Name : Luyanda Simphiwe

Surname : Biyela

Course : Communications

Code : ENEL3CO

Prac No. : CS6

Title : RADIO RECEIVER

Stu no. : 220067461

Pre practical
 Abstract

The purpose of this practical is to examine the principles of a simple single-

conversion superheterodyne (SUPERHET) medium wave (MW) amplitude
modulated (AM) radio receiver with high-side injection. Radio receivers
essentially consist of several amplifiers, which are used to amplify the small
signal voltage from the antenna. These amplifiers are usually tuned to select
only a small band of frequencies associated with the desired radio signals.

Introduction

The basic principles and theory behind superhert radio are relatively simple and
can be understood quite easily.
An important technique used in the development of the superheterodyne
receiver theory was the mixing technique. This is not analog mixing used in
additive audio mixers, but non-linear mixing or frequency multipliers that allow
for frequency shifting.
With many radios used for reception as well as two-way radio communications
using this principle, it is helpful to have a basic understanding of how to use
these radios well. or design RF(radio frequency) circuits for optimal
performance.
A heterodyne receiver takes a signal at an input frequency, mixes it with a
locally generated variable frequency signal, and passes it through a high-
performance fixed frequency filter before being demodulated to provide the
desired modulation. It works by converting frequencies that extract the signal.
The main process in superheterodyne radio is mixing, although we obviously
need to look more closely at this to understand the principles behind it.
RF mixing or multiplication is a key RF technique. Using a local oscillator, it
enables signals to be translated in frequency, thereby enabling signals to be
converted up and down in frequency.

a. How the receiver works

The signal that is picked up by the antenna passes into the receiver and enters a
mixer. There are three signal ports on the mixer: signal, local oscillator and IF.
The signal is obviously applied to the signal port which is designed to accept
lower-level signals than the LO(local oscillator) port.
The mixer action is to multiply the instantaneous levels of the two signals
together. The non-linear action of the mixer generates signals at frequencies
equal to the sum and difference of the incoming signals.
Many mixers are of the so-called balanced type. This means that the two input
signals are not present at the output, or at least greatly reduced.
The output of the mixer is fed into a so-called intermediate frequency or IF
stage where the signal is amplified and filtered. Any converted signal that falls
within the passband of the IF filter can pass through the filter and is also
amplified by the amplification stage. All signals outside the passband of the
filter are rejected.
Receiver tuning is accomplished simply by changing the frequency of the local
oscillator. This changes the incoming signal frequency that the signal is down
converted to allow it to pass through the filter.
Seeing a working example helps explain how the process works. To see how
this works in practice, he takes two example signals, 1.0MHz and 1.1MHz.
If the IF filter is centred at 0.25MHz and the local oscillator is set to 0.75MHz,
the two signals produced by the mixer as a result of the 1.0MHz signal will drop
to 0.25MHz and 1.75MHz. Of course, the 1.75MHz signal is discarded, but the
0.25MHz signal is passed through the IF stage.

The advantage of the heterodyne radio system is the ability to use very selective
fixed frequency filters. This is far superior to all variable frequency filters. They
are also usually lower in frequency than the incoming signal, so they perform
better and are cheaper.

b. The components of the Superhert

 • RF filter(tuning) and Amplifier
This RF stage within the overall block diagram for the receiver provides initial
tuning to remove the image signal. It also provides some amplification. There
are many different approaches used within the RF circuit design for this block
dependent its application.
The electronic circuit design presents some challenges. Low-cost broadcast
radios may have an amplifying mixer circuit that gives some RF amplification.
HF radios may not need much HF gain as some of the very strong signals they
receive can overload later stages. An RF design can include gain as well as RF
rolloff to overcome this problem. VHF and above radios tend to use more gain
to lower the noise figure low enough to receive the signal. Noise is a particular
problem for VHF/UHF radio communication systems.
If receiver noise performance is important, this stage is designed for optimum
noise performance. This RF amplifier circuit block also boosts the signal level
so that the noise introduced later is at a low level compared to the desired
signal.
All radios require high enough image rejection provided by RF tuning. Higher
IF frequencies result in a greater difference between the desired signal and the
image, allowing for more effective RF tuning.
• Local oscillator
As in other areas of RF circuit design, the local oscillator circuit block within a
superhert radio can take many forms.
Early receivers used to free-run local oscillators. The use of these oscillators in
high power superhert radios maximizes RF circuit design expertise to minimize
drift. High Q coils, low drift circuitry, thermal management (because heat
causes drift), etc.
Most receivers today use one or more frequency synthesizers in various forms.
The most common approach in RF circuit design is to use a phase-locked loop
approach. Single-loop and multi-loop synthesizers are used, depending on
requirements, performance, cost, etc. Direct digital synthesizers are also being
used more and more.

