=0.
On 40 fa) ya 7b) v=. /3x +./ 13.
Qu.5 = (a) (0, 0); (b) (0, 0), (3, 6).

Exercise 20a, page 396

1 x24 y2=25. 2x2+y?—6x—2y+6=0. 3 4x—10y+29=0.
4 5x —3y—4=0. 5x+i,y7=2x+1. 6.x7=—Ay.
vs Ie zy —x—l= 0. ~~8 3x* + By’ + 36x 38y-t 159.= 0.
ao 3x2 y?=48. 10 3x27+4y?=48. 11 x*+y’=9.
12 y* = 4ax. 13°32"? + Ay? = 12. 14 y=0. 15 2x+3y—13=0.

Exercise 20b, page 399

1 —4) + —2) +3) =9;
(a) (y —2)(y + 5) + (x + 3)(x —4) =0; (b) (y— 1p
(c) y(y — a) + x(x — a) = 0; (d) (y — y1) (y — 2) + (& — 1) (% — X2)=0.
560 Pure Mathematics 1

Page 399
2 (a) x? + y? = 36, (b) 4x? + y? = 64.
3 xta yr l6.
4 xy=3y+4x.
5 xy:
6 y=6x? +1.
7 y*=8x+4+4.
9 ?4+y=4.
10 4x? 4.4y?—8x4+3=0.
11 2y=x?4+x42.
12 #523) 13 SO.
13 xy=2x+3y.
14 x? —4xy+ 5y? =4.
15 y?—xy—y+2x=0.

Exercise 20c, page 402

(a) 4x —y—4=0,
x + 4y — 18 =0; (b) 4x —y—2=0,x+4y—9=0;
(c) y+ 2=0,x+1=0;(d)x+y+1=0,x-—y—3=0;
(ec) 6x + y+4=0,
x —6y+50=0; (f)x + y—4=0,x—y=0;
(g) 2x —3y+1=0,3x+2y—5=0.
2 (a) (4, 2); (b) 2, —2); ) (6, 3); ) (—3, = 2).
3 (1, 0), (3, 0); 2x + y—2=0,x —2y—1=0; 2x-—y—6=0,x+2y—3=0.
4 5x—y—11=0,3x+y+3=0.
§ x+2y—1=0,x—2y+1=0, (0,3).
6 (0, 0), (1, 1); x =0,2y —x—1=0; y=0, y—2x+1=0.
7 4y—x+48 =0, (48, 0).
8 9x—y—27=0, 9x-—y+5=0.
9 x+yt4=0.
10 0,2; y=0, y—4x+4=0.
Wl x+4y—4c=0.
13 3x—8y+10=0.
14 x—y+4=0.
15. n? =a7l?
+ bm.

Exercise 20d, page 403

2x —16y +41 =0.
y? = 8(x — 2).
3x? + 4y? — 24x + 36=0.
8x? — y* — 18ax + 9a? =0.
x? + y*+4x =0.
3x? + 3y? + 8x =0.
(x — a)(x —c) +(y —b)(y—d)
=0.
(a) x? + y? = 144, (b) x? + 9y? = 324.
x? + y? = 36.
=OA
Sue
=
WN xy=4.
AANA
 Answers 561
Page 404
11 bx+ay=xy.
12 4x7+y?—4x—8=0.
13 7x Sy PT 0 (_ 2 — 4).
14 x + 2y= 12, (—6, 9).
5 x+y—4=0,x4+9y-—12=0.
16 +1,x—y+1=0,4x+4y—11=0.
17 9y—27x = 19, (—2, 4).
18 8x—28y+49=0.
19 y=x+1+42/x,(—2, —2);x—2y+6=0, x—2y—2=0.
20 6x+12y+5=0.

Chapter 21
Qu. 1 ~ z= —a, f= —b, c=(a* +b? =r’).
Qu.2 = (a) 0, (b) no real length.
One Xs Y* 1X? HY? —6X BY + 2f 3x 4y— 11 =0.
Qu.4d x+y=0.

Exercise 21a, page 408

1 (a) x? + y? —4x — 6y-+ 12 =0; (b) x? + y? + 6x — 8y =0;
' (c) 9x? + Dy? — 12x + 6y+ 1 =0; (d) x? + y? + 10y =0;
(ec) x? + y? — 6x + 7 =0; (f) 144x? + 144y? + 72x — 96y
— 47 =0.
2 (a) 1,(—2; 3); (b) 2, (1; 2); {c)3,G, 0); (d) 2, (—3, 2) (©) 4/2, (=4, =2)5
Bin
(f) 1, (4, 3); (g) /(a? + 6”), (a, b); (h) /(g? +? — 0), (—8, —f).
3 (a), (d) if a>0, (f) if b =0, (g) ifce <0.
4 x*+y?—4x—2y—15=0.
5 (5,3), ,/10; x? + y? — 10x — 6y + 24 =0.
6 x? + y?— 4x + 6y+4=0.
7 4, 6.
8 The y-axis is a tangent.
9 x2-+4+y?+8x—10y
+16=0.
10 x?+y?—4x—4y+4=0.
11 (2, 1),x?+y?—4x—2y—45=0.
12 x?+ y?—16x+8y—5=0.
13 (a)x? + y? + 4x —2y =0, (b) x? + y? — 10x — 8y + 28 =0,
(c) x? + y? — 2x — 49 =0.
14 (4,0),2.
15 (4, 1),3.
Exercise 21b, page 410
1 (a) 3x —y=0; (b) x —4y + 17=0; (c) 4x + y— 11 =0; (d) 3x + y—8 =0;
(ce) 4x + 9y+5=0.
2 (a)./10, (b) ./15, (c) 29, (d) 2./7, (©) x/(%1? +17 —a’), (f) Jc.
Scat.
562 Pure Mathematics 1

Page 411
4 x—y-1=0,x+y—-—5=0.
5 (23, 0), (0, 73), 88.
6. ils
7 .{(X? + Y?—4), 2x—5=0.
8 2x+3y—6=0.
10 (7, 4).

