Digital Image Processing

(Code: 455)

National Institute of Technology Delhi

Contents
• Image Fundaments
 Elements of Visual Perception

• Structure of the
human eye.
• Eye is enclosed:
the cornea and
sclera outer
cover; the
choroid; and the
retina.
Elements of Visual Perception
• Cornea is a tough, transparent tissue that covers the anterior surface of the
eye.
• Continuous with the cornea,
• Sclera is an opaque membrane that encloses the remainder of the optic
globe.
• Choroid lies directly below the sclera which contains a network of blood
vessels that serve as the major source of nutrition to the eye.
• Small injury to the choroid can lead to severe eye damage.
• choroid coat is heavily pigmented, which helps reduce the
amount of extraneous light entering
• choroid is divided into the ciliary body and the iris.
• Iris control the amount of light that enters the eye.
• Iris (the pupil) varies in diameter from approximately 2 to 8 mm.
• Front of the iris contains the visible pigment of the eye, whereas the
back contains a black pigment.
• Lens is composed of 60% to 70% water, about 6% fat, and protein.
• Lens is colored by a slightly yellow pigmentation that increases with
age
• Excessive clouding of the lens, referred to as cataracts.
• Retina lies the inside of the wall’s entire posterior portion. When the
eye is focused, light from an object is imaged on the retina.
• Discrete light photo receptors distributed over the surface of the retina.
• Receptors: cones and rods
Cones
• 6-7 million, located primarily in the central portion of the retina
(muscles controlling the eye rotate the eyeball until the image
falls on the fovea).
• „Highly sensitive to color.
• „Each is connected to its own nerve end thus human can resolve
fine details.
• „Cone vision is called photopic or bright-light vision.
• Fovea: provides the clearest vision of all.
Rods
• 75-150 million, distributed over the retina surface.
• Several rods are connected to a single nerve end reduce the
amount of detail discernible.
• Serve to give a general, overall picture of the field of view.
• Sensitive to low levels of illumination.
• Rod vision is called scotopic or dim-light vision.
IMAGE FORMATION IN THE EYE
• Ordinary photographic camera, the lens has a fixed focal length.
• Focusing at various distances is achieved by varying the distance between
the lens and the imaging plane
• In the human eye, the converse is true; the distance between the center of
the lens and the imaging sensor (the retina) is fixed, and the focal length
needed to achieve proper focus is obtained by varying the shape of the lens.
• Fibers in the ciliary body accomplish this by flattening or thickening the
lens for distant or near objects.
• Range of focal lengths is approximately 14 mm to 17 mm
• Distance between the center of the lens and the retina along the visual axis
is approximately 17 mm
Image formation in the eye
• Subjective brightness (intensity as perceived by the human visual
system) is a logarithmic function of the light intensity incident on the
eye.
Experiment: Brightness discrimination

∆𝐼
• =Weber ratio
𝐼
Human Perception Phenomena: Perceived
brightness
Simultaneous contrast
• Region’s perceived brightness does not depend only on its intensity
Optical illusions: the eye fills in nonexisting details or wrongly
perceives geometrical properties of objects.
Light and the Electromagnetic Spectrum
• Light: electromagnetic radiation that can be sensed by the eye.
• Wavelength c
=

E = h
• Monochromatic (or achromatic) light: contains intensity only.
• Intensity of monochromatic light is perceived to vary from black to
grays and finally to white, the term gray level.
• Chromatic (color) light spans the electromagnetic energy spectrum
from approximately 0.43 to 0.79 𝜇m.
• Quantities that describe a chromatic light source: radiance, luminance,
and brightness.
Radiance: total amount of energy. (measured in watts (W) )
Luminance (lm): the amount of energy an observer perceives from a
light source.
Brightness: a subjective descriptor of light perception that is
impossible to measure. It embodies the achromatic notion of
intensity and one of the key factors in describing color sensation.
Image Sensing and Acquisition System
• Transform incident energy into digital images.
• Incoming energy is transformed into a voltage by a combination of the
input electrical power.
• Sensor material that is responsive to the type of energy being detected.
• The output voltage waveform is the response of the sensor,
• A digital quantity is obtained by digitizing that response.
IMAGE ACQUISITION USING A SINGLE SENSING
ELEMENT
• Sensor photodiode: output is a voltage proportional to light intensity.
• Using a filter in front of a sensor improves its selectivity.
IMAGE ACQUISITION USING SENSOR STRIPS
IMAGE ACQUISITION USING SENSOR
ARRAYS
Sensing Pattern: Bayer arrangement
A Simple Image Formation Model

f ( x , y ) = i ( x , y ) r ( x, y )

f ( x, y ) : intensity at the point (x, y)

i ( x, y ) : illumination at the point (x, y)
(the amount of source illumination incident on the scene)
r ( x, y ) : reflectance/transmissivity at the point (x, y)
(the amount of illumination reflected/transmitted by the object)
where 0 < i( x, y) <  and 0 < r ( x, y) < 1

