CH3702 Transport Phenomena 2024-2025

CH3702 TRANSPORT PHENOMENA

UNIT 1
MOMENTUM TRANSPORT
PART – A (Questions & Answers)

C401.1 Students would gain the basic knowledge of fundamental connections between the
conservation laws in heat, mass, and momentum in terms of vector and tensor fluxes.

1. What is Transport Phenomena?

Transport Phenomena is the subject which deals with the movement of different physical
quantities in any chemical or mechanical process and describes the basic principles and laws of
transport. It also describes the relations and similarities among different types of transport that
may occur in any system.
A treatment of the media in which Momentum Transport, Energy Transport and mass transport
are occurring as continua with less importance given to the molecular explanation of these
processes can be termed as Transport Phenomena

2. Write the classification of transport process?

Transport in a chemical or mechanical process can be classified into three types:
Momentum transport deals with the transport of momentum in fluids and is also known as fluid
dynamics.
Energy transport deals with the transport of different forms of energy in a system and is also
known as heat transfer.
Mass transport deals with the transport of various chemical species themselves.

3. What is meant by No slip condition? (NOV 2015)

In fluid dynamics, the no-slip condition for viscous fluids states that at a solid boundary, the fluid
will have zero velocity relative to the boundary. The fluid velocity at all fluid–solid boundaries
is equal to that of the solid boundary.

4. What are the three different types of physical quantities are used in transport phenomena?
Three different types of physical quantities are used in transport phenomena are,
Scalars (e.g. temperature, pressure and concentration)
Vectors (e.g. velocity, momentum and force) and
Second order tensors (e.g. stress or momentum flux and velocity gradient).
It is essential to have a primary knowledge of the mathematical operations of scalar, vector and
tensor quantities for solving the problems of transport phenomena.

5. What is Momentum Transport?

Momentum transport deals with the transport of momentum which is responsible for flow in
fluids. Momentum transport describes the science of fluid flow also called fluid dynamics.

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6. Explain the analogous nature of the different divisions of Transport Phenomena.(NOV

2015)
All the three transfer operations, Momentum Transport, Energy Transport and Mass Transport
are governed by the rate law similar to the Electrical energy transmission:
Rate = Driving Force / Resistance;
The different terms in the above phenomena are as given in the table below
Phenomenon Rate Driving Force Resistance
Electrical Energy Current density Potential Difference Impedance
Momentum Transport Momentum Flux Velocity Gradient Viscous resistance
Energy Transport Heat Flux Temperature [1/ Heat Transfer
Difference Coefficient] or 1/ k
Mass Transfer Mass Flux Concentration 1 / Diffusivity
Difference

7. Write Newton’s law of viscosity. [Nov/Dec 2011][Nov 2013] [May/June 2012]

The relationship between shear stress and the velocity gradient is given by:
 yx = - µ [d v x / dy ].
This shows that there is a linear relationship between shear stress and the velocity gradient. This
is called the Newton’s law of viscosity. The proportionality factor µ is called the viscosity of the
fluid and this law obeying fluids are Newtonian.

8. Define Newtonian Fluids.

A fluid which obeys Newton’s law of Viscosity is called Newtonian Fluid. The relationship
between shear stress and the velocity gradient is given by:
 yx = - µ [d v x / dy ].
This shows that there is a linear relationship between shear stress and the velocity gradient

9. What is non-Newtonian fluids? Which types of substance exhibit this behavior (NOV 2017)
(NOV 2018)
A fluid which does not obeys Newton’s law of Viscosity is called non-Newtonian Fluid. For
these fluids, the steady state behavior can be expressed by a generalized form:
 yx = -  [d v x / dy ]
Where,  may be expressed as a function of either [d v x / dy ] or  yx.
Type of substance that exhibit non Newtonian behavior are molten polymers
ketchup, custard, toothpaste, starch suspensions, honey, paint, blood, and shampoo.

10. Define thermal conductivity.

The rate at which heat passes through a specified material, expressed as the amount of heat that
flows per unit time through a unit area with a temperature gradient of one degree per unit distance.
For thermal conductivity, K, the unit is W/m.K.

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11. What is a pseudo plastic fluid?

