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Text= Locomotion and Movement=

Syllabus=
Locomotion and Movement: Types of movement- ciliary, flagellar, muscular; Skeletal
muscle- contractile proteins and muscle contraction; Skeletal system and its functions (To be
dealt with the relevant practical of Practical syllabus); Joints; Disorders of muscular and
skeletal system-Myasthenia gravis, Tetany, Muscular dystrophy, Arthritis, Osteoporosis,
Gout.

Locomotory structures need not be different from those affecting other types of
movements:
1. Cilia helps in the movement of food through cytopharynx and in locomotion
as well---------Paramoecium.
2. Tentacles used for food capture and also used for locomotion------Hydra.

 Locomotion=Displacement of the body through voluntary movement.

 Locomotory organs=Locomotion performed by the organs.
 All locomotions are movements but all movements are not locomotions.

Types of movement by definite structure- cilliary, flagellar, muscular=----

Amoeboid movement-----
 Performed by pseudopodia.
 Pseudopodia is formed by the streaming of protoplasm.
 Cytoskeleton ( Actin and myosin)also involved in the amoeboid movement.

Eg----Amoeba, WBC, and Macrophages show pseudopodial movement.

Ciliary movement-----
 Cilia are present at the free surface of the cells; these are hair like –projections.
 Ciliary movement occurs in the most of our internal tubular organs which are lined
by ciliated epithelium like as trachea, female reproductive tract, etc.
 The co-ordinated movements of cilia in the trachea help us in removing dust
particles and some of the foreign substances inhaled along with the atmospheric air.
 Passage of ova through the female reproductive tract is also facilitated by the ciliary
movement.

Flagellar Movement=---

Although cilia and flagella are the same, they were given different names before their
structures were studied.
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 Number------Typically, cells possess one or two long flagella, whereas ciliated cells
have many short cilia. For example, the mammalian spermatozoon has a single
flagellum, the unicellular green alga Chlamydomonas has two flagella, and the
unicellular protozoan Paramecium is covered with a few thousand cilia.
 Movement---------Ciliary and flagellar beating is characterized by a series of bends,
originating at the base of the structure and propagated toward the tip.

 Dynein Arms Generate the Sliding Forces in

Axonemes
1. Identify the force-generating proteins responsible for this movement. The
inner- and outer-arm dyneins.
2. The cilia and flagella possess an active ATPase that is associated with the
dynein arms. In addition, removal of outer-arm dyneins by treatment with
high-salt solutions reduces the rate of ATP hydrolysis,
3. Based on the polarity and direction of sliding of the doublet microtubules. The
dynein the A tubule of one doublet “walk” along the adjacent doublet’s B
tubule toward its base, the (−) end (Figure-B). The force producing active
sliding requires ATP and is caused by successive formation and breakage of
cross-bridges between the dynein arm and the B tubule.
4. Successive binding and hydrolysis of ATP causes the dynein arms to
successively release from and attach to the adjacent doublet.

 Muscular movement=---
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Movement of our limbs, jaws, tongue etc. require muscular movement. Locomotion
requires a perfect co-ordinated activity of muscular, skeletal and neural system.

Muscle------
 Specialized tissue with properties----excitability, contractility, extensibility
and elasticity.
 Mesodermal in origin.
 About 40-50% of the body weight contributed by muscles.
 Human body contains more than 600 muscles

Comparative Account on Skeletal, Smooth and Cardiac

muscles. Based on location.
Points Skeletal. Smooth Heart
Location Most attached to Mostly on hollow Present on heart only.
the skeleton and viscera.
form ‘somatic’
musculature
Striation Yes No Yes
Speed of 0.1 sec. per 0.8 sec. per 0.46 sec. per
contraction contraction cycle contraction cycle contraction cycle
Nucleus Multi-nucleate Uni-nucleate Uni-nucleate
Shape Cylindrical Spindle Cylindrical
Control Voluntary Non-voluntary Non-voluntary
Branch Un-branched Un-branched Branched
Intercalated Absent Absent Present
discs
Fatigue Soon get fatigue Do not get fatigue Never get fatigue
Syncytial Syncytial Single unit Syncytial
syncytial and
multi-unit non-
syncytial

Example of Smooth muscle------

 Single unit----Urinary bladder, GI tract, Uterus.
 Multi-unit-----Wall of blood vessel, Iris muscle, Erector of pilo in skin.

