TITLE

Logic gates

Joe K. Karam
Logic design (Gel
311)
To Doctor Pascal
Damien
Submitted in
10/26/2023
 1. Introduction

Electronics have become an indispensable aspect of our life in the current digital era. We
depend on technology, from computers to cellphones, to keep us engaged and connected.
However, have you ever pondered how these gadgets operate? Logic gates are one of the
basic components of digital electronics. These gates oversee interpreting and modifying
digital signals, which enables computers to carry out intricate operations. Despite their
significance, not everyone is aware of logic gates' function in electronic digital devices.

A logic gate is one kind of electrical circuit that generates a single binary output (Boolean
expression) by applying logical functions, or Boolean operations, to one or more inputs.
They are utilized to process and modify digital signals and serve as the fundamental
components of digital electronics. Transistors, which are small electronic switches with the
ability to turn on and off electrical flow, are the basic building blocks of logic gates.
Charles Peirce originally explained the idea of logical operation in electrical switching
circuits in 1886. Walther Bothe created the first electrical AND gate in modern times in
1924. From 1935 until 1938, Konrad Zuse created and constructed electromechanical logic
gates for his computer Z1. These switches may be used in many ways to create logic gates.
(referred by “Logic Gates - Definition, Types, Uses” |
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/logic-gates/?ref=lbp | July 23, 2023)

2. Technological implementations

A digital gate that permits data transfer is called a logic gate. Logic gates make decisions about
whether to pass signals based on reasoning. Contrarily, logic gates control information flow
according to a predetermined set of rules. Commonly utilized logic gate types include the
following ones: AND OR NOT NAND XOR XNOR NAND NAND. (referred by “Logic Gates
- Definition, Types, Uses” | https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/logic-gates/?ref=lbp | July 23, 2023)

Figure 1: truth table

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Figure 2: logic gates and truth tables

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Because Nand or Nor gates alone can be used to create any logic gate, any digital circuit can be
constructed using just one of these two. In Boolean algebra, Nand and Nor gates are called
universal gates.
(referenced by “Realization of Logic Gate Using Universal gates” |
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/realization-of-logic-gate-using-universal-gates/?ref=lbp)
The inverter layout is depicted in the first figure below, while the static NAND and static NOR
gate layouts are shown in the other two. The NAND gate is not much bigger than the inverter, and
transistors can be crammed tightly into a gate. Depending on the needs of the cell, layouts can
differ significantly in terms of transistor sizes, terminal locations, and signal routing layers. A few
significant modifications to the fundamental cell structure are possible with CMOS technology:
Along the cell, VDD and VSS lines are run in metal, with ntype and p-type transistors located in
the VDD and VSS rails, respectively. At the edge of the cell, the NAND's input and output signals
are displayed on separate layers: The output is in metal, but the inputs are in poly 1. The addition
of a via to switch layers, the addition of the space between the cells needed for the via, and the
bridging of the gaps in the VDD and VSS caused by the gap are all necessary if we wish to cascade
two cells, with the output of one feeding the input of another. To make up for their lower current
capability, the p-type transistors in the NOR and NAND gates were widened; in actuality, the
inverter layout would likely have a wider pullup as well. While we utilized a metal 1 jumper in
one of the NOR inputs, we routed the NAND's two input wires entirely through poly to the
transistor gates. (referenced by “Logic gates Pearson”|
https://www.pearsonhighered.com/assets/samplechapter/0/1/3/0/0130619701.pdf )

Figure 3: An and or invert

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Figure 4: A layout of an inverter

(referenced by “Logic gates Pearson” |

https://www.pearsonhighered.com/assets/samplechapter/0/1/3/0/0130619701.pdf )
BJTs and MOSFETs are two types of transistors that are frequently used to implement
logic circuits. The transistor functions as a switch in logic circuits, having two states: on
and off. The performance of logic circuits is assessed using a variety of factors. Switching
speed, power consumption, fan-out, and noise margin are a few of these features. The
highest voltage of noise that can exist in a gate without causing the circuit to malfunction,
that is, without destroying the logic levels 1 and 0, is known as the noise margin.

Fan-out indicates how many standards loads a gate's output can drive without compromising
correct operation. MOSFET logic gates have the benefit owing to their high input impedance, they
have low power consumption. On the other hand, TTL gates, which are based on BJTs, have
faster switching times.

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To optimize performance, a digital system can combine devices from multiple logic families,
leveraging the best features of each family for individual system components. For example, TTL
can be applied to system parts that must function quickly, while CMOS logic integrated circuits
(ICs) can be used to parts that must have minimal power consumption. Moreover, while some
functions may be easily accessible in CMOS, others may be easily accessible in TTL. Therefore,
it is necessary to analyze the interface between CMOS and TTL devices.

