21EE1925 – Electric Vehicle Architecture – Unit III – Hybrid Vehicle Control Strategy -Notes

– Electric Vehicle Architecture

UNIT IV -HYBRID VEHICLE CONTROL STRATEGY

Vehicle supervisory control, Mode selection strategy, Modal Control

strategies.

4.1 INTRODUCTION
 The hybrid electrical vehicle power train has both Electrical power transmission
and mechanical power transmission path.
 The operating points of the vehicle power train components are determined by
the control strategy. The controller strategy is usually an algorithm.
 An optimization algorithm can be used to determine the best operating points.
 The control strategy is implemented in the vehicle supervisory controller of the
power train.
4.1.1 Need of Control Strategy:
i. To coordinate the operation of the multiple power sources and energy
converters.
ii. To manage the power flow through the electrical and mechanical transmission
paths.
iii. To ensure that the driver demand is met, while the powertrain system
efficiency is optimized.
iv. To determine when and how much of deep discharge of the Energy Storage
System will be allowed to meet a driver demand.
v. To recuperated and stored the kinetic energy in the Energy Storage System
using regenerative braking when vehicle brake commands.
vi. To Enhance power train efficiency
vii. To improve the Fuel economy,
viii. To Reduce emissions
ix. To maintain good drivability.
4.2 VEHICLE SUPERVISORY CONTROLLER
 Functions of Supervisory Control:
i. It helps the driver in case of a complicated control problem.
ii. It ensures that the driver demand is continuously and consistently
satisfied.
iii. It regulates the amount of kinetic energy should be recovered to recharge
the batteries during vehicle braking.
 Objective of the Supervisory controller is to ensure that the driver demand is
met, while the powertrain system efficiency is optimized.
 Vehicle supervisory controller is the middle order of the multi-level hierarchical
structure.
 The primary inputs to the supervisory controller are:
o Drive requests: Ignition, Gear Shifting, Acceleration , Brake
o Vehicle operating conditions: speed, Accessory power and ESS SoC

Dr. D. Silas Stephen, Panimalar Engineering College, Chennai

21EE1925 – Electric Vehicle Architecture – Unit III – Hybrid Vehicle Control Strategy -Notes

 Secondary inputs of roadway, traffic and GPS information may also be used in
more advanced supervisory control.
 The outputs of the controller are the command signals for the powertrain
components, such as electric motor or ICE torque requests, battery charging set
points and on/off commands for certain components. Battery-pack or ESS
demands are set within certain limits to extend the life of the system.
 The main control level is the driver, who uses speed and position feedback to
set the accelerator and brake pedal inputs. The control by the driver is accepted
by the supervisory controller and the controller controls the various powertrain
subsystems.
 The subsystems like the electric motor drive, energy storage device, IC engine
and starter/generator drive have their own controllers. Though the subsystems
have their own controllers, the operating set-points depend on the commands
issued by the supervisory controller.

 The control strategy in the supervisory controller is based on the feedback

signals from the control modules of the subsystem.
 The communication of the supervisory controller with the subsystems is by
using controller area network (CAN). The Supervisory controller also receives
direct inputs from sensors through A/D channels. The inputs are used not only for
the control purposes, but also be logged for performance analysis or for failure
analysis if one or more subsystem components malfunction in the vehicle.
 The driver communicates with the supervisory controller through the ignition
switch, transmission shifter, accelerator pedal and brake pedal. The driver is at
the top level of the controller who uses vehicle speed and driving condition
feedback to set the accelerator and brake pedal inputs. Once the vehicle is ready
to be driven, the pedal inputs are converted from position to driver demand.
 The supervisory controller-driver interface makes the control system transparent
by interpreting the accelerator and brake pedal depressions as
propulsion/braking power and torque requests.
 The complexity of the control strategy depends on whether the hybrid
architecture is compound, such as series-parallel or simple, such as series or
parallel.
 In simple hybrid architectures, such as in series or parallel hybrids, a one-level
algorithm is sufficient.

Dr. D. Silas Stephen, Panimalar Engineering College, Chennai

21EE1925 – Electric Vehicle Architecture – Unit III – Hybrid Vehicle Control Strategy -Notes

 In a compound hybrid architecture, the control strategy is implemented in a two-

level structure:
o Mode selection strategy
o Modal control strategy.

