UNIT-IV (A) FILTRATION

TITTTTTIT
Points to be covered in this topic
INTRODUCTION

OBJECTIVE ANDAPPLICATION
THEORIES

MECHANISMS

FACTORS INFLUENCING FILTRATION

FILTER AIDS

FILTER MEDIAS

PLATE AND FRAME FILTER

FILTER LEAF

ROTARY DRUM FILTER

META FILTER

CARTRIDGEFILTER

MEMBRANE FILTERS

SEIDTZ FILTER
O INTRODUCTION

Filtration is a physical separation process that separates solid matter

and fluid from a mixture using a filter medium that has a complex
ure through which only the fluid can pass.
The suspension to be filtered is known as slurry.
The porousmedium used to retain the solid is known as filter medium.
The accumulated solids on the filter are referred to as filter cake
while the clear liquid passing through the filter is filtrate.

Glass funnel
-Filter paper
Solid residue

-Filtrate

OOBJECTIVE
Separating solids from liquids andgases is the main goal of filtration.
It also incudes To remove contaminant particles from dispersing fluid
so that it can be recovered.
By removing the dispersing fluid, solid particles can be recovered.
Solvents and solids must be of high quality
Particulates can be removed from the air to enable pharmaceutically
eful gases tobe purified.
It is used to sterilize parenteral thermolabile products.
OAPPLICATION
WATER PURIEICATION
" The most common application of filtration is for the purification of
pharmaceutical water.
Pharmaceutical industry water must meet a number of specifications
found in official pharmacopeias.
Here, it is important to distinguish between sterile water for injection,
sterile water for injection, and pure water for injection.

& PHARMACEUTICAL INDUSTRY

"Separating materials of different chemical compositions is
accomplished through filtering, which is a physical operation
Purifying compounds with this technique is a very important part of a
chemist's arsenal.
"By using filtration, a number of enzymes, amino acids, antibiotics,
pharmaceutical intermediates, bulk drugs, medicine, blood products,
antibiotics, calcium phytate, Chinese inositol, sand-derived growth,
organic phosphorus glucoamylase, etc.
BIOPHARMACEUTICAL INDUSTRY
" Filtration is a common technique for removing contaminants from
liquid ,gases and air in the biopharmaceutical industry.
CHEMICAL INDUSTRY
"A variety of substances are separated and purified through filtration,
including dyes, pesticides,silicic acid , glycerin, white carbon
sodium carbonate,additives, basic chemicals, pigment , white
alumina,caustic soda ,saponins and graphite among others.
FOODINDUSTRY
" Filters have been used to remove particles of unwanted matter from
wine, yeast, fruit juices,edible oil ,vegetable oils , sugar mills, rice
wines, white wines,fruit juice, plant density sweeteners, glucose
etc.
 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
" Afilter can be used to separate chemical wastewaters, mining
wastewater, domestic wastewaters,and salt mud wastewaters.

HEATING VENTILATION AND AIR CONDITIONING

" Filtration removes micro-organisms, particulates, and volatile
organic compounds , as wellas allergens present in poor quality air
responsible for respiratory illnesses , allergies,asthma and sick
building symptoms.
" These triggers are ideally eliminated or dramatically reduced by
HVACfilters in building.

O THEORIES

POISEUILLE'SEQUATION
" Poiseuille considered that filtration is similar to the streamline flow
of a liquidunder pressure through capillaries.
Poiseuille's equation is

NAPr
V=
8Ln
V=rate of flow, i.e. ,volume of liquidflowing in unknit time, m³/s
Ap= pressure difference across the filter, pa
r=radius of thecapillary in the filter bed, mn
L= thickness of the filter cake,m
n=viscosity of the filtrate, pa.s
º DARCY'S EQUATION
" Poiseuille's law assumes that the capillaries found in the ilter
highly irregular and nonuniform.
Therefore if the length of a capillary is taken as the thickness of the
bed, acorrection factor for radius is applied so that the rate equation
is closely approximated and simplified.
" The factors influencing the rate of filtration has been incorporated
intoan equation by Darcy, which is
KAAP
V=

" K=permeability coefficient of the cake, m²

" A= surface area of the porous bed, m²
> KOZENY-CARMAN EQUATION
Poiseuille's equation is made applicable to porous bed, based
capillary type structure by including additional parameters.
Thus the resultant equation,which is widely used for filtration is
kozeny- carman equation.

3
A AP
V=
rS. KL (1- &)
-porosity of the cake
S=specific surface area of the particles comprising the cake, m²/m²
K= kozeny constant
 OMECHANISMS
&STRAINING
" Similar to sieving, i.e, the particles of larger size cannot pass through
the smaller pore size of the filter medium
" Impingement: Solids having the momentum move along the path of
streamline flow and strike (impinge) the filter medium. Thus, the
solids are retained on the filter medium.
& ENTANGLEMENT
Particles become entwined (entangled) in the mass of fibres due to
smaller size of particles than the pore size.
" Thus the solids are retained within the filter medium.