For the pseudo plastic fluid steady state behavior of fluids can be expressed by a generalized
form
 yx=-[dv x/dy ]
where  may be expressed as a function of either [d v x/dy] or  yx. The flow regions in which 
decreases with increasing rate of shear stress - [d v x / dy ] the behavior is termed pseudoplastic

12. List some models to characterize non-Newtonian fluids.

 Bingham model
 Power law model {Oswald-de Waale model}
 Eyring model
 The Ellis model
 The Reiner-Philippoff model

13. What is difference between pseudo plastic and dilatant fluids?

The steady state behavior of most fluids can be expressed by a generalized form
 yx = -  [d v x / dy ]
where  may be expressed as a function of either [d v x / dy ] or  yx.
The flow regions in which  decreases with increasing rate of shear stress - [d v x / dy ] the
behavior is termed pseudo plastic.
The flow regions in which  increases with increasing rate of shear stress - [d v x / dy ] the
behavior is termed dilatant.

14. What is Bingham plastics?

A Bingham plastic is a viscoelastic material that behaves as a rigid body at low stresses but flows
as a viscous fluid at high stress
The Bingham model is given by:
 yx = - µ [d v x / dy ] + 0 if | yx | >  o and [d v x / dy ] = 0 if | yx | <  o.
A Substance that follows this above two parameter model is called Bingham Plastic which
remains rigid when the shear stress is of smaller magnitude than the yield stress o but flows
somewhat like a Newtonian fluid when the shear stress exceeds o .

15. Compare Newton’s law of viscosity with fourier law of heat conduction?
S.No Types of transfer Heat Momentum
1 Driving Force Temperature difference Velocity difference
2 Flux equation Jh= -K (dT/dx) Jm =-µ(dVx/dy)
3 Phenomenological Thermal coefficient Dynamic Viscosity
coefficient
4 Unit of Flux J/m2 s Kgm/s/m2 s
5 Governing law Fourier law of heat Newton’s law of
conduction viscosity
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16. Define absolute Viscosity

According to Newton’s Law of Viscosity a plot of  yx versus - [d v x / dy ] for a given fluid
should give a straight line passing through the origin and the slope of this line is called the
viscosity of the fluid at the given temperature and pressure. The proportionality constant ‘µ’ is
called absolute viscosity or dynamic viscosity of the fluid. All the industrially important
materials that do not obey the Newtons’ Law of viscosity are termed as non-Newtonian fluids.

17. What is meant by Thixotrophic and Rheopectic fluids?

The steady state behavior of most fluids can be expressed by a generalized form
 yx = -  [d v x / dy ]
Where  may be expressed as a function of either [d v x / dy ] or  yx.
Fluids that show a limited decrease in η with time under suddenly applied constant stress are
called Thixotrophic.
Fluids show an increase in η with time are called Rheopectic.

18. State Fourier’s Law.

Fourier’s Law states that if two plane parallel surfaces each having an area A are separated by a
distance, x, and are maintained at temperature T1 and T2 respectively, the rate of heat conduction
Q at steady state through the wall is given by,
dT
Q  kA
i. dx
Where k is called the thermal conductivity of the solid and is assumed to be constant throughout
the wall.

19. What is the effect of temperature on the thermal conductivity of gases and liquids? (MAY
2016)
 Thermal conductivity of the gases and liquids increases with the increase in temperature.
 Thermal conductivity of the metal decreases with the increase in temperature.
 Thermal conductivity of the liquids is more than the gasses and the metals have the
highest.
 Thermal conductivity is affected by the phase change and chemical composition.

20. State Fick’s first law of diffusion.

The molar flux of a species relative to an observer moving with molar average velocity is
proportional to the concentration gradient in a certain direction.

Where, JA is the molar flux of component A in the Z direction. CA is the concentration of A and
Z is the distance of diffusion. The proportionality constant, DAB is the diffusion coefficient of the
molecule A in B. This is valid only at steady state condition of diffusion.
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21. How do the viscosities of liquids and low density gases depend on temperature? [Dec 2012]
[Nov 2014]
The viscosity of gases at low density increases with increasing temperature, whereas the viscosity
of a liquid decreases with increasing temperature.