4.3 MODE SELECTION STRATEGY

 The mode selection strategy can be applied to only compound hybrid
architectures.
 Functions of Mode Selection Strategy:
i. To determine the powertrain mode of operation, such as series or parallel.
ii. To addresses the controls within a specific hybrid operating mode.
 Assumptions: There is one IC engine and at least two electric machines in the
powertrain of the vehicle.
4.3.1 Mode of Operation:
 The first decision to be made by the supervisory controller is the mode of
operation of the powertrain. The decision is made primarily based on the driver
demand and the vehicle speed. The torque request issued by the driver through
the acceleration pedal input is converted into a driver power demand through the
multiplication of the torque request with the vehicle speed.
 A propulsion mode is selected based on the driver power demand and the vehicle
speed.
 The possible operating modes in the hybrid vehicle are:
o Electric only
o Series
o Parallel
o Power split.
 Electric only mode: The stored energy in the battery or other ESS is used to
drive one or more of the electric drive motors for propulsion.
 Series mode: The energy stored in the fossil fuel is converted by the IC engine
to mechanical form that runs an electric generator to produce electrical energy.
The generated electricity is used by the electric drive motor to deliver traction
power to the wheels.
 Power-split mode: The IC engine provides traction power to the wheels through
both the series electrical path and the direct mechanical path. The power from
the IC engine is split through the mechanical and electrical transmission paths.
For either series or split operation, the ESS can supply or absorb power
depending on the power demand, the storage system SoC and IC engine
efficiency considerations.
 Parallel mode: The IC engine is operated up to its maximum capacity and the
electric machines are operated in the motoring mode to provide propulsion power
using stored energy from both the ESS and fossil fuel. The Power-split mode
differs from the parallel mode in that one of the electric machines is operated as a
generator.

Dr. D. Silas Stephen, Panimalar Engineering College, Chennai

21EE1925 – Electric Vehicle Architecture – Unit III – Hybrid Vehicle Control Strategy -Notes

 More mode selection can be implemented based on the powertrain components

available in the compound hybrid architecture, the relative sizes of the
components and the goal of the control strategy.
4.3.2 Mode Selection for Hybrid Operation:
 The mode selection for hybrid operation is governed by rule-based control laws.
 The Rule control laws depends on the current and past states of the vehicle
operating point, driver power demand, the vehicle speed, and the Energy Storage
System SoC.
 The rules are generated based on the operating limits of the subsystems, models
or performance maps of subsystems, designer experience and heuristics.
 The concept of ‘load- leveling’ for energy management is often used in rule-
based strategies.
 In this type of controls, one of the energy converters, such as the IC engine, is
primarily used to supply propulsion power, while a subsidiary subsystem
component, such as an electric motor, is called in to assist the IC engine to shift
the operating point of the latter to a different location of increased fuel economy
and reduced emissions.
 The rule-based strategies may be:
o Deterministic Rule-Based Methods
o Fuzzy-Rule-Based Methods

4.3.2.1 Deterministic Rule-Based Methods

 Deterministic rules are developed to determine the mode of hybrid operation and
the conditions for switching from one mode to another.
 Power follower approach is the most popular method.
 The driver input is interpreted as a power request to decide the operating mode.

Dr. D. Silas Stephen, Panimalar Engineering College, Chennai

21EE1925 – Electric Vehicle Architecture – Unit III – Hybrid Vehicle Control Strategy -Notes

 In a parallel or series-parallel hybrid vehicle, at low power demand levels only the
electric motor is used below a minimum vehicle speed. If the power demand
exceeds the minimum level, the engine turns-on.
 In a parallel hybrid, the electric motor would assist the engine only if the power
demand is greater than the maximum engine power.
 In a series-parallel or power-split architecture, the powertrain would be in a
power-split mode after the electric only mode.
 A series mode may be used between the electric only and split-mode for low
power demands.
 The parallel mode is used only at very high power demand levels. The battery
SoC is also maintained within a preset band by using the drive electric motor in
the generator mode in a pure parallel hybrid or using the generator of a series-
parallel hybrid vehicle.
 Disadvantage of the method: Overall powertrain efficiency is not optimized.
 The supervisory controller may also use a state machine to implement the mode
selection strategy. The state machine executes the transitions between the
various hybrid modes based on driver demand, vehicle speed, and subsystem
operating limits and faults etc.