ATTRACTIVE FORCES
Solids are retained on the filter medium as a result of attractive
forces between particles and filter medium, as in case of electrostatic
precipitation.
ctice, filtration may combine various mechanisms.

O FACTORS INFLUENCING FILTRATION

* THICKNESS OF FILTER CAKE

" The thickness of the filter cake affects the rate of flow of filtrate
through it.
" It may be necessary to perform a preliminary decantation in order to
reduce the solids and, as a result, increase the filtration rate.

& PARTICLE SIZE OF SOLIDS

"Larger particle sizes will generally increase filtration rate (kg/m2/h).
"The filtration rate is high when average particles are small and the
distribution range is narrow.
 FLOCCULATION/DISPERSION OF FINE SOLIDS
" The flocculation of fine solidsin slurries that are poorly filtered or are
dispersed is generally desirable.
" There is room for significant improvement in filtration rates with the
wide variety of polyelectro yte flocculants Strong agitation is needed
when using flocculants,especially polyelectrolytes, in order to achieve
good solids-flocculant contact.
SLURRY AGE
" In some processes, detention times can modify filter performance
through a conditioning effect.
When samples are stored for a longer period of time, they may
experience some filtration problems as a result of excessive aging.
AGITATION SPEED
" The test slurry container or the filter tube tends to classify some
slurry, particulary when there is a wide particle size range.
If possible, the agitation (or stirring) should be increased to a point
where fine and coarse particles are thoroughly mixed.
When the speed is too high, cake thickness may be limited, coarser
particles may not form, or delicate flocs may flatten.
* CYCLE TIME
Usually, the rotational speed of a filter drum is expressed in
revolutions per second or minutes.
Drum speeds are usually higher the faster they turn.
The cake, however, is thinner and, in some cases, wetter under these
conditions, so discharge may become impaired.
The cake should always be dischargeable.
* CAKE COMPRESSION
" As part of the filtration process, compressible cakes are normally
compressed to reduce their moisture content.
O FILTER AIDS
INTRODUCTION
" Filter aids are the substances used to prevent the filter medium from
becoming blocked and to form an open, porous cake, hence reducing
the resistance to flow of the filtrate.
Filter aid forms a surface deposit which screens out the solids and
alsoprevents the plugging of the supporting filter medium.
CHARACTERISTICS
Should be chemically inert and free from impurities.
Should have low specificgravity, hence can remain suspended in
liquids.
Should be porous rather than dense, so that the porous cake can be
formed.
Should be recoverable.

>DISADVANTAGES
Sometimes remove the coloured substances by absorbing them.
Sometimes active principles such as alkaloids are absorbed by filter
aid.
Rarely, filter aids are a source of contamination such as soluble iron
salts, which can provoke degradation of sensitive ingredients.

º HANDLING OF FILTER AIDS

FILTER AIDS MAY BE USED IN EITHER OR BOTH TWO
WAYS:
" Pre- coating technique: by forming aa pre-coat
pre-coat over the filter
medium by filtering a suspension of the filter aid.
"Body- mix technique: A small proportion of the filter aid (0.1- 0.5
%) is added to the slurry to be filtered. This slurry is recirculated
through the filter until a clear filtrate is obtained, filtration then
proceeds to completion.
 $ DIFFERENT FLOW RATES CAN BE ACHIEVED DEPENDING
ON GRADE OF AID
" Low flow rate: fine grade filter aids- mainly used for clarity
"Fast flow rate:coarse grade filter aids-acceptable filtrate.
EXAMPLES OOF FILTER AIDS
Diatomite (Kieselgur), obtained from naturalsiliceous deposits.
" Perlite is an aluminum silicate.
" Cellulose, Asbestos,charcoal, talc, bentonite, fullers earth etc.

OFILTER MEDIAS

º INTRODUCTION
" The filter medium acts as a mechanical support for the filter cake and
is alsoresponsible for the collection of solids.
º CHARACTERISTICS
It should have sufficient mechanical strength.
" It must be inert, for example, it should not show chemicalor physical
interaction.

" It should not absorb dissolved material.

" It should allow the maximum passage of liquid, while retaining the
solids.
" It means that it must offer low resistance to flow . The resistance
offered by the filter medium is not significant in large scale operations
andcan be neglected.
º MATERIALS
WOVEN MATERIALS SUCH AS FELT OR CLOTH
Woven material is made of wool, cotton, silk, glass, metal or
synthetic fibres (rayon, nylon etc.).
Synthetic fibres have greater chemical resistance than wool or
cotton, which are affected by alkali and acid, respectively.
PEREORATED SHEET METAL
" For example stainless steel plates have pores which act as channels
as in case of metafilter.