Exercise 21c, page 413

Zao, 0):
4 (1, 2).
5 (—2,5)
6 y=2x.
7 x?+y?— 10x —8y +33 =0.
$ 44 —3y—18 = 0135.
93:
10 x?+y? =a’.
11 (0,0), 3x+y=0.
12 x+y—1=0.
13 2x—5=0.
14 5.
15 x?+y*—10x-—4y+4=0.
16 (3, 1), (74, 23); (5, 0).
17 x?+y?—5x-—y=0.
18 (2, —3),(—11, —3); x? +y? —4x + 6y =0, x? + y? + 22x + 6y + 117 =0.

Chapter 22
Qu.1 (a) 1, (b) #5, (©) 2/26, (d) 3/2, (©) 15/34, (fF) F5/ 13, (8) $a, (h) $4,
(i) ¢s(12X — SY+ 7), (j) 77(8x1 — 15y).
Exercise 22a, page 416
1 (aj y—x=—1, (b) y+ 2x = —1, (c)2y
—x = — 12, (d) 3y Hx = 13,
(c) Sy + 7x = —9, (f) 4y — 3x =7, (g) 6y + 5x = — 39, (h) 3)— 4x = 23,
(i) yt — x =at?, (j) y+tx =at? + 2at, (k) y sin 8 + x cos 0 =a,
(
2 (a) 2x —3y= —2, (b) 3x + 4y =0, (c) 6x — Sy = — 43, (d) 2x + 3y =7,
(ec) y+tx =k + th, (f) bx — ay = bx, — ayy, (g) y—t?x =c/t —ct?.
3 (a) x/3 + y/2=1, (b) y/2—x = 1, (c) 2x + 5y = 1, (d) 4y — 3x =1.
4 (a) x/3+ y/2 =1, (b) y/5 —x =1, (c) 3y/2— 2x =1.
5 psec u, p cosec a, x cosa+ysina=p.
6 (a) y—3x +9 =0; (b) 2y + x =0; (c) Sy — 2x — 3 =0; (d) 4y + 3x + 12 =0;
(¢) y— 6x + 16 =0; (f) 4y — 9x — 3 =0; (g) y= 2; (h) 2y +x—4=0;
(i) 3y —4x — 13 =O; (j) 6y +x — 19 =0; (k) y+ x—-1=0 >

(l) y—t?x =k—t7h.

 Answers 563
Exercise 22b, page 421
2 (a)
r=a, (b)
0=a, (c)r=asec 0, (d) r=acosec8, (€) 7 =a Cos'0!
(f) r = 2a sin 6, (g) a? =r? + c? — 2er cos @, (h) r= 2a/(1 + cos 8).
=) (a) r =a, (b) r* =a? sec 20, (c) 0=0, (d) r = 2a/(1 + cos 6), (ec) r =2 sin 0,
(f) r? = 2c? cosec 26.
6 (a) x? + y? =4, (b) (x? + y? — ax)? = a2(x? + y?), (Cc) x? + y? —ax =0,
(d) x* + x?y? =a*y?, (e) (x? + y?)? = 4a?(x + y)*, (f) 4xy = c?,
(g) x? + y? =(Il—ex)?, (h) yes 4ax.
7 (a) 1, 60°; (b) 2,/2, — 45°; (c) 2, tan~! 4; (d) 2, tan™ 1(— 42);
(e) $,/10, tan~* 3; (f)c/,/(a? + b?), tan~ '(b/a).

Exercise 22c, page 425

1 (a) 44, (b) 274, (©) 4$./17, (d) 0, (e) 38.29, (f)14,(g)fe/41, (bh) J 13,
(i) p, (j) t3(SX— 12Y+ 1), Wy He, Oday, 3x,+)
N (a) 3x —y—2=0,x + 3y —4=0; (b) 7x —7y +4=0,x+y—2=0;
(c) 17x + 17y —4=0, 7x —7y —4=0; (d)x+(1+./2)y—1=0.
(a) 8x —4y + 17 =0, (b) 8y + 1 =0, (c) 4x 4+ 12y+5=0.
4x? — 4xy + y? — 20x + 30y + 65 =0.
4x + 3y—24=0.
Tx? — 2xy + Ty” — 40x — 40y + 48 =0.
4y —3x —15=0, 4y—3x + 35=0.
2x = Sy + 13 20.
x* + y? —4x — 14y + 49 =0.
RW n* = a?(I?7
OAIAM
CU
— +m’).

Exercise 22d, page 429

(a) $, 3; (b) +3, +3a, (c) —2, — 4; (d) 60°, (./3/2)b.

(a) (y — 2)? =x—1, (b) x?=y?,(0) xy=1, (d) 2x + y—5=0, (©) y? = 4ax,
(f) xy? = 1, (g) Sx + y — 13 =0, (h) 4x? — 9y? = 144, (i) 4x? + 9y? = 36,
(j) 9x? — 16y? = 144. ) 2t
@xsty=t; (b)x=t—2,
26 (x=y=t
4 YS
?—ay}
1 t t
Oe
aE"
age ae
3x —2y+1=0.
— 5, —4.

(307, 30), 2y? = 9x.

yy = Sax:
x = y(2x
— 1).
Toa hay Net ANes
(a, 2a), inflexion; (4a, — 4a), minimum.
(a) (p + q)y— 2x= 2pq, (b) pqy—x +(p+q)=
(c) (p? + pq +47) vy—x = pa(p + 4), (d) (pa — ra 2pqx + 2(p + -q)= 0.
(a, 2a), 3./2a.
564 Pure Mathematics 1

Page 430
14 —1,2;(1, —2), (4, 4).
15 (1, +2), (4, +4).