4.3.2.2 Fuzzy Rule-Based Methods

 Fuzzy-logic-based mode selection strategy can be used as hybrid powertrain is a

nonlinear, multi-dimensional, time-varying plant.
 Fuzzy rules are determined based on the driver demand, vehicle speed, SoC,
component torque outputs and estimated road load as inputs.
 Advantages:
(i) Compared to a deterministic rule base is its robustness toward imprecise
measurements and parameter variations.
(ii) A well-designed fuzzy-rule base gives suboptimal performance of the powertrain
in real time.
(iii) Includes weighted parameters that can be adapted in real time depending on the
driving condition.
4.3.3 Mode selection strategies for the series parallel hybrid vehicles
Mechanical Power Split Hybrid Mode:
 The mechanically enabled power-split architecture uses a planetary or epicyclic
gear set without any driveline clutches.
 The non-shifting transmission in a planetary gear set offers continuously variable
transmission (CVT) like performance while enabling mounting of three powertrain
components in a single driveline.
 It is preferred in hybrid sedans, light trucks and SUVs.
 The mechanical power-split design offers compactness and ease of assembly
with the motor, generator and IC engine mounted in a single driveline.

Dr. D. Silas Stephen, Panimalar Engineering College, Chennai

21EE1925 – Electric Vehicle Architecture – Unit III – Hybrid Vehicle Control Strategy -Notes

 Series-parallel HEV powertrain component arrangements with a planetary

gear set:

 The planetary gear set has three gears, the ring, the sun and the planet carrier.
The output shaft of the IC engine is connected to the planet carrier of the
planetary gear set. The mechanical power is transferred to the final drive and the
wheels from the IC engine indirectly through the ring gear. There is no direct
coupling between the IC engine and the final drive. The generator is connected to
the sun gear; the motor along with the wheels is connected to the ring gear. The
IC engine power can be split and part of it be transferred to the final drive and the
wheels through the sun gear and the electrical power transmission path. The IC
engine drives the generator which either charges the battery or supplies electrical
power to the motor or does both. The generator operation develops the reaction
torque against the planet gear to which the shaft of the IC engine is coupled. The
motor can add torque to the ring gear to provide additional power to the wheels.

The generator can also be operated in the motoring mode during peak
acceleration demand to add torque to the planet gear which then gets transmitted
to the wheels through the ring gear. Both the electric machines can act either in
Dr. D. Silas Stephen, Panimalar Engineering College, Chennai
21EE1925 – Electric Vehicle Architecture – Unit III – Hybrid Vehicle Control Strategy -Notes

the motoring mode or in the generating mode. During vehicle braking, the motor
acts as a generator to capture regenerative braking energy, which is converted to
electrical energy and stored in the battery.
 The power relationship in the power-split hybrid vehicle,

Where, TP – Planet carrier torque

rr – radius of the ring gear
rs – radius of the sun gear

4.3.3.1 Modes of operation possible through the planetary gear coupling and
dual modes of the electric machines

(i) Electric Only (Low Speed, Reverse and Battery Charging)

 In this mode, the IC engine is off and the planet carrier is stationary, i.e.
 The starter/generator rotates freely under no-load condition in the reverse
direction.
 The speed relation between the starter/generator and the electric motor is:

 The electric motor supplies the traction power to the wheels being driven by the
battery energy.
 The batteries are recharged using the regeneration control strategy with the
electric machine operated in the generator mode when the vehicle is coasting or
braking and the engine turned off.

(ii) Engine Starting (Low Speeds)

 During starting, the starter/generator operates in the motoring mode and cranks
the engine.

Dr. D. Silas Stephen, Panimalar Engineering College, Chennai

21EE1925 – Electric Vehicle Architecture – Unit III – Hybrid Vehicle Control Strategy -Notes

 The motoring mode is enabled with a positive torque command while it is rotating
in the reverse direction causes the power to flow from the battery to the
starter/generator to the IC engine.
 The source of energy during engine starting is the battery.
(iii) Parallel Mode (Heavy Acceleration)
 The powertrain operates in the parallel mode for heavy acceleration which is
needed when the vehicle is launched.
 The starter/generator and motor both assist the IC engine using battery power.
The starter/generator power,
 The sun gear rotates in the reverse direction, i.e., counter-clockwise looking into
the generator shaft from the gear, which makes Psun to ring < 0.
 The reverse rotation of the sun gear increases IC engine torque enabling the
starter/generator to deliver motoring torque to the final drive.
 The starter/generator input is electrical power from the battery.