Structure of Skeletal Muscle-------

 Each organised skeletal muscle in our body is made of a number of muscle bundles
or fascicles held together by a common collagenous connective tissue layer called
fascia.
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 Each muscle bundle contains a number of muscle fibres which is lined by the
plasmalema called sarcolemma enclosing sarcoplasm.
 Muscle fibre is a syncitium as the sarcoplasm contains many nuclei.
 The endoplasmic reticulum present as ‘sarcoplasmic reticulum’ of the muscle fibre is
the store house of calcium ions.
 A large number of myofilaments or myofibrils are parallelly arranged in sarcoplasm.
 Each single myofibril is made up of two types of myofilaments---thick myofilament
( Myosin) and thin myofilament ( Actin).
 Each myofibril has alternate dark and light bands.

Structure of Myofilament------

1. Thin filaments, actin, consist of two strands of the globular protein actin arranged
in a double helix. Along the length of the helix are troponin and tropomyosin
molecules that cover special binding sites on the actin.

2. Thick filaments, myosin, consist of groups of the filamentous protein myosin. Each
myosin filament forms a protruding head at one end. An array of myosin filaments
possesses protruding heads at numerous positions at both ends.

 Contractile proteins-----Actin and myosin----55%

 Regulatory protein------Tropomyosin and troponin.
 Anchoring proteins----- Actinin, Titin and Desmin, Destrophin.
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Light Microscopic
Appearance-----
1. The light bands contain actin and is called I-band or isotrophic band made of
low refractive materials.
2. Dark band called ‘A’ or anisotrophic band contains myosin, is made of highly
refractive materials.
3. The ‘A’ and ‘I’ bands are arranged alternately throughout the length of myofibril.
4. In the centre of each ‘A’ band is found a slightly less refractive called ‘H’ band
( After the discoverer Hensen)
5. At the middle of the ‘H’/’A’ by a thin fibrous membrane called ‘M’ line, due to
central bulge, ( the M-line is particularly pronounced during muscle contraction)
6. In the centre of each ‘I’ band is found a narrow line of highly refractive material
which , therefore , looks dark ‘Z’ line ( From German—Zwischenscheibe i.e
between disc) or Krause’s membrane.

Sarcomere:-----The contractile unit.length---2.5 µm.

Between two successive ‘Z’lines is considered as the functional unit of contraction and
called sarcomere to which the actin filaments are attached.
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Variation of sarcomere------

 At rest, i.e when the muscle is relaxed, ‘I’ band interdigitates with the ‘A’ band only
outside the ‘H’ band ( sarcomere length is 2.5µm)
 During muscle contraction, the length of ‘A’ band remains constant whereas the ‘Z’
lines move close together causing sarcomere length reduced to 1.5µm.
 During stretching the muscle to the point where ‘I’ and ‘A’ band overlap ceases, the
sarcomere length becomes increase to 3.5µm

Actinin, Titin and Desmin

Another few proteins like as Actinin, Titin and Desmin are muscle proteins
that binds the Z-lines to actin, M-line and cell membrane respectively. These
proteins together form the cytoskeleton of the muscle cell.
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Thin filaments=----

1. Actin=----
 Thin and stretch from ‘Z’ line.
 Each actin (thin) filament is made of two ‘F’ filamentous(actins) helically wound to
each other.
 Actin has two forms-----
 ‘G’-actin, each molecule binds one molecule of ATP firmly.
 ‘F’-actin formed by the polymerization of ‘G’- actins with liberation of
energy. Each turn contains 13 G-actin molecules.

G-Actin + ATP------> F-actin + ADP + Pi

Two another proteins are associated with Actins-----

1. Tropomyosin:----

Two filaments, located in the two grooves between two chains in the actin. It
concealing the myosin binding sites on actin on rest.
2. Troponin:----

Globular units are present at regular intervals on tropomyosin. Each has three
parts----
 TpC----Containing the binding site of Calcium.
 TpT----Binding site of tropomyosin.
 TpI----Inhibits the interaction of myosin with actin.