Exercise 22e, page 431

1 (a) 2y + 3x —1=0, 2x —3y —5 =0; (b) y+ 4x = 3, 16y — 4x = 31;
(c)x t+y+a=0,x—y—3a=0; (d) y+ x+2c=0, y—x=0;
(ec) 2y+x+9=0, 2x —y+3=0;
(f) 3./3y
+ 2x — 12 =0, 6,/3x
— 4y —5,/3 =0.
(a) ty — 2x — t? =0, 2y + tx = 6t? + t*;
(b) ty — x — at? =0, y+ tx = 2at + at?;
(c). ytx + t* = 0, ty + x= 38? + 42°;
(dtp x—2ct=0, yp— x =e — ces
(ec) bx cos t+ ay sin t= ab, ax sin t—by cos t=4(a? —b’) sin 2t;
(f) bx sec t — ay tant= ab, ax sint + by =(a? + b’) tan ¢.
(a) (p+ q)y — 2x = 2pq, py — x =p’;
(b) y+ pq(p + q)x =p* + pq+q’, y + 2p’x= 3p’;
(c) pqy +x =c(p +q), p’y + x = 2cp;
(d) bx cos 3(p + q) + ay sin 3(p + q) = ab cos 3(p
— q),
bx cos p+ay sin p=ab.
2x + y—12a=0, (9a, — 6a).
(—4c, —8c).
(+334)
yt — x =at?; 2, 4;2y—x =4a, 4y — x = 16a.
y+x=2c, 9y +x = 6e.
yt+2x= 12a, y—4x+72a=0.
1SMU
A (—c/t*, —ct°).
AANIAN

Exercise 22f, page 432

4 yt —x =at?, y+ tx = 2at + at?.
17 2, — lj y+2x=12a, y—x+3a=0,
18 y—x—a=0,4y—x-—
l6a=0.

Exercise 22g, page 434

r = 2a/(1 —cos 8).
64.
r=a(1 —cos 6), x? + 2ay = a?.
BT. DX a eee
pe eee 5H dae oye
(a) 2x —8y +7=0, 4x +y +4 =0; (b) 12x + 4y — 13 =0, 2x —-6y+7=0.
x? —2xy + y? + 8x + 8y=0.
Poa CFs 6 Bie ase
2xy=x+1.
x—2y+2=0,2x+y—11=0.
2t°y +x = 3t?, 2xy? =1.
x—y+a=0,x—Sy+25a=0.
(4344, — 22a).
 Answers 565

Chapter 23
Note: Approximate answers have generally been rounded to 2 or 3 significant
figures. The reader should not assume from the form of an answer that the result
is exact.

Qu. 1 (a) s varies as the square of t, (b) V varies as the cube of r,

(C) y varies inversely as the square of x,
(d) T varies as the square root of I, (e) p varies inversely as v,
(f) the square of T varies as the cube of d.
Qu.2 W is increased by a factor of (a) 8, (b) 27.

Qu.3 (i) (a) p=kq, (b) p= - (c) v =kx?, (d) U=k,/I, (€) F=kc?, (f) H = me

(g) T= “ue, (h) A =ks", (i) A? = kv?.

~/ &
3 2
- Pi) Qs Pr. 83 it Weed U, Vii Fe sakes
ae = ip) = 5 {= — = 1d) —— =, (eS af
w) tee q2 Da Py io. xe ye Vly ie lees”

Ne ee ee (nk hee
H, 4d, T, V8 A, 5," A, Wo)
Qu. 4 ___/ is increased by a factor of(a) 4, (b) 9. T is increased by a factor Dt) 2
Qu.5 1.1s.
Yi 344019
Qu. 6 w= a seats A

Qu.7 w is multiplied by (a) 4, (b) 4.

Qu.8 (a) c varies as p, (b) C varies as a? over a limited range,
(c) w varies as r?, (d) | varies inversely as b, (e) S varies as |”,
(f) A varies as a’, (g) a varies as ,/A, (h) V varies as a®,
(i) a varies as JV.
Qu.9 y=kxz?.
hr?

Qu.11 (a) T=kmr?, (b) Ta mr’.

mv?
Qu. 12 =
2 2
Z;
cigs Xi) Z1 =_ YiX2
,(b)- : Zz, = X11 Vi : Zy Xi
= V1
te Sie Z2 X22" Ps Y2X" { Z, -X2°Y2" eh eer y
eee yi Hae Ya X1
Zp Be Nee 2 Vi X2
Qu. 14 (a) C =K +kx’, k, K constants; (b) £11.95.
Qu. 15 v= 4.2t. ;
Qu. 16 The cost in labour and materials before any copies are run off is
£10.50.
(Qu.17 (a) y= —3x+122, (b) y=13.5x—71.5, (C) y= —12x+4+213.
Qu. 18 y= 12x — 72; 6cm.
Qu. 19 R=0.0005v°.
566 Pure Mathematics 1

Qu. 20 k=0.49.
Qu. 22 k = 2070; a= 1.05. 3700.

Exercise 23a, page 443

1 5.70 cm’. 2 29.9 km, d= S50 Mt. 3 155 cm, 1 = 24.8(5) T?.
4 25m. 5 0.242 kg, 11.0 cm, m= tod.
6 (a) C = 200nr, yes, (b) C = 5.08zr, yes. 7 2.8 x 10° N/m?. 8 3584.
9 15.6cm?%, 11.2 cm. 10 10.4k, v=$,/(5)). 11 3168, 3.3 mm.
12 (a) y varies as t°, (b) p varies inversely as r?.
13 F =+330°. (a) 2360 N, (b) 43.6 km/h.
14 H x0.000 182v%, 4.92 kW.
15 Increases approx. 7% in speed and 15% in acceleration.
16 1.59.
17 Increase ~ 0.05%.
19 1h37 min, T x 2.87 x 10 °d?”.
20 275:1472.