(iv)Power-Split Mode (Cruise, Light Acceleration)

 The IC engine power is split between the starter/generator and the motor shaft.
 The motor adds more torque to the differential input shaft of the final drive and
assists the engine.
 At the same time, some engine power may be diverted to the sun gear to run the
starter/generator in the generating mode to charge the battery.
 The starter/generator is rotating in the forward direction.
 The IC engine power flow to the starter/generator, and hence to the battery,
 is regulated by controlling the IC engine speed, since the percentage of engine
torque transferred to the starter/generator is mechanically fixed.
 The battery power required determines the starter/generator current, which is
turn, sets the starter/generator torque.

Dr. D. Silas Stephen, Panimalar Engineering College, Chennai

21EE1925 – Electric Vehicle Architecture – Unit III – Hybrid Vehicle Control Strategy -Notes

(v) Engine Brake Mode (Driver Selectable Mode)

 The IC engine is idling and absorbs some power during the Engine Brake Mode
 The motor is rotating freely (Imotor = 0).
 The starter/generator rotates in the reverse direction and generating.

(vi)Regeneration Mode (Vehicle Braking)

 The generator rotates freely (Ig = 0).
 The motor is being driven by the kinetic energy of the vehicle and is regenerating
delivering energy to the battery.

Dr. D. Silas Stephen, Panimalar Engineering College, Chennai

21EE1925 – Electric Vehicle Architecture – Unit III – Hybrid Vehicle Control Strategy -Notes

4.3.3.2 Modes of operation possible in a series-parallel 2 × 2 architecture

 The series-parallel 2 × 2 architecture is an electronically controlled power-split

architecture.
 The IC engine is coupled to the front wheels through a clutch and transmission
while the starter/generator is coupled to an output shaft of the IC engine. The
electric motor powers the rear wheels providing a four-wheel drive capability.
 The advantage of the architecture is great flexibility in the modes of operation of
the hybrid electric vehicle.

(i) Electric Only (Low Speed, Reverse and Battery Charging)

 During the Electric only mode, the rear electric motor is used by keeping the IC
Engine and the clutch engaged.

Dr. D. Silas Stephen, Panimalar Engineering College, Chennai

21EE1925 – Electric Vehicle Architecture – Unit III – Hybrid Vehicle Control Strategy -Notes

 The stored energy in the battery or any other type of storage device is used to
power the electric motor which supplies traction power to the rear wheels through
the rear differential.
 The batteries are recharged using the regeneration control strategy by operating
the electric motor in the generator mode when the vehicle is coasting or braking
and the engine turned off.
(ii) Series Mode (Lower Speeds)
 The vehicle is operated in the Series mode, when the driver power demand is
relatively low.
 The Vehicle is operated within the limitations of the electric generator especially
in urban driving conditions.
 The total IC engine torque is delivered to the generator which supplies the
electric motor with the storage system acting as the buffer.
 The electric motor delivers traction power to the rear wheels.
 The transmission is held in neutral in the series mode.
(iii) Power-Split Mode (Cruise, Light Acceleration)
 In the series mode, when the speed is above the threshold limit or the power
requested is more than that can be provided, the clutch is engaged and the IC
engine provides propulsion power through the transmission.
 The speed of the IC Engine is set by the power-split control mode algorithm.
 Power from the IC engine is delivered to the front wheels and the rear wheels
through the mechanical transmission path and the electrical transmission paths.
 This power-split operation mode which uses both the electrical motors is similar
to the mechanical power-split that has a planetary gear set.
 The power-split ratio between the mechanical and electrical transmissions can be
arbitrarily chosen by the generator loading in contrast to the mechanical power-
split hybrid.
 The power-split proportions may be chosen to optimize ESS usage and to
maintain a desirable front-to-rear traction force ratio, subject to transient
smoothing considerations.
(iv) Parallel Mode (Heavy Acceleration)
 The vehicle is operated in the parallel mode, when the driver power demand is
relatively high.
 The IC engine and the two electric machines all work in parallel to deliver traction
power to the wheels.
 The electric generator is operated in the motoring mode.
 the IC engine and electric generator torque blended at the IC engine-generator
coupling is delivered to the front wheels.
 The electric motor also supplies power to the rear wheel.
 The energy for both the electric machines comes from the Energy Storage
System. As it is a charge depleting operation, it is not suitable for long drives.
 This mode is used to boost when heavy acceleration demand exists.