& BED OF GRANULAR SOLID BUILT UP ON ASUPPORTING

MEDIUM
In some processes, a bed of graded solids may be formed to reduce
the resistance to the flow.

Typical examples of granular solids are gravel, sand, asbestos,

paper pulp and keiselguhr.
Thechoice of solids depends on the size of the solids in the process.

* PREEABRICATED POROUS SOLID UNIT

Poroussolids prefabricated into a single unit are being increasingly
used for its convenience and effectiveness.
Sintered glass, sintered metal, earthenware and porous plastics
are some of the materials used for the fabrication.

& MEMBRANE EILTER MEDIA

Cartridge units areeconomical andavailable in pore size of 100 um
to even less than 0.2 um.
 OPLATE AND FRAME FILTER
> PRINCIPLE
The mechanism of this filter is surface filtration.
The slurry enters the frame under pressure and flows through the
filter medium.
The filtrate is collected on the plates and sent to the outlet.
" Various frames and plates are used so that surface area increases
and, consequently, large volumes of slurry can be processed
simultaneously with or without washing.

º CONSTRUCTION
The filter press is made of two types of units, plates and frames.
These are usually made of aluminium alloy.
Frame contains an open space inside wherein the slurry reservoir is
maintained for filtration and an inlet toreceive the slurry.
It is indicated by twodots in the description.
The plate has a studded or grooved surface to support the filter cloth
and an outlet.
It is indicated by the one dot in description.
Frames of different thickness are available.
It is selected based on the thickness of the cake formed during
filtration.
Optimum thickness of the frame should be chosen.
Plate, filter medium, frame, filter medium and plate are arranged in
the sequence and clamped toa supporting structure.
It isnormally described by dots as 1.2.1.2.1 soon.
A number of plates and frames are employed so that filtration area
isas large as necessary.
 o0LLECT MOVAEnCAo
PATE FRAME

CLEAR FILTRATE
OUTLCT

sIOE RALS
MATEAIAL ENTCAS
UNDER PRESSURE

WORKING
" The working of the frame and plate process can be described in two
steps, namely filtration and washing of the cake (if desirable).
FILTRATION OPERATION
"Slurryenters the frame (markedby 2 dots) from the feed channel and
passes through the filter medium on to the surface of the plate
(marked by 1 dot).
esolids form a filter cake and remain in the frame.
The thickness of the cake is half of the frame thickness, because
each side of the frame filtration occur.
" Thus, twofilter cakes are formed, which meet eventually in the centre
of the frame.
" In general, there will be an optimum thickness of filter cake for any
slurry, depending on the solid content in the slurry and the resistance
of the filter cake.
" The filtrate drainsbetween the projection on the surface of the plate
and escapes from the outlet.
" As filtration proceeds , the resistance of the cake increases and the
filtration rate decreases.
" At a certain point, it is preferable to stop the process rather than
continuing at very low flow rates.
"The press is emptied and the cycle is restarted.
 WASHING
Generally washing of the filter cake is necessary and for that th
ordinary plate and frame press is not suitable.
The cake built-up at the centre in the frame brings flow to a stands
till.
Thus, water washing of cake using the same channels used for the
filtrate is inefficient.
" A modification of the plate and frame press is another option.
" In modified form an additional channelis included for washing,
" In half the wash plate there is a connection from the wash water
channel to the surface of the plate.
The steps of the filtration are as follows:
1. Slurry enters the plates and filtration proceeds in the ordinary
way until the frames are filled with cake.
2. To wash the filter cake, the outlets of the washing plates
closed.
3. Wash water is pumped into the washing channel. The water
enters through the inlets on to the surface of the washing plates.
4. Water passes through the filter cloth and enters frame which
contains the cake. The water washes the cake, passes through the
filter cloth and enters the plate down the surface.

SPECIAL PROVISIONS
Any possible contamination can be observed by passing the filtrate
through a glass tube or sight glassfrom the outlet on each plate. This
permits the inspection of quality of the filtrate . The filtrate goes
through the control valve to an outlet channel.
The filtration process from each plate can be seen. In the event of a
broken cloth, the faulty plate can be isolated and filtration can be
continuedwith one plate less.
º USES
Among the many applications of filter presses, there is dewatering of
slurries andpurification. A filter press is widely used for dewatering
ultrafines and reclaiming filtrate at the same time.
" There are many industries that utilize solid - liquid separation
including alcohol, chemistry, metallurgy , pharmaceuticals, light
industry ,coal mining , food , textiles, environmental protection and
energy sources.