Whatever the type of synthesizer used in the HF design, they offer a much
higher level of stability, and are usually controlled by some sort of
microcontroller or microprocessor system to vary the frequency in various
ways. Can be digitally programmed. They are more complex and require more
electronic components than the old variable frequency oscillators but offer a
much higher level of performance.
• Mixer
Mixers can be one of the key elements in the overall receiver RF design. It is
especially important to make sure the mixer performance matches the rest of the
radio.
Both the local oscillator and the incoming signal enter this block within the
heterodyne receiver. A useful signal is converted to an intermediate frequency.
A practical implementation should generate a minimum number of spurious
signals. Some very cheap broadcast receivers can use self-oscillating mixers
that provide RF gain from a single transistor and other electronic components,
but these are not high performance. High-performance radios used for two-way
radio communications require even better performance. To achieve this, mixer
circuits such as balanced mixers, double balanced mixers, etc. are found
throughout electronic circuit design.
• IF filter and amplifier
This superheterodyne receiver block provides the most gain and selectivity.
Relatively little gain is often provided by the front block of a radio's RF circuit
design. The main amplification is provided in the IF stage. It's much easier to
get high gain and overall power because the frequency is fixed.
Initially, the IF stage may have included many different transistors, FETs, glow
tubes/vacuum tubes, and other electronic components, but nowadays it is very
difficult to obtain an integrated circuit containing a complete IF strip. is
possible.
This circuit block of the radio also provides adjacent channel selectivity. High
performance filters such as crystal filters can be used, but home radios can use
LC or ceramic filters. The type of filter depends on the wireless RF design and
its application.
Also, within the multi-conversion superhert the IF can be at different
frequencies. Typically, the front stage provides enhanced image rejection at
high frequencies and the rear stage provides gain and adjacent channel
selectivity at low frequencies.
• Demodulator
Although the superheterodyne receiver block diagram shows only one
demodulator, in practice many wireless RF designs include one or more
demodulators, depending on the nature of the signal being received. There are
cases. Used for professional wireless communication applications and
monitoring, these radios must be able to demodulate different modulation
formats and waveforms, and may require different demodulators that can be
turned on as needed.
Even many radios have AM and FM, but professional radios used for
surveillance and two-way radio communication may need more in some cases.
The presence of multiple demodulators allows reception of many different
signal modes, improving radio performance.
• AGC (Automatic gain control)
Automatic gain control is included in most superheli block diagrams. The
function of this circuit block is to maintain the audio level in a form of
amplitude-sensitive modulation and reduce the gain of strong signals to prevent
clipping.
Although the basic concept is the same for all RF circuit designs, there are some
variations in implementation and required electronic circuit design. Some of the
most important changes are the time constants of the AGC system. Relatively
slow time constants are acceptable, such as in AM. For SSB, a shorter time
constant is required to follow the envelope of the SSB signal.
There are also differences in how the AGC voltage is derived and where it is
applied. It is often applied first to the IF circuit block and then to the RF circuit
block. This way the best signal-to-noise ratio is maintained. In general, AGCs
are relatively easy to implement because they have relatively few electronic
components.
• Audio amplifier
After demodulation, the recovered audio is applied to an audio amplifier block
and amplified to the level required for speakers or headphones. Alternatively,
the recovered modulation can be used for other applications and then processed
as desired by specific circuit blocks.
In many ways, this circuit block is the simplest of the heterodyne radios. In
many applications, audio amplifiers require simple electronic circuit designs,
especially when the audio is fed to simple headphones or speakers. For two-way
radio applications, the audio bandwidth may need to be limited to the "telecom"
bandwidth of approximately 300 Hz to 3.3 kHz. Audio filters are also available.
For applications requiring higher output quality, more care may need to be
taken during electronic design to achieve high fidelity performance.
Regardless of the radio, this circuit block has different requirements.

>
The diagram above shows a very basic version of the superhert or
superheterodyne receiver. Many sets these days are far more complicated. Some
superhert radios have more than one frequency conversion, and other areas of
additional circuitry to provide the required levels of performance.
However, the basic superheterodyne concept remains the same, using the idea
of mixing the incoming signal with a locally generated oscillation to convert the
signals to a new frequency.