2. Thick filaments=----
Made up of myosin. It is responsible for the formation of ‘A’ band.
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 Each myosin-II filaments is also a polymerised protein. Many monomeric

proteins called Meromyosins constitute one thick filament. Each meromyosin
has two parts----
 A globular head with a short arm and tail.
 Each myosin molecule is composing of two large polypeptide heavy
chains(HMM) and 4 smaller light chains(LMM). These chains combine to
form a molecule that consists of two globular heads (containing heavy and
light chains) and long tail with two twisted heavy chains.
 Mw=---LMM----4 x 20,000=80,000 Dt. And HMM-----2 x 2,00,000 Dt. So,
each myosin molecule has 4,80,000 Dt.
 Each globular head has two important sites----
1.Actin binding site-----Where myosin comes in contact with
actin.
2. ATPase site-------that hydrolyses ATP.
 Globular head is the active site of myosin because it contains Ca2+, activated
ATPase and binding site for ATP.
 The head with short projects outwards at a regular distance and angle from
each other from the surface of a polymerised myosin filament and is known as
cross arm.

Each heavy mero- myosin molecule

has---
 Two tails.
 Two heads.
 Two actin binding sites.
 Two ATP binding sites.

At the level of cross section of myosin there are six myosin molecules heads protrudes
circularly. Angle between two 600. 1 Actin filament is surrounded by 3 myosin filaments.

Sarcotubular System=---
It composed with two----
1. T-tubule.
2. Sarcoplasmic reticulum.

1. T-tubule:---- As a T tubules passes each

myofibril (A-I junction) it touches, but is separate
from, membranous bags called the sarcoplasmic
reticulum.
2. Sarcoplasmic reticulum:-----Longitudinal
tubules, forming an irregular net-work, terminal
ends swollen to form terminal cisternae which
store the Ca2+

Triad=----Two terminal cisterns forms opposite

sides and one transverse, T-tubules lie close to one another form triad.
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Receptors=------

 Dihydropyridine=------ Voltage sensitive, present on T-tubules.

 Ryanodine=----Present on terminal cisternae which store Ca2+

When an action potential in a T tubule reaches each piece of sarcoplasmic reticulum, the
action potential triggers the opening of Ca++ channels in the sarcoplasmic reticulum. As a
result, Ca++ flows out of the sarcoplasmic reticulum and into the saromere with its thick and
thin filaments. This causes the filaments to start sliding and thus the sarcomere to shorten.

Physical Changes during muscle contraction=-----

 No change of ‘A’ band.
 ‘H’zone disappears.
 Length of ‘O’ zone increase.
 ‘Z’ lines come closure to each other.
 ‘M’ lines bulges.
 Sarcomere becomes shorter upto 40-50%
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 ‘I’ band disappears

Mechanism of Muscle Contraction=---

Mechanism of muscle contraction is explained through the sliding theory of Huxley and
Hanson( 1954). According to this actin filament slides over the myosin filament.
1. Muscle contraction is initiated by a signal sent by the CNS via a motor neuron. Action
potential(AP) travels along the nerve, is transmitted across the myoneural junction
and produces an AP in the muscle.
2. The AP is transmitted along the sarcolemma and enters into the muscle tissue
through transversely placed T tubules and reaches the voltage-sensitive
dihydropyridine receptor located in the T-tubule.
3. This causes conformational change in the dihydropyridine receptor leading to
pulling out of the foot process from the ryanodine receptor in the terminal cistern.
4. This opens the calcium channel present in the ryanodine receptor previously
covered by the foot process. Calcium released from the cistern into the cytosol.
5. Cytosolic calcium concentration increases, exceeds 10-5mol/L binds with troponin C
present in the thin filament.
6. Calcium ion binds to troponin-C, conformational changes occur and head of myosin
binds to actin to form cross-bridge.
Cori-Cycle:----
During heavy exercise lactic acid is formed, which is responsible for muscle muscle –
cramp. Lactic acid converted into muscle glycogen through cori-cycle

Muscle lactic acid. Blood lactic acid Liver lactic acid.