22. Write the approximate range of thermal conductivities of solids, liquids and gas.(Nov 2015)
Solids: The thermal conductivity of metals varies from 2.3 to 420 W/m.K. The best conductor is
silver (k=420 W/m K); followed by red copper (395); gold (302); aluminum (210); Ice: 2; Lead
= 35.3;
Liquids: Alcohols and Oils: 0.1-0.21; Water (liquid): 0.6 W/m K;
Gas: 0.23 – 0.26 W/m K

23. What is the effect of temperature and temperature in diffusivity of gases?

Effect of temperature:
The diffusion coefficient D is a function of both temperature and pressure.
Diffusion increases with increasing temperature (as molecules move more rapidly) DAB α T.
Effect of pressure:
Pressure dependence of diffusivity is given by DAB α 1/P decreases with increasing pressure
(which packs more molecules in a given volume, making it harder for them to move).

PART – B

1. Write an account of what you understand by Transport Phenomena, highlighting the unified
approach adopted for all the three transfer operations.

2. Compute the mean molecular velocity and the mean free path of O2 at 1 atm. And
273.20K.Assume d=3.00A. What is the ratio of the mean free path to the molecular diameter in
this situation? [NOV/DEC 2017]

3. Two ducts A and B containing water are connected to an inclined manometer as shown in the
fig. Duct B is at a constant pressure of 6psi.Calculte the new manometer reading along the
inclined tube if the pressure in duct A is increased by 10 psi . [NOV/DEC 2017]

4. Estimate the viscosity of N2 at 50oC and 854 atm, given M= 28 g/g mole, Pc =33.5atm,Tc=
126.2K [NOV 2018]

5. Write an account on the Phenomenological laws of Transport properties of fluids. [May 2013][
NOV 2018]

6. Develop the concept of Viscosity for the Newtonian Fluids and the corresponding rheological
property terms for the Newtonian fluids. [May 2016]

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7. Write Short Notes on: a) Newtonian Fluids, b) Bingham plastics, c) Oswald Dewaale Model,
d) The Ellis model, e) The Reiner-Philippof model.[Nov 2013]

8. Explain molecular theory of viscosity of gases at low density? [Dec 2015][May 2016][NOV
2018]

9. Discuss in detail about the laws of conservation of momentum, energy and mass for engineering
flow

10. Discuss in detail the effect of temperature and pressure on the thermal conductivity of a material
[Nov 2013]

11. (i)Estimate DAB for a dilute solution of TNT (2,4,6 trinitrotoluene) in Benzene at 150C. [TNT-
Component A, Benzene Component B) Given data  = 0.705 CP;(for solution considered as
pure Benzene),VA=140 CC/Gm mole for TNT, B =1.0 for benzene, MB = 78.11 for C6H6
(ii) Compute the viscosity of CO2 at 300 K and 1 atm pressure
Given:  / R= 190 K;  = 3.996 Ao and  = 1.286

12. Write briefly on the theory of viscosity of liquids

13. Describe the phenomenological equations for momentum, heat and mass transfer.

UNIT –II
ENERGY TRANSPORT
PART – A (Questions & Answers)

C401.2 Students would gain the sound knowledge of fundamental connections between the
conservation laws in momentum and its application

1. Write down shell momentum balance equation.

Shell momentum balance over a small imaginary three dimensional element fixed in the flowing
fluid space is given by:
[rate of momentum in]–[ rate of momentum out]+[sum of the forces acting on the element] = 0
Momentum may enter or leave by convective as well as molecular transport

2. Compare Newton’s law of viscosity with Hooke’s law of elasticity.

Newton’s law of viscous deformation deals with deformation of fluids which is subjected to a
load. As load is removed, the fluid does not recover its original shape. It is time dependent
deformation. Newton’ law state that shears stress is proportional to shear strain. Hooke’s law of
elasticity deals with deformation in solids which are subjected to a load. As load is removed, the
solid recovers its original shape instantaneously. It is not time dependent deformation. Hooke’s
law states that stress is proportional to strain.

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3. What is meant by Shell mass Balance?

This is the process of assuming a cylindrical differential shell in a flow system and making the
balance of mass in the differential volume to get differential equation.
{Rate of mass in} – {rate of mass out} = {rate of mass accumulation}

4. Define Hooke’s law of elasticity?

It states that within the limit of elasticity, the stress induced (σ ) in the solid due to some external
force is always in proportion with the strain (ε ). In other words the force causing stress in a
solid is directly proportional to the solid's deformation.

5. Write the general mass and momentum balance equations.

The general mass balance equation:
{Rate of mass in} – {rate of mass out} = {rate of mass accumulation}
The general momentum balance equation:
[Rate of momentum in] – [rate of momentum out] + [sum of the forces acting on the
system] = {rate of momentum accumulation}

6. Define compressible and incompressible fluids?

A compressible fluid is one fluid for which the density varies with temperature and pressure. All
gases are generally compressible fluids. An in compressible fluid is one that does not vary in
volume with pressure with temperature being constant. All liquids may be stated as examples of
incompressible fluids.

