Physics (Study Notes)

Physics as a branch of science, attempts to investigate the motion of objects and the forces
acting on them, the different forms of energy, the matter that makes up the universe and
everything in it.

In summary: Physics is the study of matter and energy.

The physics that you will be doing for CSEC can be broken down as follows:

Newtonian Physics
• The scientific method
• Graphing experimental data
• Drawing line of best fit
• SI units and derived quantities
• Using instruments in the lab and knowing sources of error.
• Scalars and Vectors & calculating the resultant vector
• Motion: Distance, Displacement, Speed, Velocity,
Acceleration, and the various types of motion graphs
• Newton’s laws of Motion
Mechanics
• Forces
• Moments of a force, center of gravity and stability, simple
machines.
• Hooke’s Law
• Linear Momentum
• Types of Energy
• Pressure (on a solid & in a liquid)
• Pascal’s Principle
• Archimedes’ Principle
• The kinetic theory of matter.
• Types of thermometers and temperature scales
• Thermal expansion
Thermodynamics
• Gas Laws: Boyle’s Law Charles’ Law and Pressure Law.
• Specific heat capacity and specific latent heat capacity.
• The 3 methods of transferring thermal energy.
• Types of waves (Mechanical and Electromagnetic)
• Types of wave motions (Transverse and Longitudinal)
• The five wave parameters
• The properties of waves: Reflection, Refraction, Diffraction,
Waves & Optics Superposition
• Light waves and the wave particle duality
• Lenses
• Eye Defects and the lens maker equation.
• The eye and eye defects
• Electrostatics
• Ohm’s Law
Electricity and Magnetism • Electrical Circuits – Series and Parallel
• Electrochemical cells - Batteries

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 • DC and AC Current
• Electricity in the home
• Logic Gates and truth tables
• Magnetism and magnetic fields
• Magnetic flux patterns
Electricity and Magnetism • Electromagnetic force
• Applications of electromagnets
• Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule
• Electric Motors
• AC generators
• Transformers

Modern Physics
• History of the Atom
• Radioactivity and the types of radioactive emissions.
• Radioactive decay and half life
Atomic Theory
• Applications of radioactive isotopes
• Radioactive particles in an electromagnetic field.
• Nuclear Energy and nuclear reactions ( E = mc2)

The physics that you will learn will consist of many definitions and formulas that you will
use to explain the world and do calculations. These formulas were created by scientists many
years ago through experimentation using the “Scientific Method”

Formula / Definition Cheat Sheet

A vector is any quantity that has both a magnitude and direction. (displacement, velocity,
acceleration, force etc..)

A scalar is any quantity which only has a magnitude. (i.e distance, time, temperature, speed..)

The resultant vector is found by adding the component vectors together. If the vectors are at
an angle then you use trigonometry to calculate the resultant vector

𝑜𝑝𝑝 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑜𝑝𝑝

• 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝜃) = 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝜃) = 𝑇𝑎𝑛(𝜃) =
ℎ𝑦𝑝 ℎ𝑦𝑝 𝑎𝑑𝑗

• 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 = 𝑐 2

A force is a push or pull on an object/body. Forces can be separated into two categories:
contact forces (friction, air resistance, applied, etc.) and non-contact forces (gravitational
force, weight, electrical and magnetic forces etc.)

A field is a region where a non-contact force is exerted (i.e magnetic “field” gravitational
“field” ).

• Weight = mass x gravity (9.8NKg-1) W=𝑚×𝑔

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The moment of a force is the magnitude of the force multiplied by the perpendicular distance
from the pivot to the line of action of the force.

• Moment of a force (Torque) = Force × distance

• 𝑇 = 𝑓𝑥𝑑

If a body or object is in equilibrium the sum of the anticlockwise moment is equal to the
sum of the clockwise moment about the same point or pivot.

OR

For an object to be in equilibrium the sum of the forces acting on it in one direction must
equal the sum of the forces acting on it in the opposite direction.

• Moments in equilibrium: ∑ 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = ∑ 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

The centre of gravity of an object is the point through which its whole weight acts from or
appears to act from for any given orientation of the object. The centre of gravity of a
regularly shaped object is found at the geometric centre of that object. To find the centre of
gravity of an irregularly shaped object you may have to conduct an experiment on it.

Hooke’s Law states that: “The extension of the spring is directly proportional to the
stretching force, provided that the stretching force does not extend the spring’s elastic limit.”

• Hooke’s Law: F = K × e

Displacement is the change in position of an object.

• Motion Equations: displacement (𝑑 = 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑜 )

Velocity is the rate of chance of position of an object.

𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑜
Velocity 𝑣=
𝑡
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity of an object.

𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑜
Acceleration 𝑎 =
𝑡
The gradient of a displacement vs. time graph is the objects velocity.

The gradient of a velocity vs. time graph is the objects acceleration.

𝑦2 − 𝑦1
• Gradient Equation (For graphs) 𝑚 =
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
The area under a velocity vs time graph is a measure of the distance covered by the object.

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Newton’s Laws of Motion
1. An object at rest tends to stay at rest, and an object in motion tends to stay in uniform
motion, with a constant speed in the same direction unless acted upon by an external
unbalanced force.

2. 'An applied force is directly proportional to the rate of change of momentum'.

3. “All forces occur in pairs, and these two forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction.”
OR

If body A exerts a force ‘F’ on body B then body B exerts an equal and opposite
force ‘–F’ on body A.

• Momentum P = 𝑚 × 𝑣

• Force F = 𝑚 × 𝑎

Work is done whenever an object is moved by some distance.

• Work W = F × 𝑑

Energy is the capacity to do work.

The law of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed
but is converted from one form to another.

Kinetic Energy is the energy that a body has due to its motion.

1
• Kinetic Energy 𝐸𝑘 = 𝑚 × 𝑣2
2

Potential energy is the energy an object has due to its elevation above the ground or due to
its strained/stretched condition.

• Potential Energy 𝐸𝑃 = 𝑚 × 𝑔 × ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝐸𝑃 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ

NB. Whenever energy is converted work is always done in the process.

NB. Two waste forms of energy that are present is most energy conversions are sound & heat.

Heat energy is energy that is transferred between objects due to their temperature difference.

• Heat Energy 𝑄 = 𝑚 × 𝑐 × ∆𝑇

Heat Capacity (Big ‘C’) is the energy required to change the temperature of a substance by
1oC.
𝑄
• 𝐶=
∆𝑇

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Specific Heat Capacity (small ‘c’)is the energy required to change the temperature of 1kg of
a substance by 1oC.
𝑄
• 𝑐= 𝑚∆𝑇

Specific Latent Heat is the heat energy required to JUST change the state of 1kg of a
substance from one state to another without changing the temperature.
Unit: JKg-1 or Jmol-1

• 𝑄 = 𝑚𝑙 Where l is the specific latent heat of fusion or vaporization

Method of Mixtures is a technique used to calculate the specific heat capacity of an

unknown substance but heating it up and placing it in a liquid of known heat capacity and
measuring the temperature change of both substances.

As one substance cools down the other is being heated up until their temperatures reach
equilibrium. Therefore Qcold = Qhot

• 𝑚1 𝑐1 ∆𝑇𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘 = 𝑚2 𝑐2 ∆𝑇𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

The Three Methods of Heat Transfer are: Conduction (Solids touching), Convection
(Fluids Only: Air & Water) and Radiation (No medium required)

Pressure is defined the amount of force that is exerted over a given area. NB. The force is
always perpendicular to the surface.

𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹
• Pressure (For Solids) P= =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴

Pascals Principle States: A change in pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is uniformly

transmitted to every point of the fluid and to the walls of the container.

𝐹1 𝐹2
• Pascal’s Principle =
𝐴1 𝐴2

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚
• Density 𝝆 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑉

• Pressure (For a Liquid) P = 𝝆 × 𝑔 × ℎ

Archimedes’ Principle States: “When a body is partially or wholly immersed in a fluid it

experiences an upward force called upthrust, which is equal to the weight of fluid displaced”

• Archimedes’ Principle (Upthrust in water = weight of water displaced)

𝑭𝒃 = 𝝆 × 𝑔 × 𝑉

Pressure (For a Gases) is a result of the number of particles that hit the walls of the
container, it is affected by temperature and volume of the container.

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Boyles Law: For a fixed mass of gas at a constant temperature the pressure is inversely
proportional to the volume of the container.

• Boyles Law 𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2

Charles Law: For a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure, the volume of the container is
directly proportional to the Kelvin temperature of the gas.

𝑉1 𝑉
• Charles Law = 𝑇2
𝑇1 2

Pressure Law: For a fixed mass of gas at constant volume, the pressure of the gas is
directly proportional to the Kelvin temperature of the gas.

𝑃1 𝑃
• Pressure Law
𝑇1
= 𝑇2
2

For Transverse waves, the wave motion is perpendicular to the direction of travel of the
wave.

For Longitudinal waves, the wave motion is parallel to the direction of travel of the wave.

Amplitude of a wave is the maximum displacement from the rest position.

Frequency is the number of waves passing a point per second.

1
• 𝑓=𝑇 Frequency is the inverse of the period.