4/5 lactate 1/5 lactate oxidised

Muscle glycogen. converted glycogen in liver to produce
in liver. CO2+H2O

Muscle glucose Blood glucose

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Interaction of actin, myosin and ATP as follows------

 When Ca++binds to troponin C and initiates muscular contraction, myosin
cross-bridges which contain stored energy due to ATP hydrolysis, have a high
affinity for the binding with actin, ADP and Pi, at this stage , are bound to
myosin.
 Ca++ binds to troponin C leads to conformational change in troponin-
tropomyosin complex. As a result exposed the myosin-binding site on actin,
the myosin cross-bridge is formed.
 On binding with myosin, actin strongly increases the myosin ATP ase activity.
This hastens release of ADP and Pi along the energy. The myosin cross-
bridges utilise this energy and undergo conformational change. They bend at
the neck pulling the thin filament and form power stroke.

 This pulls the attached actin filaments towards the

centre of ‘A’ band. The ‘Z’ line attached to these actions
are also pulled inwards thereby causing a shortening of
the sarcomere (Contraction)
 ‘I’ band reduced, whereas the ‘A’ bands retain the length
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 Next, a new ATP molecule binds with myosin. This leads to detachment of
myosin head from actin.
 ATP bound to myosin undergoes hydrolysis. The released energy is stored in
myosin head while ADP and Pi remain bound to myosin.

Relaxation of the Muscle.

1. Ca++ concentration value lower than 0.1µmol/L. Ca++ backed to the cistern through
Ca++-Mg++-ATP ase. so, relaxation is an active process.
2. The protein calsequestrin in the sarcoplasmic reticulum helps in storing the Ca ++ ions
‘pumped back’ into the terminal cistern.
3. Return the ‘Z’ line to back its original position,

ATP has three functional roles in skeletal muscle contraction----

1. Provides the energy for power stroke.
2. Causes detachment of myosin head from actin.
3. The energy for pumping back Calcium into the terminal cistern.

Based on
the colour the skeletal muscles are classified into two types. They are red muscle(red meat

Points Red muscle White muscle

Colour Red in colour due to the White in colour due to less
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presence of large amount of amount of myoglobin.

myoglobin
Dia of muscle fibre Red muscles are thin muscle White muscles are thick muscle
fibres. fibres.
Time of contraction Slow and sustained contraction. Fast contraction. Depend on
Depend on aerobic metabolism anaerobic metabolism for
for energy (oxidative energy (glycolysis).
phosphorylation
Mitochondria Mitochondria are abundant Mitochondria are less.
Sarcoplasmic reticulum Less High
Lactic accumulation No accumulation of lactic acid. lactic acid accumulation by
glycolysis.
Fatigue Perform sustained work for a Perform fast and strenuous
prolonged period without work for a short period (fast
fatigue (slow but steady). but soon fatigue).

Example (Example: extensor muscle on Example: Muscles of the eye

back of human body). ball).

Skeletal system
 Consists of a frame wok of bones and few cartilages.
 Helps of movement and chewing foods.
 Bones and cartilage are the specialized connective tissues.
 The bone has a very hard matrix due to calcium salts and cartilage has slightly pliable
matrix due to chondroitin salts.
 Human has 206 bones and a few cartilages. These are grouped into two—axial and
appendicular .

Axial skeleton (80) Appendicular skeleton(126)

1. Skull (29). 1. Girdles---6.
 Facial bone—14.  Pectoral girdle---4.
 Cranium—8.  Pelvic girdle-------2.
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 Ear ossicles---6. 2. Limb bones ---(4x30)= 120

 Hyoid------1.
2. Vertebral column----26.
3. Ribs + sternum----(24+1)=25

Skull ( Dicondylic)—

Cranium:8 Face:14. Hyoid:1 Ear bones:6

1. Frontal----1. 1.Nasal---2. Hyoid:1 Malleus--2

2. Parietal----2. 2.Maxilla----2. Incus---2
3. Temporal---2. 3.Zygomatic---2. Stapes---2
4. Occipital---1 4.Lacrimal---2.
5. Sphenoid---1. [Smallest bone of
6. Ethmoid---1 face]
5. Palatine---2.
6. Inferior nasal
chonchae-------2.
7. Vomer—1.
8. Mandible---1.
[Largest bone of
face]
Jaw suspension ----Craniostylic. Amphistylic---Primitive fish. Autostylic---Lung fish.