7. What are the forces which are encountered in fluid systems?

Body force: A body force depends on the mass and acts on the whole volume of the system.
The most common example of a body force is the force due to gravity.
Surface force: A surface force does not depend on the mass of the system but rather acts on
surfaces and is therefore proportional to the area of the surface. Surface forces may be further
classified into two types:
a. Pressure forces
b. Shear force (due to deformation of the fluid or velocity gradients)

8. State the equation of continuity

( / t) = - [(vx )/x + (vY )/y + (vZ ) / z ] and in the vector notation
( / t) = - (.  v) and can also be written in terms of the substantial time derivative as:
(D /D t) = -  ( . v) Where  is called the divergence given by [/x + /y +  / z]

9. What is the physical significance of equation of continuity?

The equation of continuity in the form of substantial time derivative as given by
(D /D t) = -  (. v)
and it describes the rate of change of density as seen by an observer floating along the stream.
But the equation of continuity in any form is simply a statement of conservation of mass
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10. .What is hydraulic radius?

Hydraulic radius is given by ‘rh‘= flow area / wetted perimeter
In the case of a circular pipe it is given as ‘rh‘ = Cross sectional area of the pipe / Circumference
of the pipe i. e.(*D2/4)/(*D) = D/4; The equivalent diameter is given by De = 4 * (‘rh‘ ) = D
(Diameter of the pipe). In the case of a square duct of side ‘a’ the hydraulic radius ‘rh‘ = a2 / (4*a)
= a / 4 and the Equivalent diameter De = a

11. Define Poiseuille flow.(NOV/DEC 2017)

Poiseuille flow is pressure-induced flow (Channel Flow) in a long duct, usually a pipe. It is
assumed that there is Laminar Flow of an incompressible Newtonian Fluid of viscosity µ
induced by a constant positive pressure difference or pressure drop Δp in a pipe of length L and
radius R << L.

12. Define Nusselts number.

Nusselts number is basically a dimensionless temperature gradient averaged over the heat
transfer surface, given by: h D / k
where h is the heat transfer coefficient, D is the dimension of the tube and k is the thermal
conductivity of the fluid.

13. Contrast the radial dependence of shear stress for the laminar flow of a Newtonian liquid
in a tube and in an annulus.
The radial dependence of the shear stress for the laminar flow of a Newtonian liquid in a tube is
expressed as follows:

The radial dependence of the shear stress for the laminar flow of a Newtonian liquid in an
annulus is expressed as follows:

r = λ R is the point at which the velocity is maximum and the shear stress is zero.

14. What are the ranges of Reynolds number for flow through a Pipe?
 Laminar flow: Re < 2100
 Transition Region: 2100<Re< 4000
 Turbulent flow: Re > 4000
 Fully developed turbulent flow is said to prevail for Re >10000

15. Write down the Equation of Continuity in rectangular and cylindrical co-ordinates.
(ρv ) ∂(ρvy) (ρv )
Rectangular co-ordinates (x,y,z) : ∂ρ + ∂ x + + ∂ z =o
∂t ∂X ∂y ∂z
(ρvz)
Cylindrical co-ordinates (r,  ,z): ∂ρ + (1 ) ∂(ρrvr) + (1) ∂(ρv) + ∂ =o
∂t r ∂r r ∂ ∂z

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16. What is Hagen-Poisceulle Equation and when is it used? (DEC 2015) (MAY 2016)
The volumetric flow rate ‘Q’ of a Newtonian fluid flowing through a circular pipe is given by
the equation
Q =  (P0 –PL) R4 / (8 L)
This famous result is known as Hagen-Poiseuille Law. This is applicable only when the fluid
flowing under Laminar Flow conditions.

17. Write the assumption in Flow through circular tube

Flow of fluids through a circular tube is a common problem, encountered frequently in different
fields of engineering.
Assumptions
 Fluid density and viscosity are constants.
 System is in steady state.
 Laminar flow (simple shear flow).
 Newton's law of viscosity is applicable.
 Fully developed flow.