Exercise 23b, page 449

A. 15.7.cm3, 2 454.5 rev/min. 3 48 litres/s.
os 4 675kJ.
i V
5 185cm*,V ~51.6—. 6 0.70 kW, 0.001 rae
P
igi
7 ssf t4a0, ee ae 9 491s.
10 The former; ratio 16:15. 11 The latter; ratio 27:32.
12 The former; ratio 16:15. 13 £1150. 14 £9.75, C = 6.75 + 0.015n.
15 88m, s=10t + 3t?. 16 54.4 m, s =0.2v + 0,006v”, 50 km/h.
17 C=0.25 + 0.2m. 18 £3.50, 125. 19. 284 cm?"S = 2x7 + a)
x
20 V=nrh? —4rh’.

Exercise 23c, page 460

1 A= 1:84D.Yes.
2 m=1.02t; relative density = gradient x 19°.
3 h,=0.34h,.
4 d=7+68n, taking n to be 0, 74, 194.
5 (a) £1950, (b) £435.
6 11km/litre, about 17 litres.
7 @=62—3t. No: cooler bodies lose heat more slowly.
8 Yes; about 219 litres.
9 Yesul=.15/7.
10 m=0.338d?.
11 y= 3.50 —0.025x?.
12 p=10.6— ee 10
oor 9.6
e106 1(Theoretical i=——_.,
1l—p
 Answers 567
Page 463
13) P.=0,1995'8°

14 pa e
\/ n

15. Ff =1.6r?.
16 w= 3.94 x 0.846".
17 0.0071.
18 1.28.
19 0.005.
20 F=100 x 1.008* no.

Chapter 24
Qu.1 (a) 4.123, (b) 6.325, (c) 9.220, (d) 9.798.

Exercise 24a, page 473

(a) 3.46, (b) 5.48, (c) 7.07, (d) 8.66.
2.33, 2.29, 2.29; x* —12.=0.
Cag)F
eg = (%, 0+ 1)/5; 0.208,.0.209, 0.209; x... 4=5 — 1/x,; 0, — 00, 5.
0.1001.
1.93.
— X,+, =8 —10/x,; —2, 13, 7.23; the sequence does not appear to converge,
BRWN
ANAM
however it eventually converges to 6.45, the other root.
ola) ew £5, 2.15; (2) 2.5.1.6, 3.91; 2.15.
SAN
10 6.54, 0.459.

Exercise 24b, page 478

Nos: 1, 2, 3, 5, 6,8, 10,(L.e. not 4, 7, 9).

Exercise 24c, page 482

1 4.74. 2.328. 3 1.90; 4 5.15. $3.58;
6 0.771. 7 4.15. 8 3.70. 92.09. 10 1.04.

Exercise 24d, page 483

1 (a) 14.1, (b) 21.2, (c) 26.5, (d) 31.6. 2 (a) 14.1, (b) 21.2, (©) 26.5, (d) 31.6.
6 0.450. 70.450. 80.196 98.16. 10 0.347.
11 234,4.68,9. 13cm. 12 0.6537. 13.41%. = 14 1.16r.
i50n=i, © = 1260, x= 9312! Big 185. 17 2H7.° 18 1.84.
19~ t2. 20 0.167.
568 Pure Mathematics 1

Chapter 25
Qu.1p,p.
Qu.2 p.
Qu.3 A.
Qu.4_ 4,D.
Qu.6 001,163,209, 367, or 001,107,209, 3<3.
Qu.7 In (h) every element is ‘self-inverse’.

Qu. 9 y B C
A and E.
6 3 2

Qu. 10° {1}, 41,9} 41, 3, 7, 9}.

Qu. 11 {7}, {7, C}, (,.D}, {LE} dds 4, B} dds Ay B, Ga Be
Ou 2g eG ea
Qu. 13 (a), (b), (d).
Qu. 14 (b), (d); (a) not zero, (c) not singular matrices.
Qucis” {(; CMT DLA Eee Pe tS) oi te
{oD P. T3415 By i 1 CP as}
{7 A,B. P.O. RY. ACB Sf’, ye 6b, Cpe

Exercise 25a, page 490

1 lee Jox, I.
2 (a) D, (b) C, (c) B, (d) C.
3 (a) I, (b) I, (c) D, (d) D.
4. p* = p,.n* =,

5
x I A B C D E
ee I B C D E

6 1 1 —1 —1

1 1 i —| —1
i i —1 = 1
—1 —1 —1 1 i
—1 —i 1 i —1
eol,po—l,qeire —i(orge —i,reoi).

Po Vobewlin
“b.. —8

—) gS >

§O_ASm
 10
tMmMonOk
ma DH

+————_———
Page 490
MonOKD
met N —

Exercise 25b, page 497

©) --il7 ---Y
oF
Answers
569
570 Pure Mathematics 1

Page 498

5 I R R? R° RoR eA B C D E F

I I R R? R° Rt 7R* A B C D E F
R R R27) OR? OR Ree B C D E F A
R7a Ro eR Ree ee R C D E F A B
R°s. Re. RR R R? D E F A B C
Ria Rs Rose R R? R° E F A B € D
R? t-R°* R R<2iR22 R22 E A B G D E
A A F E Dé CG B I R> R® RA R27 'iR
B B A F E D C R I R> R@~— R* | R?
C C B A F E D RR’? R I R> R* R
DED ILG B A F E R? R* R I R° R*
E E D C B A F R* R* Re _R I R°
F F E D> s.G B A R° R* R° R* R I

Exercise 25c, page 502

1 No inverses.
2 Not closed.

c “il 4 7 13
> Gi
1 4 A3 id

I A B C D E
I B A C D E , No.
1 3 3 e 2 2

10 (a — b,/2)/(a? — 2b?).
11 (a — ib)/(a? + b?).
12 tls swe 11}, Mey? tl, 7}, (1, 118 {4, 8}, 13, 9, {1}.