Vertebral column ( 33)--->26

Vertebrae Type Embryonic Adult

stage
1. Cervical 7 7, All have bifid neural spine, except-C7
2. Thoracic 12 12
3. Lumber 5 5
4. Sacral 5 1
5. Coccyx 4 1
Total 33 26

Cervical Vertebrae:
1. These are smallest.
2. 1st is known as atlas and 2nd is known as axis.
3. Numbers of cervical vertebrae are 7.
4. All cervical vertebrae have apertures in their transverse process known as foramina
transversarium which alainged to form vertebroarterial canal through artery passes,
supply blood brain and vertebrae.
5. Spinous process of cervical vertebrae is bifid except C7.
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6. Only C7 has demifacetes where upper part of the head of 1st rib articulates.
7. Vertebral artery and vein pass through 1st 6 vertebrae and only the vertebral vein
in the 7th,

Thoracic Vertebrae:

1. They are larger than cervical vertebrae.

2. They are 12 in numbers.
3. They are identified by the presence of 2nd -9th costal demifacetes on the centrum for
attachment to ribs.
4. On their transverse processes, tubercular facets are present in which tubercle part of
rib articulates.
Lumber:
The five lumbar vertebral bodies are the weight-bearing portion of the spine and are
the largest in diameter compared to the thoracic and cervical vertebral bodies. They
sit atop the sacrum, which is formed by five vertebrae fused together into a solid
unit. Together they create the concave lumbar curvature in the lower back The fifth
lumbar vertebra is distinct from the L 1-4 vertebrae in being much larger on its
front side than in the back.
Sacrum:
Large flatten tri-angular bone formed through the fusion of five sacral vertebrae.

Coccyx:
It is vestigial in human and formed by the fusion of 4 coccygeal vertebrae.

Top 24 vertebrae are movable.

Vertebral column formulae=---C7T12L5S1(5)C1(4)

Pectoral girdle and fore limbs----------(64)

Pectoral girdle Fore limbs

1. Clavical—1 x2=2 1. Humerus ---1 x2=2
2. Scapula---1x2=2 2. Ulna----------1x2=2.
3. Radius-------1x2=2.
4. Carpals------8x2=16
5. Metacarpals---5x2=10
6. Phalanges-----14x2=28
Total=4 Total=60

Pelvic girdle and hind limbs------(62)

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Pelvic girdle Hind limbs

1. Hip 1x2=2. 1. Femur-----1x2=2.
2. Tibia-------1x2=2.
3. Fibula------1X2=2.
4. Patella-----1x2=2.
5. Tarsal-----7x2=14.
6. Metatarsal----5x2=10
7. Phalanges----14x2=28.
Total=2 Total=60.

The Ribs:--
 The ribs are flat, thin bones that, together with the sternum, make up the ribcage.
 The ribs are bi-cephalic due two attachment sites.
 There are twelve pairs of ribs, accounting for 24 total rib bones.
 The ribs are divided into the following three categories: true ribs, false ribs, and floating
ribs.

True Ribs [1st-7th]

The first seven pairs of rib bones (beginning at the top of the sternum) are called "true ribs."
They connect to the spine (by ligaments) at the back, and connect to the sternum by costal
cartilage in the front. Costal cartilage is elastic and allows the ribcage to expand during
respiration.
False Ribs (8th, 9th and 10th) [Vertebro-chondral ribs]
The next three pairs of rib bones (8, 9 and 10) are called "false ribs." Like the true ribs, false
ribs are connected to the spine at the back. Instead of connecting to the sternum, false ribs
(which are also slightly shorter than true ribs) actually connect to the lowest true ribs (this
may be observed in the picture, above).

Floating Ribs(11 and 12

The last two pairs of ribs (11 and 12) are the smallest of all of the rib bones, and are called
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"floating ribs." They get the name "floating rib" because they are connected to the spin at
the back, but are not connected to anything at the front, thus appearing to "float."

Pectoral girdle:---------
In humans it consists of the clavicle and scapula;.

Clavicle

 The clavicle is the only long bone that lies in a horizontal position in the body. It is also
known as collar bone
 The clavicle has three regions: the medial end, the lateral end, and the shaft. The medial end,
known as the sternal end of the clavicle. Two curvatures.
 The sternoclavicular joint is indirectly supported by the costoclavicular ligament

Scapula:-----
Position=Large triangular located on the posterior side of the shoulder between 2 nd to 7th ribs.