18. Write the assumption in Falling film on an inclined flat surface

Assumptions
 Constant density, viscosity
 Steady state
 Laminar flow (simple shear flow)
 Fully developed flow
 Newton's law of viscosity is applicable

19. Write the Boundary condition in Laminar flow in a narrow slit

Fluid is flowing in the z direction due to both gravity and pressure difference. Therefore, vz is
the only important velocity component.
 At x=0, the velocity profile must be symmetric. Therefore,

 At x=B, no slip boundary condition is applicable. Thus,

20. What is annular flow with inner cylinder moving axially?

In a wire coating machine, a wire of radius kR is moving into a cylindrical hollow die. The
radius of the die is R , and the wire is moving with a velocity v0 along the axis. The die is filled
with a Newtonian fluid, a coating material. The pressure at both ends of the die is same.

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PART – B

1. Derive the momentum flux and velocity distribution equations for a fluid flowing through an
annulus of inner radius ‘KR’, outer radius ‘R’ and Length ‘L’. The density of the fluid is
constant and the flow is steady and laminar.

2. Calculate the required torque in N-m and the power consumption in horse power to turn the
shaft in the friction bearing, The length of bearing surface on the shaft is 5.08cm, that the
shaft is turning at 200rpm,That the viscosity of the lubricant is 200cp and that the fluid density
is 243.8 kg/m3 . Inner radius= 2.54 X 10-2 m, outer radius is 0.02545m.

3. Derive the expression for flow of falling film with variable viscosity ie. µ = µ 0 𝛿𝑒−𝖺𝑥. Show
that the average velocity given by Vz = ρ.g.𝞭2.cosβ / µ 0[e𝖺(1/𝖺 -2/𝖺2 + 2/𝖺3) ]- 2/𝖺3
[NOV/DEC 2017]

4.
Derive the equation for steady state laminar flow inside the annulus between two concentric
horizontal pipes.This type of flow occurs in concentric pipe exchangers.

5. A glass rod of diameter 1.3mm is 1m long. One end is maintained at normal boiling point of
toluene at 110.60C.The other end is fixed to a block of ice. The thermal conduction along the
rod is steady state.The heat of fusion of ice is 79.7cal/gm, thermal conductivity for glass =
0.86W/m.K .Assume no heat loss from the exposed surface of rod. Find i)Amount of heat
transferred in watt. ii) No of grams of ice that melt in 30 mins.

6. A fluid with constant viscosity and density flows along an inclined flat surface under the
influence of gravity with no ripples. Derive the equations for momentum flux and velocity
distribution. The film thickness is measured away from the wall. (that is, x=0 at the wall and
x=  at the edge of the film) Mention all your assumptions

7. A fluid is flowing through a circular tube of length ‘L’ and radius ‘R’. Viscosity and density
are constant. The flow is laminar. Derive an equation for Hagen-Poiseuille. Indicate all the
assumptions you have made

8. A viscous fluid is in laminar flow in a slit formed by two parallel walls with a distance 2B
apart. The wall length is ‘L’ and width is ‘ W ’. Make a differential momentum balance and
obtain the expression for volumetric rate of flow for the slit.

9. A horizontal annulus is 8 m long. The outside radius of inner cylinder is 1.25 cm. A 60%
aqueous solution of sucrose is to be pumped through the annulus at 200C. At this temperature
the fluid density is 1.4 gm/cm3 and its viscosity is 55CP. What is the volumetric rate of flow
when the impressed pressure drop is 0.4 x 105 N/m2.

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10. Derive the equation for shear stress distribution and velocity distribution fot the flow of a
falling film on an inclined flat plate. Derive the maximum velocity, average velocity,
thickness of the film and the force acting on the flat surface by shell balance method?

11. Derive the equation for shear stress and velocity distribution for the flow of viscous fluid
through a circular pipes by the application of Navier stokes equation? b) Also obtain the
equations for the maximum velocity, average velocity and mass rate of flow?

12. Two immiscible incompressible fluids are flowing in the z direction in a horizontal slit of
length ‘L’ and width ‘W’ under the influence of pressure gradient. The fluid flow rates are so
adjusted than the slit is half filled with fluid I and half filled with fluid II. Find out the velocity
profile and volumetric flow rate.