MERITS
In a relatively small footprint , it offers a large filtering surface.
" It is versatile device whose capacity can be adjusted based on the
thickness and the number of frames used. By using 60 chambers,
the surface can be increased significantly.
Strongly constructed presses use pressure differences of 2000
kilopascals to operate.
tis very efficient towash cakes.
Due to its lack of moving parts , it requires little maintenance , and
the filter clothes can be easily replaced.

DEMERIT'S
There is aconsiderable amount of downtime with a batch filter
which is notproductive.
" It is an expensive filter press , it is time consuming and labor
intensive process that result in a high cost method.
" In order to remove cake effectively, the frames must be full otherwise
the washing is inefficient and difficult.
" Solids in slurries less than 5% are removed via the filter press. As a
result of the high cost, this filter press is used for expensive material
such as removing precipitated proteins from insulin liquors and for
collecting precipitated antitoxins.
OFILTER LEAF
PRINCIPLE
Filter leaf is an apparatus consisting of a longitudinal drainage
screen covered with a filter cloth.
The mechanism is surface filtration and acts as sieve or strainer.
Vacuum or pressure can be applied to increase the rate of filtration.

CONSTRUCTION
It consists of a narrow frame enclosing a drainage screen on grooved
plate.
The frame may be of any shape, circular, squareon rectangular.
The whole unit is coveredwith filter cloth.
The outlet for the filtrate connects to the interior of the frame
through suction.

Filtrate
Filtrate

To suction
-Frame Frame

slury -Drainage screer.

Drainage
canal Filter clothKinys
Filter
Filter cake
doth

() FUter leaf (b)Flter leaf during

d filtration
 WORKING
The filter leaf is immersed in the slurry.
Vacuum system is connected to the filtrate outlet.
C
The slurry passes through the filter cloth.
Finally filtrate enters the drainage canal and goes through the outlet
intothe receiver.
Air is passed to flow in reverse direction which facilitates removal of
cake.00

º USES
" The filter leaf is satisfactory, if the solid content of the slurryis not
too high, about 5%, ie., dilute suspensions.

> MERITS
Filter leaf is aversatile piece of equipment. Filter leaf is probably the
simplest form of filter used for batch processes.
"A number of units can be connected in parallel to increase the
surface area for filtration.
Pressure difference can be obtained either with vacuum or using
pressure up to the order of 800 kilopascals.
" Labour costs for operating the filter leaf are fairly moderate.
" The efficiency of washing is high.

> DEMERITS
" Processes like these are not continuous.
" In most cases , it is used where there are less than 59% solids in the
liquid to be filtered.
OROTARY DRUM FILTER
PRINCIPLE
Rotary drum filter functions on the principle of filtering the slurry
through sieve-like mechanism on a rotating drum surface.
" under the conditions of vacuum. In addition, compression, drying
(using hot air) and removing the filter cake (using a knife) are
possible.

º CONSTRUCTION
" It consists ofa metal cylinder mounted horizontally.
" The drum may be up to 3 metres in diameter and 3.5 metres in length
and a surface area of 20 metre square.
" The curved surface is aperforated plate, which supports a filter cloth.
" The drum is radially partitioned dividing the annular space into
separate compartments.
Each of it is connected by an internal pipe to the centre of the drum
througha rotating valve.

Wash spray
-Cloth covered
outer drum
Inner drum
Cake
Slurry feed
Doctor blade

Slurry trough

7777
WORKING
The drum is rotated at a speed lessthan one revolutionper minute.
Thedrum just enters the slurry in the trough
" As it dips, vacuum is applied in this segment so that the solid is build
up onthe surface.
" The liquid passes through the filter cloth into an internal pipe and
valve,Finally the filtrate reaches the collecting tank.
" As the drum leaves the slurry section,it enters the drainage zone.
" Here excess of the liquid is drawn inside.
" Special cake compression rollers may be included at this stage, so that
the cake is consolidated by the compression of the cake.
This improves the efficiency of washingand drying process.
Vacuum isapplied to carry the slurry along with the drum
Drainage zone
Water washing arrangement
Drying zone -dry air supply
Cake removal zone

" As the drum leaves the drainage zone, it enters the water wash
section. Water is sprayed on the cake.
" Aseparate system of vacuum is applied on the panel in order to suck
the wash liquidand air through the cake of solids.
Wash liquid is drawn through the filter into a separate collecting
tank.

Then the cake entersthe drying zone, where hot air is blown on the
cake.