The wavelength of a wave is distance between two successive points on a wave that are in
phase.

• Wave Speed 𝑣 = 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ × 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (𝑣 = 𝜆 × 𝑓)

Reflection occurs whenever a wave hits a boundary.

• Reflection: Angle of incidence = Angle of Refraction

Refraction occurs whenever a wave changes medium. The wave speeds up pr slows down
depending on the density of the new medium and this causes a bend in the wave.

• Snell’s Law for Light Refraction 𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2

The Critical Angle of Refraction (‘c’) is the specific angle of incidence that causes the
refracted wave/ray to be bent exactly 90o away from the normal, it can only occur if you are
going from a denser medium to a less dense medium.

• 𝑛1 sin (𝑐) = 𝑛2 NB. Because sin(90o) = 1

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Total internal reflection occurs when the incident wave exceeds the critical angle. The
wave/ray is essentially refracted so much that it becomes like a reflection.

Lenses can be convex or concave and depending on the type of lens they will produce
‘virtual’ images or ‘real’ images.

1 1 1
• Lens Equation = +𝑣
𝑓 𝑢

ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

• Magnification 𝑚 = OR
ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

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NB. Learn the parts of the eye and their functions as well as common eye defects.

Diffraction is the spreading out of a wave as it exits an opening in a boundary or around a

corner.

Interference refers to the phenomenon that occurs when different waves of the same kind
interact with each other in the same medium.

Principle of Superposition: Total displacement of the resultant wave is the sum of all the
individual displacements of the waves.

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 • Electric Charge Q = Current × 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 (Q = 𝐼 × 𝑡)

• Electrical Energy = Q × Voltage

Ohm's law states that the current passing through a wire at constant temperature is
proportional to the potential difference between its ends. A body is said to be ohmic if ohm's
law is true for the device. Not all devices are ohmic.

𝑉
• Ohm’s Law = 𝑅 = 𝐼

For series circuits: the same current, I flows through all components (CURRENT IS NOT
SPLIT UP) but the total voltage or emf (Vs ) of the power supply is the sum of the individual
voltages across each resistor.

• Resistors in series 𝑅 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 +. . .

For the parallel circuits: the potential difference, V across each parallel branch or load resistor
is the SAME and is equal to the potential difference of the battery; (VOLTAGE IS NOT SPLIT
UP) but the total current, Ip is the sum of the currents in the individual branches: Ip = I1 + I2 + I3
(CURRENT SPLITs UP along branches)

1 1 1
• Resistors in Parallel 𝑅𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = + + +. . .
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

POWER is the rate of energy transfer (or the rate at which work is done.)

𝐸 𝑊 𝑉2
• 𝑃= 𝑜𝑟 𝑃= 𝑜𝑟 𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉 𝑜𝑟 𝑃 = 𝐼2𝑅 𝑜𝑟 𝑃=
𝑡 𝑡 𝑅

A transformer is a device used to transfer blocks of electrical power from one circuit to another
using a.c.

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History of the Atom:

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The decay of radioactive substances is random and spontaneous. That means that we cannot
tell when the nucleus of a particular unstable atom will break up and hurl out an alpha or beta
particle. However, we find that, out of many the same kind of unstable atoms, a constant
fraction of them will decay in a certain time. It is easy to tell which atoms have decayed
because they change into a different element.

Half-life is the time it takes for half of the radioactive nuclei present to decay.

Atoms that have too many or too few neutrons in their nuclei are found to be unstable and
prone to a spontaneous process of emitting radioactive particles from their nuclei.
This decay process tends to make the atoms more stable although several decay processes
may occur before a completely stable nuclide is reached. When a radioactive atom decays, its
nucleus breaks up, throws out an alpha-particle or beta-particle with some energy, and forms
a new atom of a different element. We can represent these events as a nuclear equation in
which a parent nuclide X changes into a daughter nuclide Y.

NB. Look up the medical

and industrial uses of
radiation.

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 The scientific method is how scientists can make accurate statements about how the
world works.

Graphing Experimental Data:

It is important to be able to graph experimental data and make extrapolations and

interpolations with the data.

You must be able to draw a line of best fit to find the average of your data as well as find
the gradient.

Practice Question

Suppose you have a device that measures the length (in meters) of an object and gives
you the resulting mass (in kg). You are calibrating this device for the first time, and you
measure a set of lengths and record the masses in a table as shown below:

Length (m) Mass (kg)

Trial 1 6.10 16.8
Trial 2 11.9 20.0
Trial 3 20.1 23.8
Trial 4 26..7 26.1
Trial 5 29.5 27.6

What is the independent Variable? What is the dependent variable? What scale to use?

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