13. Derive the Buckingham-Reiner equation for Bingham flow in a circular tube.

UNIT III
MASS TRANSPORT
PART – A (Questions & Answers)

C401.3 Students would gain the knowledge of conservation laws in heat transport and its
application

1. Differentiate between natural convection and forced convection. [May / June 2012]
Forced Convection Heat Transfer Free Convection Heat Transfer.
1. The flow patterns are determined primarily by 1. The flow patterns are determined
some external force by the buoyant effect of the heated
fluid
2. First the velocity profiles are determined and 2. The velocity profiles and the
then these are used to find the temperature temperature profiles are intimately
profiles. connected.
3. The Nusselts number is dependant on the 3. The Nusselts number is dependant
Reynolds number and Prandtl number. on the Grashoff number and Prandtl
number.

2. Define Prandtl number?

A simple semi empirical method of handling energy exchange in polyatomic gases was
developed by Euchen. His eqn. For thermal conductivity of a polyatomic gas at low density is
k = [Cp + (5/4)(R/M)] µ.
This gives a simple method of estimating the
Prandtl number Pr = Cp µ / k
a dimension less quantity of importance in convective heat transfer.

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3. Define Sherwood number.

Sherwood number:
Sh = [kc D / Dv]
Where kc is the individual mass transfer coefficient, D is the linear dimension and Dv is the
volumetric diffusivity.

4. What is Brinkman number

Brinkman number is given by
Br = [µ V2 / k (Tb – T0)]
It is a measure of the extent to which viscous heating is important relative to the heat flow
resulting from the impressed temperature difference (Tb – T0). It is visualized as the ratio of heat
production by viscous dissipation and heat transport by conduction.

5. What are the dimensionless numbers that characterize free convection?

Prandtl number
Pr = [Cp µ / k] and
Grashoff number
Gr = [L3 2 g T / µ2]

6. Compare thermal resistances in series and the electrical resistances in series.

Both thermal resistances and electrical resistances behave similarly.
If R1; R2 & R3 are three electrical resistances in series the effective resistance is their sum R1+
R2 + R3 similarly the thermal resistances r1; r2 and r3
If they are in series as in the case of multilayered insulation walls of furnace, the effective
resistance is their summation r1+ r2 + r3

7. Name the different heat sources.

The different heat sources may be listed as follows:
 Electrical
 Nuclear
 Viscous
 Chemical

8. Define Prandtl mixing length.

Prandtl had developed an expression for momentum flux in a fluid by assuming that eddies move
around in the fluid very much like molecules move about in a gas. In this the mixing length
plays a role roughly analogous to that of the mean free path in gas kinetic theory. This leads to
the relation:
 yx(t )= - l2 | (dvx /dy) | (dvx /dy)
This mixing length ‘l’ is also a function of position.

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9. Write the assumptions in Heat conduction through a composite wall.

Assumptions
 System is in steady state.
 Thermal conductivity for both walls, K0 , and K1 are constants.
 System follows Fourier’s law of heat conduction.
 Heat loss from side walls in direction of y and z are negligible.

10. Write the assumptions in Heat transfer in a cylindrical shell.

Assumptions
 System is in steady state.
 Thermal conductivity, k, is constant.
 System follows Fourier’s law of heat conduction.
 Heat loss in axial direction is negligible.

11. Write the rate of heat transfer through cylindrical shell.

A cylindrical shell of inner radius R1, outer radius R2, and length L. The inner wall of cylindrical
shell is maintained at constant temperature T1 and outer wall is maintained at constant
temperature T2.
The rate of heat transfer through cylindrical shell may be calculated as shown below,

12. Write the heat flux through spherical shell.

A spherical shell of inner radius R1 and outer radius R2, whose inside and outside surfaces are
maintained at the constant temperatures T1 and T2 respectively The heat flux through spherical
shell as given below,

13. Write the basic Energy balance equation.

The energy balance may be written as.

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14. Write the Heat flux in heat transfer from a cylindrical composite wall.

15. Define Viscous heat dissipation / viscous heating

The viscous heat dissipation term , in the equation of thermal energy represents the
conversion of mechanical energy into thermal energy due to viscous dissipation. This term is
always positive. Thus, this viscous dissipation leads to increase the value of thermal energy and
raises the temperature of fluid.

16. Define the Efficiency of the rectangular fin.

The efficiency of fin may be defined as,

17. Sketch the Heat conduction through a composite wall

Consider a composite wall of height L, width W and thickness . The wall contains two
layers of different materials which have the thermal conductivity K0 and K1, and different
thickness respectively. At x=0, the composite wall is maintained at a constant
temperature T0, while at , it has a constant temperature T2 as shown

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18. Write the assumptions in Heat transfer from a cylindrical composite wall.
Assumptions
 System is in steady state.
 Thermal conductivities K01and K12 are constants.
 System follows Fourier’s law of heat conduction.
 Heat loss in axial directions are negligible.