The cake may have the moisture content less than one percent.
" Finally the cake is removed usinga doctor knife and discharged.
 USES
" A rotary filter is used for the separation of the mycelium from the
fermentation liquor in the manufacture of antibiotics.
" It is suitable for slurry containing considerable amounts of solids in
the range of 15-30%.
These are used for the collection of calcium carbonate, magnesium
carbonate, and starch.

MERITS
The rotary filter is continuous in operation.
" This filter is suitable for filter slurries containing a high proportion of
solids.
" Labor costs are very low due to automatic operation.
" A rotary filter is suitable for filtration of highly concentrated solutions
or thick slurries containing 15 30%o of solids.
"Variation of the speed of rotation enables the cake thickness to be
controlled.
Very high capacity.

º DEMERITS
" Complex design with many moving par
" Very expensive because alot of accessories are connected such as
vacuum pumps,vacuum receivers, slurry pumps and agitators.
" The cake tends to crack under vacuum,so washing and drying are not
efficient.
"As a vacuum is applied, it is unsuitable for liquids near boiling point.
" Gelatinous or slimy precipitates fornming impenetrable cake will not
separate cleanly from cloth.
 OMETA FILTER

> PRINCIPLE
"The product is fed intothe pressure filter at a higher pressure than
would be produced by gravity alone.
For particle separation, the Meta filter acts as a strainer (service
filtration).
The metal rings are made up of semi-circular projections that are
nested together to form channels on the edges
This channel resists the passage of solids (it acts as a strainer) (forced
particles)
" The transparent liquid is gathered from the top into a receiver.
CONSTRUCTION
"AMeta Filter is simply arow of metal rings arranged on a grooved rod.
"These rings are typically constructed of stainless steel and have a
diameter of 15 mm, an interior diameter of 22 mm, an outside
diameter of 22 mm, and a thickness of 0.8
When packed on the rod, these rings are separated by a gap of 0.2 mm,
due to the presence of semicircular projections on one surface.
By stacking rings and fastening them to a drainage rod, the channels
are tapered from approximately 250 m down to 25 m.
The filters are installed ina vessel, and the slurry is either forced into
them under pressure or, occasionally, applied with reduced pressure
to the output side of the filter
Despite the fact that the Metafilter can be used as astrainer for coarse
particles in this form, it must first be surrounded by abed of
kieselguhr or another suitable substance for finer particles.
As a result, the ring pack primarily functions as a foundation for the
real filter medium.
 WORKING
" Ameta filter consists of a container containing a slurry that can be
pumped under pressure or applied to the outflow side under
reduced pressure.
" The slurry flows through the channels made on the rings' edges
" The clear liquid rises and collects in the receiver from the outflow
Vacuums force liquid to flow from the outside into the interior.
When configured this way, a Meta Filter is only capable of straining
coarse particles.
" A bed of suitable materials is used to separate finer particles, such
as Kieselguhr.
" In this approach, the ring pack serves as a foundation for the real
filter medium.
>USES
Clarification of syrups.
Filtration of injection solutions
Clarification of insulin liquids.
" Filtration of viscous liquids can be achieved by applying pressure.
>MERITS
The metafilter is strong enough to withstand high pressure without
risk of breaking the filter media.
Because there is nofilter media ,the operating expenses are low and
highly inexpensive.
Protect the most delicate goods from contamination with this filter
which is highly corrosion resistant.
Filtering out very small particles is a viable option.
" Filtration can be used to sterilize certain liquids.
DEMERITS
" It is notacontinuous process.
" Itis used where the proportion of solid in the liquid to be filtered is
about 5% or less.
 OCARTRIDGE ILTER

> PRINCIPLE
Cartridge filter is a thin porous membrane in which pre filter and
membrane filter are combined into a single unit.
The filtration action is mainly sieve-like and the particles are retained
on thesurface.
CONSTRUCTION
Cartridge filter has a cylindrical configuration made with disposable
changeable filter media.
These are made of either plastic or metal.
" Itconsists two membrane filters (sieve-like) made of polypropylene:
a prefilter and an actual filter for filtration.
A protective layer surrounds them.
The cartridges are housed in a holder.
A number of cartridges can be placed in the same housing.
The housing is closed with a lid.
The housing has provisions for slurry inlet and filtrate outlet.

Pressure gauge
-Air relief valve
Airrelief tube
As the water
passes through
the cartridge Cartridges
dirt and debris
is trapped in
the fabric.
Lower manifold

Bulkheads
> WORKING
The slurry is pumped into the cartridge holder.
It passes through cartridge filter unit by the mechanism of straining.
" Theclear liquid passes to the centre and moves up to collect through
the outlet.

USES
Cartridge filter is particularly useful for the preparation of
particulate free solutions for parenteral and ophthalmic uses. This
filter holder will process 1000 to 15000 litres of sterile solution per
hour.