Dr. D. Silas Stephen, Panimalar Engineering College, Chennai

21EE1925 – Electric Vehicle Architecture – Unit III – Hybrid Vehicle Control Strategy -Notes

4.4 MODAL CONTROL STRATEGIES

 Modal Control Strategy:
Objective: To satisfy the demand using the driver demand and system feedback
inputs
Constraints:
i. Optimizing the driveline system efficiency and
ii. minimizing the emissions
iii. energy storage SOC is also maintained within a preset band.
 The control laws of the strategy determine the best reference torques for the
energy converters and the best gear ratio for the transmission. The control laws
are based on an optimization algorithm where a cost function representing fuel
economy, emissions, motor efficiency, or battery life is minimized.
 A global optimization to achieve the best fuel efficiency depends on a priori
knowledge of power demand and driving conditions, which is only possible in
simulation. A global optimization based on fixed driving cycles can be used to
determine the rules for real-time power flow management.
 In real driving scenarios, a real-time optimization-based control strategy can be
developed
 An instantaneous cost function defined in terms of real-time variables is used for
such an optimization strategy.
 The powertrain subsystems place constraints on the maximum continuous and
peak power that the can be provided in the series, parallel and power-split
modes.
 The modal control algorithms share common calculations to determine the
maximum power that the IC engine, motor and generator can provide. The
calculations are based on the device ratings, temperature, DC-link bus voltage,
vehicle speed and other parameters that determine the limits on the operating
points for each subsystem.
 Series, parallel and power-split modes require different control algorithms and the
optimization technique is also different for different modal control strategies.
4.4.1 Series Control
 In a series hybrid or in the series mode of a multi-mode hybrid, the electric motor
provides all of the traction power demand measured off of the accelerator pedal.
 The objective in the series mode is to maintain the IC engine speed and torque at
the most efficient operating point.
 The IC engine, the generator and the ESS must ensure that sufficient electrical
power is available for the electric motor at all times to meet the driver demand.
 In urban driving, the power demand varies greatly due to variations in vehicle
speed and frequent start/stop operation; the hybrid electric vehicle undergoes a
highly variable battery discharge/charge profile.
 The average power required by the motor is relatively low, compared to the peak
transient power requirements during the peak acceleration demands.

Dr. D. Silas Stephen, Panimalar Engineering College, Chennai

21EE1925 – Electric Vehicle Architecture – Unit III – Hybrid Vehicle Control Strategy -Notes

 The IC engine is buffered from the vehicle load variations by a passive control
algorithm of the ESS charge which is independent of the active vehicle
powertrain control. The ESS control is based on an on/off control method, which
is also known as thermostat control of the IC engine.
 The criterion for on-off control can be set by the SoC limits of the battery. The
maximum and minimum SoC limits are set such that the driver demand can be
met by the electric motor at all times.
 The thermostat control of the engine to maintain the SoC within specified limits
4.4.2 Parallel Control
 The parallel mode control algorithm delivers power to wheels through both the
electric machine and the IC engine to meet the driver demand.
 The torque from the two devices may be blended before being delivered to a set
of wheels or could be separately delivered to the front and rear wheels.
 In either case, the control algorithm must additionally ensure that the energy
storage SoC is maintained within a band and a compromise operating point
between fuel efficiency and tailpipe emissions is selected for the IC engine.
 The IC engine operating speed is matched with the vehicle speed through the
transmission gear ratio. The transmission gear shifting strategy is an essential
component in the parallel control strategy. Following the gear selection, the
control strategy determines the torque commands for the engine and the electric
motor to meet the driver demand and manage the energy storage. The goal of
the shifting strategy is to match the vehicle speed with the IC engine speed at its
best operating region.
 In an IC engine powertrain, the regions of higher IC engine efficiency in the
engine power-vehicle speed plane are smaller for lower gears than it is for higher
gears. A qualitative plot showing regions of higher engine efficiency operation
reflected through each gear ratio as a function of vehicle speed.

The plot shows that the overlap regions decrease significantly for lower gears,
which makes it more difficult to prevent frequent shifting at lower vehicle speeds.