Exercise 25d, page 508

2 @=6,
 Answers Sil
Page 509
5 (a) {I, G, E, F}, (b) {I, A}, (©) {I, A, C, F}.
6 UyA},.4B, EXAG FY {D, G}.
7 (i x)/(l — x), — 1/xe06 A (xe 1), x.
9
element ] 1 2 4 5 7 8
period | Te ee ee ee
12 e x ae xe y Vx yx? yx?
e e x x xP y yx Vo yx
x a Lm me e yxe sy yx — px?
sd a x e x yi pay yx
x x e x : a eek Ry myx ry
y y yx yx Pe. x? e x
yx yx wep Cy x x7 x e
pace poet. | eyed. Cm y ye 2 x x Be
yx Se Pee ox e x x?
ey he, © Vee 2s Ve, NVZ, X Ve.
Be aU, CAR) U,
Py. S},{U, O, S, W}: (U,S}, {P, V}, {0, W}, {R, X}.
not amsocthite {e, a}, {e, b}, {e, ch, fe, d}.
1 Re —1 0
1 ~,—;}
; el ane 0 on :
—] 1
20 Yes;
C exists but is not unique; J=({ isor ( : ac

Appendix
Exercise 1, page 512
1G Asxh. 2 2x(x? + 3h?). 3 2h(3x? +h’). 4 3x =4x*
5 5y=2x +25. 6 8y =3x —5. 7 2t—J/t—3.
ee ee ee
el
dO
xy-1
Exercise 2, page 513
1 (5x —2}(7x +3). 2 2(x + 7)(x — 7). 3 (2x + y)(x— y).
4 (x+a)(y+b). 5 (x + 3)(y —2). 6 (x + 1)(x — 1) (2x + 3).
7 (x +3)(2x? + 3x + 3). 8 (x+ 1)(12x + 5). 9 20(x — 2).
10 2(x — 2)?(3x — 1).

Exercise 3, page 514

y-x team l+a a+b
xy if xy b- Ch abe
STP Pure Mathematics 1

Page 514
2x —h(2x +h) 3x
5 —___—_.. =
6 aes 7 —__—..
(x —h)(x +h) x*(x + h) (1 — x)(2+x)
— (x? — 2x +4) n+1 : x? + 3x +3
(x? + 2)(2+x) n+2- cei

Exercise 4, page 514

2/(T +t).
iy=x+t?.
—1/t.
— Tt.
(N + 1)(2N + 1)(2N + 3).
J(a+ b).
(ad + bc)/(bd + ac).
3x? + 3xh + h?.
1 1
=
SZAIADAMNBWN
SS
J +x?) x (L+x4) (1 +x?)9/7"
— —) (1 —1)/(1 +t) [or (t — 1)/(t + 1), whichever is positive. ]

Exercise 5, page 515

1G. 2 —10, 25. Spl2: 4 5,25. 5 7,49. 6 3, 4,9.
7 1,4. 8 1,4, 1. 9 10,9. 10 4,4,4.

Exercise 6, page 516

1 m=(y—c)/x. 2 be bya 3 x= y7/(4a).
(K — k)(x
—h)
4 y= +k. 5 c=4+4+3m. 6 x =(b—1)/(a—1).
H—h 2x+2y+1
TA=T’ sar — $¢=4¢UT* Sian.
2(2y
— x)
2x —3y+4
1 =
ak 3x —2y+2

Exercise 7, page 517

12. ued 3 4. 4 17. 5 7, 14. 6 7, —2.
7 +2, —2. 8 c(2T+ 3t)/5. Dii/'S, 3: 10 1/t, —T.

Exercise 8, page 519

1 Qeesfs 2 2, —3. 3 —7/19, 8/19. 4 0, 0; 4, 4.
5 16,4; —1, — 64. 6.0, 1: 2,3. J 10ce Te. 8 tT, (t+ T).
OE Yt = 1fsp—P 10 5a, 3a; 4a, 0.

Exercise 9, page 520

1 0, +2,=2. 240;0, 73 3 0, —4,5. 4+4,-4,
+1, -1.
 Answers 573
Page 520
5” 2/3, — 2/3. 6 0,0, —k. 7 a,(a+b), (a—b). 8 0.
9 +a, —a. 10 p+q.

Exercise 10, page 521

1 (a)(a+b),
(or —(a+b) if a+b <0), (b)a?4+b°.
2 (a)(K + 1)7(K + 2)’, (b) (N + 1)(N 4+ 2)(2N + 9).
4xh —(2N +5)
) (x —h)?(x +h)’ (b)(N + 2)(N + 3)
4 (a) eer
l
(b) 2N(N2 2 + 6N+ 11).
5 (a) 3,9, (b) 34, 2.
6 (a) (u? — 3)/3, (b) +./ {(u— 1)/5}.
7 (a) 2a/3, (b) 3a/7, —a.
8 (a) 2ct, (b) c(1 —t?)/t.
9 (a) 29a, 52a, (b) 9a, 6a; a/9, — 2a/3.
10 (a) 0, (b) —k, 2k.
 : a
io —

: x.