º MERITS
Stainless steel construction permits autoclaving sterile operations.
Cartridges with self-cleaning devices are advantageous.
Rapiddisassembling as well as reusing of filter media is possible.
Cartridges are not brittle, when they are dry.
They are used as in-line continuous filtration, which reduces
handling of solutions. It minimizes the chances of contamination.

º DEMERITS
Cost of disposable elements off sets the labour saving in terms of
assembly and cleaning of cartridge clarifier.
" A number of manufacturers provide the components, which are
enerally not interchangeable between suppliers.
 OMEMBRANE FILTERS
PRINCIPLE
Membrane filter acts like a sieve and the particulate matter is
retained on the surface of the membrane.

º CONSTRUCTION
Membrane filters are made using cellulose acetate, cellulose nitrate
mixed cellulose este
Membrane filters are supported on a rigid base of perforated metal,
plastic or coarse sintered glass (as in case of fibrous pad filters).
These have got high retention characteristics due to pore size, high
dielectric constant and surface sensitivity.

Permeate--1 D+Permeate
Feed Concentrate

ImpermeabBe sheet - Permeate flux

Membrane
Impermeable sheet
WORKING
Asemi-permeable membrane is the basis for membrane separation
filtersout suspended solidsand other substances while letting water
pass through.
Membrane filtersare maintained inoperation on rigid supports such
as perforated metal , plastic , or coarse sintered glass, as with
fibrous pad filters.
The membrane filter is less likely to clog if a depth filter is used
during sterile filtration if the solution contains considerable
suspended matter.
When dry,they are brittle and can be stored for indefinite periods of
time,but are tough when wet.
 MICROFILTRATION
C
The term microfiltration is defined as the separation of fluids by
using membranes with pore sizes between 0.03 and 10, molecular
weight cutoffs greater than 10,00,000 Daltons, and low feedwater
pressures between 100 and 400 kPa.

ULTRAFILTRATION
" These ultrafilters have a poresize of approximately 0.002 to 0.1 have
a MWCO of around 10,000 to 100,000 Daltons, and operate between
200and 700 kPa.
" In addition to removing all microbiological species, humic materials
and some viruses are also removed but isn't a total barrier.
REVERSE OSMOSIS
Almost all inorganic contaminants can be removed from water by
reverse osmosis.
Using this machine,radium, natural organic substances, pesticides
,cysts, bacteria and viruses can be effectively removed.
" The best results are achieved when multiple units are used together.
º USES
" Disc membranes with nutrient broth are used for studying the
growth of micro-organism and colony counts.
Membrane filterscan be autoclaved and used for sterile.

MERITS
The rate of filtration israpid.
Due to their disposable nature, they do not cross - contaminate.
During prolonged filtration, bacteria cannot grow on their filter
The filtrate is free of fibers and alkali dueto negligible adsorption.
DEMERITS
Solvents like chloroform pose a greater risk to ordinary types.
It ispossible for them to clog, but it is rare.
OSEIDTZ FILTER
INTRODUCTION
Seitz filter consists of apad of compressed asbestos as a medium.
Typical Seitz filter pads are about 2 mm thick and offered in a range
of size,down to well below one micrometer diameter.
The finest pore size gives almost perfect filtration and retains small
viruses.
For industrial use, somewhat thicker pads are made to be fitted into
specially made plate and frame filter press.
The mechanism is similar to other depth filtration.
Filter pad
(asbestos) From
resorvoir
Bleed
valve

Y
(a) Negative pressure (b) Positive pressure (c) Positive pressure
use use use

USES
" Seitz filters are usefulfor sterile filtration (Seitz EK asbestos pad).
Finest pads give almost perfect filtration of small volume
Viscous solutions can also be filtered.
"These are used for air filtration.
Surface charging and electrostatic attractions have significant
influence in removing particles.
"If the air is dry,thesehave greater the influence of filtration.
MERITS
Pads are expensive and filtration is rapid with fewer tendencies to
clog.
These are better than ceramicand sintered glass.
DEMERITS
Seitz filters are pliable andfragile when wet and must supported on a
perforated metal, plastic or galls disc.
" Anew pad must be used for each filtration in order to avoid residues
of previousfiltration.
 (B) CENTRIFUGATION

Points to be covered in this topic

INTRODUCTION

OBJECTIVE

APPLICATION

PERFORATED BASKET CENTRIFUGE

NON- PERFORATED BASKET CENTRIFUGE

SEMICONTINUOUS CENTRIFUGE

SUPER CENTRIFUGE
OINTRODUCTION
Centrifugation is a mechanical process which involves the use of the
centrifugal force to separate particles from a solution according to
their size, shape,density, medium viscosity and rotor speed.
The denser components of the mixture migrate away from the axis of
the centrifuge, while the less dense components of the mixture migrate
towards the axis.
Chemists and biologists may increase the effective gravitational force of
the test tube so that the precipitate (pellet) will travel quickly and fully
to the bottom of the tube.