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 Some Typical Ranges of illumination
• Illumination
Lumen — A unit of light flow or luminous flux
Lumen per square meter (lm/m2) — The metric unit of measure for
illuminance of a surface

• On a clear day, the sun may produce in excess of 90,000 lm/m2 of

illumination on the surface of the Earth

• On a cloudy day, the sun may produce less than 10,000 lm/m2 of
illumination on the surface of the Earth

• On a clear evening, the moon yields about 0.1 lm/m2 of illumination

• The typical illumination level in a commercial office is about 1000

lm/m2
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Image Sampling and Quantization
• Sampling and
quantization
Representing digital images
• Dynamic range of an imaging system to be the ratio of the maximum
measurable intensity to the minimum detectable intensity level in the
system.
Representing Digital Images

• The representation of an M×N numerical array as

 a0,0 a0,1 ... a0, N −1 

 a a1,1 ... a1, N −1  
A=  1,0

 ... ... ... ... 

 
 aM −1,0 aM −1,1 ... aM −1, N −1 

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As a rule, the upper limit of dynamic range is determined by saturation and the lower limit
by noise

• Saturation and noise

Representing Digital Images

• Discrete intensity interval [0, L-1], L=2k

• The number b of bits required to store a M × N digitized image

b=M×N×k

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• Number of storage bits
Spatial and Intensity Resolution

• Spatial resolution
— A measure of the smallest discernible detail in an image
— stated with line pairs per unit distance, dots (pixels) per unit distance, dots per
inch (dpi)
- Newspapers are printed with a resolution of 75 dpi, magazines at 133 dpi,
glossy brochures at 175 dpi, and the book pages are presently looking was
printed at 2400 dpi .
• Intensity resolution
— The smallest discernible change in intensity level
— stated with 8 bits, 12 bits, 16 bits, etc.
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 Spatial and Intensity Resolution

Weeks 1 & 2 37
 Spatial and Intensity Resolution

Weeks 1 & 2 38
 Spatial and Intensity Resolution

Weeks 1 & 2 39
Interpolation vs Extrapolation
• Interpolation means determining a value from the existing values in a
given data set.
• Act of inserting or interjecting an intermediate value between two
other values.
• Extrapolation refers to estimating an unknown value based on
extending a known sequence of values.
• For understanding:
• Extra- refers to "in addition to," while inter- means "in between."
Sr.
No.
Interpolation Extrapolation
1 Interpolation means reading a value which Extrapolation means reading a value which lies outside
lies between two extreme points. two extreme values.
2 It supplies us the missing link. It helps in forecasting.

3 It refers to the insertion of an intermediate It refers to projecting a value for the future.
value in the series of terms.
4 It can be calculated graphically. It is one of Graphic method is not applied for extrapolation.
the simplest method of interpolation.
5 When records of some period are lost, figures It plays significant role in economic planning. For economic
relating to such projects may be estimated to planning, projection of future data is essential. This is done by
complete the records by interpolation. extrapolation.
6 It is the estimation of a most likely estimate Estimating a probable figure for future is called
in given conditions. The technique of extrapolation.
estimating a past figure in termed as
interpolation.
7 Interpolation is preferred because we have a In extrapolation, we are making the assumption that our
greater likelihood of obtaining a valid observed trend continues for values of x outside the
estimate. range. We used to form our model. This may not be the
IMAGE INTERPOLATION
• Interpolation is the process of using known data to estimate
values at unknown locations.
• Interpolation is used in tasks such as zooming,
shrinking, rotating, and geometrically correcting
digital images.
• Image resizing (shrinking and zooming), which are
basically image resampling methods.
Common interpolation methods

1.linear interpolation
2.polynomial interpolation
3.spline interpolation
• Linear interpolation
• Linear interpolation is among the simplest interpolation methods. Here, a
straight line is drawn between two points on a graph to determine the
other unknown values. The simple method frequently results in inaccurate
estimates.
• Bilinear interpolation: in which we use the four nearest neighbors
to estimate the intensity at a given location.
• Bilinear interpolation: involves the sixteen nearest neighbors of
a point.

• Used: Adobe Photoshop and Corel Photo-paint.

• Spline interpolation: In spline interpolation, piecewise functions
are used to estimate the missing values and fill the gaps in a data
set.
• Spline interpolation defines multiple simpler polynomials for
subsets of the data. For this reason, it usually provides more
accurate results and is considered a more reliable method.
•
Extrapolation methods

1.linear extrapolation
2.polynomial extrapolation
3.conic extrapolation
• Similar to linear interpolation, linear extrapolation involves using a
linear function and drawing a straight line to predict values outside a
data set.
• In the polynomial extrapolation method, the values on a graph are
determined with polynomial shapes and functions.
• Conic extrapolation involves the determination of unknown values
using conic sections with known data.
Basic Relationships Between Pixels

•Neighborhood
• Adjacency
• Connectivity
•Paths
•Regions and boundaries
IMAGE INTENSITIES AS RANDOM VARIABLES
IMAGE INTENSITIES AS RANDOM
VARIABLES