4 4

} : %
>
/ “eo ‘ P

~ eth be whiz) 3
fast} EE te) T
. 3 » 1) 238 (6) g

: oe wd cl id) BOF eet ig) © Fe

Sod %
aS A—
‘
id} Ole)
‘
G1

= a]

a
. %
s a a 3 an
E :
,

“T st6 ;

k
Huh.
{= Te fanh
 575
Notes
 577
Notes

£ —_—
, % = r

r
,

=
——— ~

oes
vc vs

(sap , ery
if J

h2 Uawen;
; Thy a re ~ pane th

a 24) Tie ade bet cos te 1

7 ae 4
S Algol protien in Gyan
= Chapuy 4 weene bps gn titiee va Pio
 Contents of Book 2
Chapter 1 Integration 3.4 Type Il — denominator with a quadratic
1.1 Introduction factor
1.2 Recognising the presence of a function 3.5 Type III — denominator with a repeated
and its derivative factor
1.3 Pythagoras’ theorem. Odd powers of 3.6 Improper fractions
sini-x, COs x, etc: 3.7 Summation of series
1.4 Even powers of sin x, cos x 3.8 Integration
1.5 Changing the variable
Chapter 4 The binomial theorem
1.6 Definite integrals and changing the limits
4.1 The expansion of (1+ x)" when n is not a
1.7. Integration using the inverse
positive integer
trigonometrical functions
4.2 The expansion of (1 + x)” when |x| > 1
1
4.3 Relations between binomial coefficients
J (a? —b?x?) =
Chapter 5 Three-dimensional trigonometry
19 >— dx 5.1 Introduction
a? + b*x?
5.2 Drawing a clear figure
1.10 Trigonometrical functions of numbers
5.3 The angle between a line and a plane
5.4 The angle between two planes
Chapter 2 Exponential and logarithmic 5.5 Algebraic problems in trigonometry
functions
2.1 Exponential functions Chapter 6 Some inequalities and graphs
2.2 The graph of y=a* 6.1 Some inequalities
2.3. The gradient of y=a~ at (0, 1); a limit 6.2 Rational functions of two quadratics
d 6.3 Some tests for symmetry
2.4 The form of — (a*) 6.4 The form y? = f(x)
dx
2.5 Approximate derivatives of 2* and 3* 6.5 Simple changes of axes
2.6 The exponential function e* 6.6 The form y=1/f(x)
2.7 Further theory of logarithms Chapter 7 Further equations and factors
2.8 Natural logarithms 7.1 Equations reducing to quadratics
2.9 The derivative of In x 7.2 A theorem about ratios
2.10 are and [oa 7.3 Homogeneous expressions
dx 7.4 Symmetrical and cyclic expressions
f"(x) 7.5 Some useful identities
raul [Re 7.6 Roots of cubic equations
b 7.7 Repeated roots
PEA 2 dx when a, b are negative
a
Bg Chapter 8 Further matrices and determinants
8.1 Introduction
Chapter 3 Partial fractions 8.2 3x 3 determinants
3.1 Introduction 8.3 Properties of determinants
3.2 Identities 8.4 Cofactors
3.3. Type I — denominator with only linear 8.5 Cramer’s rule
factors 8.6 The inverse of a 3 x 3 matrix

579
580 Pure Mathematics 1

Chapter 9 Coordinate geometry Chapter 15 Second order linear differential

9.1 Conic sections equations with constant coefficients
The parabola 15.1 Introduction; the auxiliary quadratic
Further examples on the parabola equation
The ellipse 15.2 Type I — the A.Q.E. with real distinct
Parametric coordinates for an ellipse roots
Further examples on the ellipse 15.3. Type II — the A.Q.E. with identical
The hyperbola roots
Asymptotes to a hyperbola 15.4 Type III — the A.Q.E. with complex
9.9 The rectangular hyperbola roots
9.10 Further examples on the hyperbola 15.5 Summary
15.6 The differential equation
Chapter 10 Series for e* and In (1 + x) d*y dy
a re +b a + cy ={(x)
10.1 Introduction
10.2 The exponential series 15.7 f(x) is a polynomial
10.3 The logarithmic series 15.8 f(x) is an exponential function
15.9 f(x) is a trigonometrical function

Chapter 11 Further differentiation

ite Logarithmic differentiation Chapter 16 Approximations — further
il Integration by trial expansions in series
ites) Inverse trigonometrical functions 16.1 Approximation
11.4 Local maxima and minima; the first 16.2 Linear approximation
derivative test 16.3 Quadratic approximation
ES Local maxima and minima; the second
16.4 Taylor’s theorem
derivative test
16.5 Maclaurin’s theorem
11.6 Points of inflexion
16.6 Expansion by integration
Whe The nth derivative
16.7 Miscellaneous methods
11.8 Leibnitz’s theorem
16.8 Validity of expansions
16.9 Rate of convergence
Chapter 12. Further trigonometry
12.1 General solutions of trigonometrical
equations Chapter 17 Some numerical methods
17.1 Introduction
17.2 The trapezium rule
Chapter 13 Further integration 17.3. Simpson’s rule
13.1 Integration by parts 17.4 Numerical solution of differential
13:2 Involving inverse trigonometrical equations
functions
133 The change of variable t = tan =
Chapter 18 Hyperbolic functions
13.4 The change of variable t = tan x 18.1 Hyperbolic cosine and sine
13.5 Splitting the numerator 18.2. Further properties of cosh x and sinh x
13.6 Improper integrals 18.3. Osborn’s rule
NS a¢/ Further integration by parts 18.4 Derivatives of hyperbolic functions
13.8 Reduction formulae 18.5 The inverse hyperbolic functions
13.9 The mean value of a function 18.6 Integration
18.7 The inverse hyperbolic functions
expressed in terms of logarithms
Chapter 14 _ Differential equations
14.1 The general problem
14.2 First order — separating the variables
Chapter 19 Some geometrical applications of
14.3 First order exact equations
calculus
14.4 Integrating factors
19.1 Area of a sector
14.5 First order linear equations
19.2. Length of a curve
14.6 First order homogeneous equations
19.3 Arc length: parametric equations
14.7 Second order equations reducible to
19.4 Arc length: polar equations
first order form
14.8 Simple harmonic motion 19.5 Area of surface of revolution
19.6 Pappus’ theorems
: 2
x 19.7 Curvature
14.9 Reduction to the form qprrs n°x
t 19.8 Curvature: Cartesian coordinates
 Contents of Book 2 581
Chapter 20 Further complex numbers Chapter 21 Further vector methods
20.1 Revision PAI Some further examples on scalar
20.2 Functions of a complex variable products and planes
20.3 de Moivre’s theorem 21.2 The vector product
20.4 Complex roots of unity 21.3 The scalar triple product
20.5 Real and imaginary parts 21.4 The distributive law
20.6 e”, cos z, sin z, where ze C 21'5 The vector triple product
21.6 The perpendicular distance of a point
from a line
 — a.
‘