Armouredcasing

Before

Supernatant
Plet

Rapidly rotating rotor

OOBJECTIVE
Toseparate the immiscible liquids
To purify the component by removing impurities in the supernatant
liquid.
To separate crystalline drugs from the mother liquor.
To test the emulsion and suspensions for creaming and sedimentation
at an accelerated speed.
|O APPLICATION

Centrifugation can be utilized to separate a mixture of two distinctive

miscible fluids.

This technique can likewise be utilized to contemplate and examine

macromolecules and their hydrodynamic properties.
Mammalian cells can be filtered with the assistance of an extraordinary
sort of centrifuge.
Centrifugation is known to have an essential part in the fractionation of
numerous subcellular organelles. Moreover, centrifugation is likewise
valuable in thefractionation of layer portions and films.
Centrifugation additionally has applications in the fractionation of
layer vesicles.
Chalk can be separated from water with the assistance of a centrifuge.
Skimmed milk is a type of milk that has a lower measure of broken fat.
Skimmed milk can be gotten from ordinary milk with the assistance of
the processof centrifugation. Here, the centrifuge tends to separate the
fat from the milk and leaves the necessary skimmed milk behind.
The cyclonic division is a significant process that has fundamental
applications in the detachment of particles from wind currents.
Another significant use of this technique is in the stabilization and
explanation of wine.
This technique, in amix with other purification techniques, is very
useful while separating proteins. Different techniques that are utilized
incorporate salting-out techniques, for example, ammonium sulfate
precipitation.
 Centrifuges are broadly utilized in the field of forensic chemistry. In
this field, the technique isutilized for the partition of blood segments
from blood samples. Besides, the technique is likewise utilized in
specific laboratories for the detachment of urine parts from urine
samples.
Differential centrifugation, a particular kind of centrifugation, is
known to have applications inthe recognizable proof of organelles.
Centrifugation can be used to separate a mixture of two different
miscible liquids.
This technique can also be used to study and analyze macromolecules
and their hydrodynamic properties.
Centrifugation is known to play an important role in the fractionation of
many organelles. In addition, centrifugation is useful for membrane
fractions and membrane fractions.

OPERFORATED BASKET CENTRIFUGE

º PRINCIPLE
The perforated wall separates solids from liquids based on the
difference in densities.
" In the bowl, there are perforations along the sides
" The perforated wall allows liquid to pass, while solids are caught in
the bowl during the liquid phase.
The solidsediment is removed from the centrifuge sediment after the
machine stops.
º CONSTRUCTION
In most cases, the filter cloth is lined with a perforated stainless-steel
basket.
" A
typical basket rotates at 25 rpm, and speeds above this may result
in excessive strain on the basket
Upon entering, the filter cloth holds the product against centrifugal
force by throwing it outwards.
" As the filtrate passes through the cloth, it is drained through the
liquidoutlet On the cloth, the solid material remains.
Alternatively, the centrifuge can be sprayed with water to wash the
cake. ,Interkocking switch Covor

Filter Pororated
cdoth basket

Liquid
outlet

º WORKING
When a basket is stationary, material is placed on the basket
During centrifugation, the amount of material should be optimal,
otherwise, the basket is greatly stressed. Even distribution of
material should be ensured.
To rotate the basket, power must be applied so that maximum speed
is reached as quickly as possible. There are 1000 revolutions per
minute in the basket
" The power required to run the machine isrelatively small compared
tothat required to start it and bring it up tofull speed.
In centrifugation,the perforated wallkeeps liquidsout, while solid
particles stay in the basket.
" At the outlet, the liquid is collected from the basket.
 " The cake is spun until it is as dry as possible
" Ahigh speed is sometimes used to ensure the cake is completely
dried.
" Power is cut off after a specific amount of time. Centrifugal force is
applied tostop the centrifuge Bringing the basket to rest. Ablade is
used to cut the solid cake, which is then manually unloaded.

> USES
" It is extensively used to separate crystalline drugs from mother
liquor (such as aspirin) using perforated basket centrifuges
Solids may also be removed from a liquid using it. Precipitated
proteins, for instance, are removed from insulin.
" A perforated basket centrifuge is used to separate sugar crystals

º MERITS
Compact and occupying very little floor space, the centrifuge is very
space efficient.
The system is capable of handling solid-rich slurries as well as paste
like slurries

There is very little moisture in the final product

Toseparate the dissolved solids from the cake, this method is used.
The process moves quickly

> DEMERITS
Due to the complexity of the entire process, labour costs are high
Batch processing is involved
It is inevitable that machines used for extended periods of time will
undergo considerable wear and tear.
The centrifuge may cause the solids to clump together over an
extendedperiod of time, making it difficult to remove together.
 O NON-PERFORATED BASKET CENTRIFUGE

PRINCIPLE
" There is no perforated or porous medium present in this
sedimentation centrifuge, so separation takes place according to
differences in densities between the samples.
Solids settle at the side of the basket during centrifugation, while
liquids settle at the top of the basket where they are collected by a
skimming tube.