Anatomy=
 It is flat triangular.
 It has a slightly elevated ridge called the spine.
 Acromian----Expanded process, where clavicle articulated.
 Glenoid cavity-Below acromion where head of humerus articulated..
 At the middle subscapular fossa is present----
1) Land mark of scapula.
2) Origin of sub-scapularis muscles.
3) Origin of serratus anterior muscles.
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Vertebra:

Each vertebra has a central hollow portion (neural canal) through which the spinal
cord passes.
 1st vertebra is called atlas which has two articulates to fit two occipital
condyles
 2nd vertebra is called axis with odontoid process.

Patella:--
A cup shaped bone called patella cover the knee (knee
cap)ventrally. In humans, the patella is the largest sesamoid bone (is a bone embedded within
a tendon or a muscle) in the body. Babies are born with a patella of soft cartilage which begins to

Pelvic Girdle:------

 Pelvic girdle consists of

two coxal bones (Hip
bone/ innominate).
 Each coxal bone (Hip
bone) is formed by the
fusion of three bones –
ilium, ischium and pubis.
At the point of fusion of
the above bones is a
cavity called
acetabulum to which
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the thigh bone articulates. The two halves of the pelvic girdle meet ventrally
to form the pubic symphysis containing fibrous cartilage
 Between the PUBIS and ISCHIUM obturator foramen is present.
 Subpubic angle in male less 900 and female above 900

Flat bones in the body:

1. Skull Bones---- 2. Ribs and Sternum.---24+1=25
 Occipital---1 3. Pectoral Girdle;--Scapula.--2
 Parietal.----2 4. Pelvic Girdle:--
 Frontal.---1  Ilium.---2
 Nasal.----2  Ischium.---2
 Lacrimal---2.  Pubis.---2
 Vomer.---1

Joints=-
Joints

Immovable Slightly movable

Freely movable

Ball &Socket joint Hinge joint Pivot joint Saddle joint Gliding joint.

Functional Classification of Joints:

1. Synarthrosis------Immovable joints---------Fibrous joint.
2. Amphiarthrosis------Has limited mobility.-------Fibro-cartilage joint.
3. Diarthrosis---Freely movable joint------Synovial joint.

1. Immovable ( Fibrous ) joints=-----

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The adjoining bones are joined by strong bundles of collagen fibres so that the bones
cannot move freely.
Exam----
 Bones of skull at the sutures.
 1st pair of ribs and the breast bones.

2. Slightly Movable (Cartilaginous) joints---------

In joints there is a pad of fibro-cartilage between adjoining bones, which allows for
very slight movements. This type of joint is also known as symphysis.
Example----
 Pubic symphysis of pelvic girdles.
 Between vertebrae (Intervertebral disc)----1st 24 vertebra including c-7,th-12, L-5

3. Freely movable ( Synovial) joints------

 The joint is enclosed within a capsule called
synovial capsule.
 The membrane lining capsule is called synovial
membrane, which is composed a secretory
epithelial cells secreting sticky and lubricating
synovial fluid.
 A synovial joint, also known as diarthrosis, joins
bones with a fibrous joint capsule that is continuous
with the periosteum of the joined bones, constitutes
the outer boundary of a synovial cavity, and
surrounds the bones' articulating surfaces.
 The synovial cavity/joint is filled with synovial fluid.
Acts as lubricants.Which contains hyaluronic acid,
a heteropolymer(GAG=glycosaminoglycans) ---D-
glucoronic acid + N-acetyl D-glucosamine.

Types of Synovial Joints

Synovial joints are further classified into six different categories on the basis of the shape and
structure of the joint. The shape of the joint affects the type of movement permitted by the
joint. These joints can be described as planar, hinge, pivot, condyloid, saddle, or ball-and-
socket joints .

Ball-and-Socket Joints
Ball-and-socket joints possess a rounded, ball-like end of one
bone fitting into a cup-like socket of another bone. This
organization allows the greatest range of motion, as all
movement types are possible in all directions.
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 Examples of ball-and-socket joints are the shoulder and hip joints .

Hinge Joints
In hinge joints, the slightly-rounded end of one bone fits into the slightly-hollow end of the
other bone. In this way, one bone moves while the other remains stationary, similar to the
hinge of a door.