(Referenced by “Digital Logic Gate Tutorial - Basic Logic Gates” | https://www.electronics-

tutorials.ws/logic/logic_1.html | August 05, 2022)

The two logic families that are most frequently used are TTL and CMOS. Digital integrated
circuits (ICs) from different logic families cannot be connected together, unlike ICs within the
same logic family, whose outputs can be directly fed into each other's inputs without the need for
a special interface. The difference in voltage levels and current requirements for logic states low
and high at inputs and outputs is the primary reason why integrated circuits (ICs) from different
families are incompatible with one another.
In the field of digital electronics, integrated circuits are a unique and significant subject. In
digital electronics, 0 and 1 are related. Every analog waveform is represented digitally using just
0 and 1. (Referenced by www.electronics-tutorial.net)
Integrated circuits are a small, inexpensive electrical system made up both passive and active
components that are manufactured from single-crystal silicon. Semiconductor material is used to
create integrated circuits. Several factors are used to categorize integrated circuits. These are
based on the usage/according to technology/based on the degree of integration.
(referenced by “Types of integrated circuits”| https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/types-of-integrated-
circuits/?ref=lbp |September 21, 2023)
Based on technology, integrated circuits can be divided into two categories. These are:
 One-dimensional technology: Using a single silicon or semiconductor, monolithic circuits
function as complete circuits. Operational amplifier IC741 is one example.
Two categories of monolithic technology exist. These are:

 Bipolar: The bipolar transistor serves as the primary component in the bipolar
saturated logic families. It operates in the saturation or cutoff region and is used as
a switch. An illustration of saturated bipolar logic is TTL. There is no hard
saturation of the bipolar transistors. As a result, the operation moves more
quickly. Therefore, in comparison to TTL, unsaturated bipolar ICs like Schottky
TTL and ECL Bipolar is again classified into two types; dielectric isolation and
PN junction isolation are these.
 Unipolar: MOS field affect transistors (MOSFTs) are manufactured by the MOS
family. There are three logic families in the MOS category: PMOS, NMOS, and
CMOS. NMOs are utilized in the LSI (Large Scale Integration) field for

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 microprocessor memories, while PMOS is the oldest and slowest type. CMOS,
which employs a push-pull configuration of n- and p-channel MOSFETs, is
widely utilized in devices that require low power consumption, like pocket
calculators. Once more, unipolar is split into two categories. These are FET and
UJT.
 Hybrid technology: Hybrid technology has a ceramic substrate that carries many silicon
chips. It can also use mixed technology like GaAs chips along with silicon chips. Based
on Integration Level Based on Integration Level:
 There are five types of integration levels. They are tabled below:

Figure 5: level of integration in proportion with number of devices

In this modern era astonishing technologies have been born such as quantum logic gates.
Monroe, Wineland, and associates manipulated the energy levels of a single ion in their quantum
logic gate, representing a 0 by a lower energy state and a 1 by a higher energy state. The first
qubit was the internal energy of an ion. Using the atom's external motion, they generated a
second quantum bit, where 0 denoted less motion and 1 denoted more motion. The team
combined the motion of the ion with its internal energy state. They created a quantum equivalent
of a CONTROLLED NOT gate in the process. The ion's motion energy in their gate helps the
"control" portion. The internal energy state of the ion flips if the value is 1. The ion's motion
could also be brought into a superposition of 0 and 1 by the researchers using lasers to change
the ion's internal energy state. Unlike conventional logic gates, this enables the gate to process
multiple possibilities concurrently, allowing it to simultaneously consider the "yes" and "no"
scenarios of the business deal. Massive numbers of calculations could be performed
simultaneously using multiple qubits that are entangled with one another. Four possible
combinations of 0s and 1s can be processed simultaneously by two-qubit gates, and eight

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possible combinations can be processed by three-qubit gates. With each new qubit, the number of
combinations the gate can process at once doubles, resulting in an exponential increase.

Figure 6

All objects can behave as either particles or waves, as demonstrated by physicist Louis de
Broglie in the 1920s. Ions can behave in two different ways: as a rippling wave or as a solid ball.
Ions behave like waves in space, with peaks denoting locations where they are most likely to be
found when measured. When an ion is in the 1 state, its peaks and valleys resemble those of an
ion with a qubit value of 0. The two sets of peaks and valleys combine to form a new wave
pattern in a superposition of 0 and 1. It is possible for researchers to align the waves of two ions
by bringing them together. A new wave pattern will be created when the waves "interfere" or
combine. The scientists produce patterns that can be translated back into qubit values and
provide valuable information by specifically disrupting waves.
(referenced by “Quantum Logic Gates” | https://www.nist.gov/physics/introduction-new-
quantum-revolution/quantum-logic-gates | April 05, 2022)
The basic components of digital circuits, logic gates, have a long and a distinguished past dating
back to the development of electronic devices. Boolean algebra is a kind of mathematics,