º CONSTRUCTION
Skiming
Stainless steel is used for the basket. tube

" A vertical shaft is connected to the -Liquid

basket.
-Solid
" A tube for inlet and a tube for
-Shaft
skimming are contained in the
basket.

WORKING
Continuously fed suspension enters the basket.
While centrifugation is occurring, solids remain stuck tothe walls
and liquids remain on the top.
Solids are scraped off with ascraper from the basket after liquid is
collected in a skimming tube.
r USES
" Liquids have a hard time flowing through solids deposited in such a
way.

MERITS
Other centrifuges are more expens0ve
º DEMERITS
" The sides of the basket are covered with solid phase.
OSEMI CONTINUOUSCENTRIFUGE

PRINCIPLE
" In Semi Continuous centrifuge, separation occurs through a
perforated wall depending on the difference in the densities of solid
and liquid phases.

CONSTRUCTION
Semi Continuous Centrifuge consists of a perforated basket mounted
on ahorizontal shaft and run continuously by the motor.
" The side of the basket is perforated.
" Feed orsuspension is introduced through a feed pipe.
" There is also the provisionof a wish pipe which is used towash the
crystals.
The thickness of the feed depends on the feeler which rides over the
feed.
" The layer of cake is removed by a chute fitted with a knife.
" The knife cuts down the cake within the basket.
The knife-chute assembly is raised with the help of a hydraulic
apparatus.

Filter mediur
Knife

Slurry (feed)
Wash pipe
Basket -Discharge Assembly

Drycrystal
WORKING
The basket is rotated horizontally with a motor.
Thesuspension is introduced through the pipe.
The slurrypasses through the perforated side.
The crystals remain inside the basket.
The filtrate is eliminated from theoutlet.
" When the height of the cake is approximately 2-3 inches, the
suspension inlet is stopped by a "feeler diaphragm valve assembly".
" The basket rotates at a predetermined time and then the cake is
washed with water.
The basket is rotated for another predetermined time.
After that, the hydraulic apparatus raises the knife-chute assembly
to cut the cake.
The cake is collected through the chute.

MERITS
This centrifuge is used toseparate crystals from the mother liquor.
This isused toclarify Liquids by removing unwanted solids and dirt
from oils.

º DEMERITS
"Complicated process
Sometimes chances of breakage ofthe crystal during discharge.
" High power consumption
 OSUPER CENTRIFUGE
º PRINCIPLE
The sedimentation centrifuge separates liquids based on their
densities when using immiscible liquids.
Thecentrifuge bowl is used for centrifugation .in centrifugation, the
heavier liquids are thrown against the walls, while the lighter liquids
remain as inner layers.
Amodified wier is used to separate the twolayers simultaneously.
º CONSTRUCTION
The following picture shows how asuper centrifuge is built.
It has a hollow cylindrical bowl with an extremely small diameter.
Top and bottom are supported by flexible spindles , and the top is
guided by loose-fit bushings.
This allows it to rotate along its longitudinal axis.
The bottom hasa pressure system that provides the inlet for feed.
By modifying the weir at the top of the bowl , multiple outlets at
different heights are available for simultaneousrecovery of separated
liquids. Motor

ERO

Light
phase

Heavy
phase Air space

Rotating
bow

Feed
 WORKING
With the help of thedrive assembly,the centrifuge rotates at a high
frequency of about 2,000 revolutionsper minute on its longitudinal
axis.

Apressure system is used to introduce the feed into centrifuge from

the bottom.
Separation of liquid phases occurs due to their different densities
during centrifugation.
Liquids of differing densities are thrown against each other ,with the
lighter liquid forming an inner layer an top.
The bowl rises to the top as both liquidsmix together.
Liquids-liquid interfaces are maintained by hydraulicbalance.
During a modified weir both of these layers are removed
simultaneously from different heights.
Super centrifuges can be used separate liquids that are immiscible
continuously.
º IISES
Supercentrifuge is used for separating liquid phases of emulsions in
foods and pharmaceuticals.

º MERITS
Operationalcontinuity
Capable of handling much higher concentrations.
Produces solids when dried.

DEMERITS
The structure of sediments in not uniform.