19. Write the assumptions in Heat conduction in a rectangular fin.

Assumption
 System is at steady state.
 Fin has a constant heat conductivity.
 The outside heat transfer coefficient is ha.

20. Sketch the Heat conduction in a rectangular fin

A simple rectangular fin is shown in Fig. The wall temperature is Tw and the ambient
temperature is Ta. Dimensions of fin are as shown in Fig.

21. Write the significance of Fins.

Fins are used to enhance the heat transfer from any surface by increasing the heat transfer surface
area. Due to heat conduction, this additional surface is at lower and lower temperatures as more
and more surface area is added. Thus, the rate of heat transfer decreases as we move away from
the original surface and efficiency of the fin is reduced. The effectiveness of a fin is defined as
the ratio of actual heat transfer through the fin and heat transfer when the whole fin surface is
available at the same temperature as that of the original surface.

22. Define the terms isothermal and non-isothermal systems.

A system is said to be isothermal if it performs at constant temperature wherein all the
temperature dependent parameters would not vary.
A non-isothermal system on the other hand is temperature dependent and hence the temperature
dependent parameters would vary with temperature and hence with time and position as well.
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PART – B

1. Derive the equation for the temperature distribution for heat conduction with a viscous heat
source.

2. Derive the equation for the temperature distribution for heat conduction with a nuclear heat
source [May 2016]

3. Derive the equation for the temperature distribution for heat conduction through an electrical
heat source[DEC 2015]

4. Derive an equation for heat transfer in a cooling rectangular fin. [Nov/Dec 2014]

5. A standard schedule 40, 5 cm steel pipe (inside dia 5 cm and wall thickness 0.4 cm) carrying
steam is lagged with 5 cm of 85% magnesia covered in turn with 5 cm of cork. Estimate the
heat loss per hour per meter of pipe if the inner surface of the pipe is at 120 0C and the outer
surface of the cork is at 300C. The thermal conductivity of steel is 40 W/mK and that of 85%
magnesia is 0.06 W/mK and for cork is 0.05 W/mK .

6. Discuss shell energy balance and boundary conditions

7. There are two large parallel plane with emissivity’s 0.3 and 0.8 exchange heat. Find the
percentage reduction when an aluminum shield of emissivity 0.04 is placed between them.
Use the method of electrical analogy

8. A flat plate 1mX1m is placed in a wind tunnel. The velocity and temperature of free stream
air are 80 m/s and 10oC.The flow over the whole length of the plate is made turbulent by
turbulizing grid placed upstream of the plate. Find the thickness of hydrodynamic boundary
layer at trailing edge of the plate.

9. Derive the equation for the temperature distribution for Heat conduction in a rectangular fin

10. Derive the equation for the temperature distribution for Heat transfer from a cylindrical
composite wall.

11. Derive the equation for the temperature distribution for Heat transfer in a cylindrical shell

12. Derive the equation for the temperature distribution for Heat transfer from a cylindrical
composite wall

13. Derive the equation of energy

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UNIT 4
EQUATIONS OF CHANGE AND THEIR APPLICATIONS
PART – A (Questions & Answers)

C401.4 Students would gain the knowledge of conservation laws in mass transport and its
application

1. Explain equimolar counter diffusion with an example.

When two components are diffusing simultaneously one in one direction and the other in the
opposite direction, the diffusion process is called equimolar diffusion. By equimolar counter
diffusion we mean that the total molar flux with respect to stationary coordinates is zero. For
such diffusion in gases the net volumetric and molar flows are zero. The equation for mass
transfer reduces to:
 CA /  t = DAB 2 CA

2. State Fick’s second law of diffusion.

The two general binary diffusion equations are
(A) /  t + (.A v) = (. DAB  wA) + rA
(cA) /  t + (.cA v*) = (. c DAB  xA) + RA
If there are no chemical changes occurring then rA , rB , RA , RB are all zero. In addition if v and
v* are also can be zero then the equations above will reduce to
(cA) /  t = DAB 2 cA
Which is called Fick’s second law of Diffusion or sometimes simply the diffusion equation.