‘ :

~*~.
“s
~
~
i

i
f

vw ay EP

—s
\
=
.
‘Ah
7 —
ae
a4 dh a OF
aif C3 55fome Oy Steeda : Shee
Ase?
>
Bed eS i> cei
‘

sicy @ ieee ae 7 i
Mule of cwrverngemnes
len©|
i i D0G-ee try
é et Tgpgmemmerrand i ,
poten par Ves
Chegee t? See eemetionl
i2¢ Toteedieten °* 5"
ees i2t
.
bevilier wera
The erepedeetp cule
+ fencecn's foie . =!
13] ith Ji
a ike By purte ; Bet 7 ,
(5.2 ‘fivetstag Ven, olpoegbe
tad
sh
A equines ;
fed aoe ‘ ; eS -
ua Thecha oN Fste ee
 Index

Abel 486 Cardano 199

Abelian group 497 Cartesian plane 1
Abscissa 1 Cayley 217, 226
Acceleration Cayley table 490
as afunction ofs 142 Centre of gravity
at aninstant 81, 109, 142 ofalamina 166
average 81 of a solid of revolution 168
graph 101 Centroid of a triangle 305
Acceleration—time graph 101 Chain rule 127
Addition formulae 343, 354 Changing the subject of a formula 515
Algebra of complex numbers 202 Circles 405
Angular velocity 374 intersection of 411
Approximation 140 orthogonal 412
Approximation for sin 8, cos @ 384 tangents to 409
Arbitrary constant 107 Closure 499
arcsin x etc 378 Co-domain 31
Area Combinations 251
as the limit of asum 150 Commutative law 318, 500
negative 119 Complement of a set 27
ofa sector 372 Completing the square 196, 514
of atriangle 369 Complex number 200
under acurve 114, 156 argument of 208
Argand diagram 205 as an ordered pair 204
Argument of a complex number 208 conjugate 203
Arithmetic mean 265 modulus 207
Arithmetic progression (A.P.) 257 real and imaginary parts of 201
common difference 257 Composite function 31
formula for sum of an A.P. 261 Composite transformation 235
Arrangements 243 Conjugate complex numbers 203
Associative law 318, 488, 500 Continuity 50
Average acceleration 81 Convergent series 282, 283
Average velocity 75 Coordinates 1
Axes 1, 308 Coset 503, 504
cos(A+B) 341
Base vector 292 Cosine rule 367
Binary composition 499 Cubic 148
Binomial theorem, ne Z* 279 Curve sketching 98
for any index 283 Cyclic group 489, 492, 493
Bombelli 199
Decimal, recurring 272
Cantor 24 Dedekind 24