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created by George Boole in the middle of the 19th century, saw developments that led to the
development of the concept of logic gates. Boole's contributions prepared the way for the
creation of logic gates and established the groundwork for logical reasoning. Vacuum tubes,
which were widely used in early electronic devices, were the first practical implementation of
logic gates. These logic gates, which used vacuum tubes, were bulky, power-hungry, and prone
to malfunctioning. Nevertheless, they signaled the start of a revolution in the domain of digital
circuits. (“referenced by Logic Gate Evolution Timeline: From Vacuum Tubes to Quantum
Computing” | https://lambdageeks.com/logic-gate-evolution-timeline/ | October 13, 2023 )
The evolution of logic gates throughout the years are described in the following table:

Figure 7: evolution throughout the years

3. Challenges and future trends

One of the most significant problems that logic gates counter is power consumption and heat
dissipation. When it comes to creating and perfecting digital circuits, measuring power
consumption is vital. These circuits' fundamental components, logic gates, are crucial in
determining power consumption. Engineers can increase overall performance and energy
efficiency by making well-informed decisions by knowing how to measure logic gate power
consumption. This table will examine several approaches and strategies for calculating logic gate
power consumption.

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(Referenced by “How to Measure Logic Gate Power Consumption: A Comprehensive Guide”|
https://lambdageeks.com/how-to-measure-logic-gate-power-consumption/ | October 13, 2023)

Figure 8: different method to calculate power consumption of logic gates.

Power will be needed for each digital gate. This power needs to be released as heat. Two
categories of power are examined: Power dissipated when a gate is not changing states is known
as static PD. Power lost when a gate changes states is known as dynamic PD.
Generally, we discover that: Static PD is equal to or greater than Dynamic PD.
The static power dissipation (PD) of CMOS logic gates, such as CMOS digital inverters, is
almost zero.
Capacitance: The capacitance connected to the output must be charged or discharged when the
output voltage is changed. Current is needed for this! We cannot eliminate the output capacitance
of digital circuits, despite engineers' best efforts. (referenced by “Gate Power Dissipation -
University of Kansas” | http://www.ittc.ku.edu/~jstiles/312/handouts/Power%20Dissipation.pdf |
October 23, 2023)
One major problem with VLSI circuits is heat. However, there is no heat dissipation as a result of
the reversible logic. In nanotechnology, it plays a significant role in the design of complementary
metal oxide semiconductors (CMOS) that require less energy. It has come to light that one of the
newest technologies utilizing reversible logic gates is quantum computing. It is anticipated that
energy depletion and transistor density accumulation will reach their limits in conventional
technologies. Ordinary area or range: bits of orientation are erased during the logic influence,
resulting in a powerful amount of power satisfaction. When it comes to reversible logic,
outcomes are retained. This reduces the latency but uses minimal hardware. Reversible logic

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technology can therefore be used to increase rapidity, decrease energy dispersion, and dissipate
heatwaves, among other things. Thus, it's used to reduce energy consumption and maximize
speed. The reversible logic gates Fredkin, Peres, Feynman, and Toffoli gate, among others, can
be explained in this way. (source: “Reversible logic gates and its performances | IEEE
Conference ...” | https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8399068 | October 23, 2023)

Figure 9: heat dissipation of logic gates

generation of heat when the logic gate is operating. (a) The mean heat generated for each of the
three input sets 01, 10, and11 depending on the protocol time τp. The produced heat falls with
increasing protocol time in a force law fashion. (b) distribution of heat P(Q) with input '11' in the
case τp=9 ms. The dark outline depicts the Gaussian distribution fit, the red bars display the
histogram of the measured distribution, and the black dashed line represents the average amount
of heat generated. Interestingly, we find that even though Q>>0, the generated heat distribution
has negative tails (c) The protocol time τp as a function of the mean produced heat normalized
over the square of the maximum displacement of the cantilever tip. The amount of heat generated
is calculated for every combination of input and voltage applied to the input probes. According to
the given dissipation model, all points exhibit roughly the same value for an equal protocol time,
τp. The fit using the dissipation model is shown by the solid line.(l.Suárez| “micro-
electromechanical irreversible logic gate|”|Heat production during operation of the logic gate. (a)
Average... | Download Scientific Diagram (researchgate.net)| 2016/06/28)

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 4. Conclusion
In conclusion, this research paper emphasizes AND, OR, and NOT while providing a
comprehensive understanding of the technological and theoretical aspects of logic gates.
Furthermore, it gives a brief history of the logic gates evolution over the years, and it
highlights the use of logic gates in nowadays electronic such as phones and computers.
Trought this research you will get an insight into the future of logic gates and digital and
quantum logic gates and its use in quantum computers with reduced power consumption and
heat dissipation, which will lead to perform multiple difficult tasks at a higher speed. After
learning about the logic gates and its use one may ask, how we can build a logic gate or a
logic circuits?

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