Dr. D. Silas Stephen, Panimalar Engineering College, Chennai

 21EE1925 – Electric Vehicle Architecture – Unit III – Hybrid Vehicle Control Strategy -Notes

A sufficiently large hysteresis band even at the cost of sacrificing efficiency is

needed at lower speeds to prevent frequent shifting for acceptable drivability. At
higher vehicle speeds, the larger hysteresis band poses much less of a problem
since there is a lot of overlap. The road-load characteristic for a zero percent
grade roadway is shown in the figure to emphasize that engine efficiency has to
be sacrificed at lower speeds.
 The IC engine and the electric motor have their own high efficiency operating
regions. In parallel hybrid vehicle, the vehicle will operate in electric only mode
for very low speeds and low power. The IC engine alone is used for propulsion
above the minimum power demand level in most parallel control strategies.
When the power demand exceeds the capacity of the IC engine, the electric
motor is called in to assist the IC engine in the pure parallel mode. In the
parallel mode, there is not much of an opportunity to optimize the algorithm for
fuel efficient operation, since the operating region of the IC engine is set by the
vehicle speed and transmission gear, while the electric motor speed is directly
related to vehicle speed. In a series-parallel hybrid vehicle, the parallel mode of
operation can be used as the boost mode for the vehicle where meeting the
high power demand becomes critical.
4.4.3 Series- Parallel Control
 The series-parallel architecture has two electric machines and an IC engine; the
power flow can be through the series path, the parallel path or the combination
of the two, which is known as the power-split path.
 The various power flow path options available in this architecture makes the
control strategy design complicated, but at the same time, it provides the
flexibility to choose one or more of the available power flow paths to maximize
the vehicle efficiency for the given driving condition.
 The series-parallel architecture with a power-split path can be implemented
using a mechanical device coupling or through electronic coupling of the
powertrain components.
 The types of Control Strategies used in Series Parallel Control are:
 Mechanical Power-Split IC Engine Control
 Series-Parallel 2 2 Control
4.4.3.1 Mechanical Power-Split IC Engine Control
 In the mechanical power split IC Engine Control the fuel flow rate is determined
by the power requirement, which corresponds to the accelerator pedal input.
 The load torque can be controlled by the generator through its torque control.
 The control equation is:

Where, Igen is the Starter / Generator Command

Tgen is the generator Torque
Tp is the Engine Torque

Dr. D. Silas Stephen, Panimalar Engineering College, Chennai

21EE1925 – Electric Vehicle Architecture – Unit III – Hybrid Vehicle Control Strategy -Notes

 The feedback control system that can be used to keep the IC engine operating
along the set of optimal is:

 The IC engine speed and torque are maintained at the desired best operating
points by controlling the starter/generator current. The power demand translated
from the accelerator pedal input is used to control the fuel flow rate.
4.4.3.2 Series-Parallel 2 2 Control
 In the hybrid architecture shown in Figure 15.9, the electric generator is coupled
to the IC engine through a fixed gear-ratio, while the electric motor is coupled to
the wheels through another fixed gear ratio.
 The torque relationships between the powertrain components are derived based
on the electric generator and motor speeds reflected to the IC engine side
through these fixed gear ratios.
 The speed relationships when the transmission gear is engaged are:

Where, is the speed of the electric generator

is the speed of the IC Enginer
is the speed of the motor
is the drive speed
is the transmission gear ratio.
 The IC engine set point is determined by the vehicle speed and the
transmission gear ratio.
 The IC Engine control strategy is shown in figure. The proportions of torque
delivered to the wheels in the power-split mode through the mechanical and
electrical power transmission path may be arbitrarily determined by the
generator loading. The proportions for power split and torque split are equal. In
the extreme cases of power-split mode, the vehicle operation reverts to using
only the mechanical power transmission path or the electrical power
transmission path. When the generator torque command is zero, i.e., Tgen = 0,
the IC engine alone delivers traction power to the wheels; when the IC engine is

Dr. D. Silas Stephen, Panimalar Engineering College, Chennai

21EE1925 – Electric Vehicle Architecture – Unit III – Hybrid Vehicle Control Strategy -Notes

loading only the generator, i.e. Tgen = TICE, the vehicle is in the series operation
mode, and the transmission can be disengaged.

IC Engine control strategy for Series Parallel 2 x 2 hybrid vehicle

Dr. D. Silas Stephen, Panimalar Engineering College, Chennai