583
584 Pure Mathematics 1

Definite integral 118 continuous 50

Delta, ds, dt etc 77, 86 cubic 148
Dependent variable 29 limit of a function 48
Derived function 66 many to one 29
derivative 87 notation 30
second derivative 141 odd and even functions 39
Descartes 1, 199 one to one 29
Determinant 223 periodic functions 41
Differential equation 108 quadratic 196
Differentiation 61 self-inverse functions 44
an implicit function 136 the inverse of a function 42
from first principles 66
of a polynomial 63 Galois 486
of a product 132 General angle 325
of a quotient 135 General solution of a differential
of sin x, cos x 385 equation 108
of tan x, cot x, sec x, cosec x 389 Generator of a group 492, 506
Of xe 92 Geometric mean 265
of x"(neQ) 124 Geometrical progression (G.P.) 259
using a parameter 138 common ratio 259
Dihedral group 495 formula for sum ofa G.P. 261
Direction cosines 320 infinite G.P. 271
Directrix of a parabola 432 Grad 61, 62
Discontinuity 51 Gradient
Discriminant of a quadratic equation function 60
Displacement 289 of a curve —55, 56; 37
Distance of a point from a line 422 ofaline 4,5
Distributive law 318 of parallel lines 7
Domain 29 of perpendicular lines 8
Double angle formulae 347 of y=x? 59
Graph
Element 25 of a function 32
ofa group 499 of sin x, cos x, tan x 328
of aset 25 of y=ax?+bx+c 197
Element plotting or sketching 36, 98, 147
of area 156 Graphical determination of laws 451
of volume 161 using logarithms 456
Empty set 27 Greatest, least values 87
Equation Group 486, 500
linear 14,516 commutative (or Abelian) 497
ofa circle 405 cyclic 489, 492
ofacurve 9 dihedral 495
ofaline 11, 14, 16, 415, 421 element of 499
quadratic 184, 193, 516 Klein 489, 492, 495
Errors 140 order of 492
Euclid 306 symmetry 494
Euler 199, 363 Group theory 499
Even function 39
Expansion 276 Hamilton 205
Exponent 284 Harmonic mean 265
Heron’s formula 370
Factor formulae 355, 357
Factorial 246 Identities, trigonometrical 341
Factorisation 513 Identity 488, 499, 501
Family of curves 107 Identity matrix 221
Finite arithmetic (mod n) 491 Image 29
Focus of a parabola 432 Imaginary numbers 199
Fractions 513 Imaginary part of a complex number 201
Free vector 288 Implicit functions 136
Function 28 Increment 77
composite functions 30 Indefinite integral 118
 Index 585
Independent variable 29 addition 213
Indices 176, 177 determinant of 223
Induction 266 elements of 213
Inequality 114 identity, or unit 221
Infinite G.P. 271 inverse 222
Infinity 24 multiplication 218
Inflexion 94 order of 213
Integer 22 orthogonal 241
Integral scalar multiple of 215
definite 118 self-inverse 237
indefinite 118 singular 223
symbol 154 square 213
Integration 106, 107, 147 transformations 226
by summation 154 zero 214
Intercept 13 Maximum and minimum 86, 93, 94
Intersection 26 Mean
of two circles 411 arithmetic 265
of two lines 18 geometric 265
of two planes 314 harmonic 265
Invariant 230 Meaning of equations 9
Inverse element 490, 500 Menelaus 306
Inverse Mid-point of a line 3
ofa function 42 Modulus
of a matrix 222 of a complex number 207
self-inverse function 44 of areal number 34
self-inverse matrix 237
trigonometrical functions 377 Natural numbers 22
Inverse variation 437 Newton 284
Irrational numbers 23, 173 Newton-Raphson method 478
Irrationality of * 2 23 Normal to acurve 69, 400
Isomorphism 488 Numbers
Iteration 466, 467 complex 200
Iterative formula 468, 469 imaginary 199
test for convergence 474 integers 22
irrational 23, 173
Joint variation 445 natural (or counting) 22
rational 22
Klein 486, 489, 495 real 22
Klein group 489, 495
Odd function 40
Lagrange’s theorem 505 One-to-one correspondence 489
Latin square 486 One-to-one function 29
Leading diagonal 221 Order of a group 492
Leibnitz notation 87 Order of a matrix 213
Length of arc 372 Ordered pair 204
Length ofa line 2 Ordinate 1
Limit Origin 1
ofachord 57 Orthogonal circles 412
ofa function 48 Orthogonal matrix 241
Limits of a definite integral 118
Linear combination 304 Parabola 147, 197, 432
Linear equations 14, 516 Parallel and perpendicular lines 7
Linear transformation 230 Parameters 138, 142, 311, 426, 427
Local maximum and minimum 94 Pascal 276
Localised vector 288 — Pascal’s triangle 276
Locus 394 Period of an element of a group 492
Logarithm 179 Periodic function 41, 328
Logarithmic function 183 Permutations 247
Perpendicular lines 7
Mapping 30 Planes 313
Matrix 212 intersection of 314
586 Pure Mathematics 1

Point of inflexion 94 Space-time graph 74, 101

Polar coordinates 417 Speed 101
Polynomial 188 Square matrix 213
Position vector 299 Stationary value 94
Principal value 208, 378 Subgroup 498
Product rule 133 proper 499
Ptolemy 335, 342 Subset 27
Pythagoras’ theorem 334 Successive approximation 467
Suffix 16
Quadrant 326 Sum
Quadratic equation, roots of 184, 193, 516 ofan A.P. 261
Quadratic formula 194 ofaG.P. 262
Quadratic function 196 to infinity of aG.P. 271, 283
Quotient 189 Surd 24, 173
Quotient rule 135 Symmetrical functions 186
Symmetry group 494
Radians 371
Radius vector 206 t-formulae 350
Range 29 tan(A+B) 343
Rate of change 130 Tangent 69, 400
Ration theorem 304 Tangent to acircle 409
Rational numbers 22 Transformations and matrices 226
Rationalisation 174 composite 235
Real numbers 22 general properties 230
Real part of a complex number 201 linear 230
Reciprocal 177 reflection 229, 234
Reflection transformation 229, 234 rotation 227, 234
Remainder 189 self-inverse 237 *
Remainder theorem 188 shear 234
Root of an equation 184 Trigonometrical
Rotation, angular velocity 374 equations 330
Rotation transformation 227, 234 identities 341
ratios of —@ etc 333
Scalar 215, 288, 292 Turning point 94
Scalar product 316
Second derivative 141 Union 26
using a parameter 142 Unit matrix 221
Self-inverse function 44 Unit vector 292
Self-inverse matrix 237 Universal set 27
Sequence 256
Series 256 Variable 28
Sets 25 dependent 29
complement of 27 independent 29
empty @ 27 Variation 436
intersection of 26 in parts 437
number of elements in 27 inverse 437
subset 27 joint 445
union of 26 Vector equation
universal, € 27 ofaline 311
Shear 234 ofa plane 313
Sigma notation, £ 270 Vectors 288
Simplification 512, 514 addition and subtraction 295
Simultaneous equations 518 base 292
Sine rule 363 equal 293
sin(A+B) 341 in three dimensions 307
Singular matrix 223 localised 288
Sketch 36, 99 multiplication by a scalar 292
Skew lines 316 position 299
Small angles 382 scalar product 316
Small changes 139 unit 292
Solid of revolution 160 zero 296
 Index $87
Velocity Volume of a solid of revolution 160
at an instant 75, 77, 109
average 75, 101 Zero matrix 214
graph 101 Zero vector 296
Velocity-time graph 80, 101
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This well-established two-book
course is designed both for class
teaching and private study,
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Mathematics and Further
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