Example----

 Elbow is an example of a hinge joint

 The knee is sometimes classified as a modified hinge joint

Pivot Joints
Pivot joints consist of the rounded end of one bone fitting into a ring formed by the other
bone. This structure allows rotational movement, as the rounded bone moves around its own
axis.

Example-----

 Pivot joint is the joint of the first (Atlas) and second vertebrae (Axis) of the neck that
allows the head to move back and forth.
 The joint of the wrist that allows the palm of the hand to be turned up and down is
also a pivot joint.

Saddle Joints
Saddle joints are characterized by two bones that fit together in a manner similar to a rider in
a saddle. This sort of articulation allows bending motion in several directions without sliding.

These are like ball and socket joint with poorly developed.

Example----

 The carpal-metacarpal joint of the thumb

Planar Joints
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Planar joints have bones with articulating surfaces that are flat or slightly curved. These joints
allow for gliding movements; therefore, the joints are sometimes referred to as gliding joints.
The range of motion is limited and does not involve rotation.

Example--------Planar joints are found in the carpal bones in the hand and the tarsal bones of
the foot, as well as between vertebrae.

Condyloid Joints
Condyloid joints consist of an oval-shaped end of one bone fitting into a similarly oval-
shaped hollow of another bone. This is also sometimes called an ellipsoidal joint. This type of
joint allows angular movement along two axes, which can move both side to side and up and
down.

Example----

The joints of the wrist and fingers

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Disorders=------
Myasthenia gravis=------
 Auto-immune disease.
 Own antibodies binds to acetyl-choline receptors.
 Rapid onset of fatigue with marked generalised weakness of muscles.
 The skeletal muscles in patients become weak and lead to paralysis.

Improve conditions with anti-cholinesterases (Neostigmine, Eserine)

Tetany=----
It is rapid spasm in muscle due to lesser Ca2+in the body fluid.
The decreased Ca++ level exerts a powerful stimulant action on neuromuscular
excitability to the extent that even a minor stimulus may lead to convulsion.
 Probable cause-----
1. The Ca++ions from ECF are believed to bind to the outer surface of
Na+channels. This binding of positively charged Ca++ alters the electrical
properties of Na-channel proteins, which determine the membrane potential
required for opening of Na+ channels.
When low Ca++level--------->lowered the membrane potential required for opening of
Na+ channels ----------> slight stimulus leads to contraction.
2. Low levels of carbon dioxide cause tetany by altering the albumin binding of
calcium such that the ionized (physiologically influencing) fraction of calcium is
reduced; one common reason for low carbon dioxide levels is hyperventilation.[4]
3. Low levels of magnesium can lead to tetany.

Symptoms of Tetany:-------

Muscular dystrophy=---
 Genetic disorder. Recessive genes are responsible, present on X-Chromoseme.
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 It is more common in male.

 Dystrophin protein is not formed. The protein connects between actin and
sarcolemma.
 Protein relays the nerve impulse from the sarcolemma to sarcoplasmic reticulum for
the release of Ca++for sliding of actin on the myosin.
Types:-
1. Duchenne childhood form:-----Starts from 4-10 years, affects the lower parts.
Only found in male.
2. Facio-scapulo numeral form:---Both sex, affects face and upper limbs.
3. Limb girdle muscular dystrophy:---Both sex, shoulders and hips are affected.

Gout=-------
 One type of arthritis.
 Inflammation of joints occurs.
 Excessive formation of uric acid which reacts to sodium to form monosodium salts.
 Normal uric acid level (4-5mg/dl)

Rheumatoid Arthritis=---
 Presence of rheumatoid factor (A type of immunoglobulin IgM).
 Synovial membrane thickness and fluid increase.
 The membrane starts secrete abnormal granules, called pannus.
 Pannus accumulates on cartilage.
 Fibrous tissues are attached to bones.
 Joints become immovable.
 Replacement of the damaged joints is recommended.

Osteoporosis=---
 Skeletal disorders.
 Loss of mineral and fibres from bones( PO4-90-95% and 5-8% Ca++)
 Decrease of sex hormone like oestrogen, prolonged treatment of cortisone, pain-
reliving drug are the main causes.