3. State Fick’s second law of diffusion.

Fick's second law predicts how diffusion causes the concentration to change with time. It is a
partial differential equation which in one dimension reads:

Where is the concentration in dimensions of [(amount of substance) length−3], example

is a function that depends on location and time
 is time [s]
 is the diffusion coefficient in dimensions of [length2 time−1], example
 is the position [length], example

4. What do you understand by “diffusion controlled reaction”?

Consider a heterogeneous catalytic reaction A  B or A  A2. If the reaction is instantaneous,
the entire process will depend on the rate at which ‘A’ diffuses to the catalytic surface. Even
though the reaction is instantaneous the reaction can proceed only at the rate at which ‘A’
reaches to catalytic surface. This is called Diffusion controlled process.

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5. State the criteria for Boundary conditions in diffusion problems

The boundary conditions in the diffusion problems are specified as per the points below:
 The concentration at a surface can be specified. Say xA = xA0.
 The mass flux at a surface can be specified [if the ratio (N A / NB) is known it is as good
as knowing the concentration gradient]; e.g. NA = NB.
 If diffusion is occurring in a solid, it may happen that at the solid surface substance A is
lost to a surrounding fluid stream according to the relation NA0 = kC (CA0 - CAf) in which
NA0 is the mass flux at the surface, CA0 is the surface concentration, CAf is the
concentration in the fluid stream, and the proportionality constant kC is a mass transfer
coefficient’ . This is analogous to ‘Newton’s law of Cooling’
 The rate of reaction at the surface can be specified. E. g. If substance A disappears at a
surface by a first order chemical reaction, NA0 = k1’’ CA; i. e. the rate of disappearance
at a surface is proportional to the surface concentration, the proportionality constant k1’’
being a first order rate constant

6. Write down Schmidt number and compare with Prandtl number.

The ratio of the kinematic viscosity or momentum diffusivity ( ) to the mass diffusivity or
molecular diffusivity (Dv) is known as the Schmidt number designated by Sc.
Sc = [ / Dv] = [ / Dv]
The Schmidt number is analogous to the Prandtl number which is as known to be the ratio of
the kinematic viscosity to the thermal diffusivity

7. Define Sherwood number.

Sherwood number
Sh = [kc D / Dv]
Where kc is the individual mass transfer coefficient, D is the linear dimension and Dv is the
volumetric diffusivity.

8. Define mass average velocity

Mass average velocity is the actual velocity of a fluid which may be measured by experimental
methods. The mass average velocity of a mixture is defined as

Where is the mass average velocity of the mixture and are the velocity
of components 1,2,3, ----- N

9. Define diffusion velocities

The diffusion velocities are the relative velocities of components with respect to mass or molar

average velocity of the mixture. These may be calculated as or

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10. Write the mass balance equation.

11. Write the assumptions in Diffusion of A through a stagnant gas B

Assumption
 Steady state
 Mass transport in x and y directions are negligible. Thus, NAz, is the only non-zero
component of the flux,
 Density and diffusivity DAB are constants.
 No chemical reaction-taking place in the system, RA = 0.

12. Write the assumptions in Diffusion and chemical reaction inside a porous spherical
catalyst particle
Assumption
 Pores are uniformly distributed and both components diffuse only in the radial direction.
Thus fluxes in θ and Φ directions (Nθ and NΦ) are zero.
 System is in steady state.
 Total concentration of both components, c and diffusivity of A in B, DAB, are constants.

13. Write the assumptions in Leaching of a component from a spherical particle

Assumption
 Steady state.
 Mass transfer is only by diffusion.
 B is stagnant.
 Diffusivity of A in B, DAB is a constant.
 Mass transport in x and y directions are negligible
 No reaction taking place.

14. Draw the neat sketch of Diffusion and chemical reaction inside a porous spherical catalyst
particle

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15. Draw the neat sketch of Diffusion through stagnant gas film.

16. Define the terms: Molecular diffusion & Eddy diffusion (May 2018)
Molecular Diffusion is a mechanism of mass transfer in stagnant fluids / moving in laminar
flow. Molecular diffusion is concerned with the movement of individual molecules through a
substance by virtue of their thermal energy. The phenomenon of molecular diffusion leads to a
completely uniform concentration throughout a solution.
Eddy Diffusion is a mechanism in which the mechanical agitation produces rapid movement of
relatively large chunks /eddies, of fluid characteristics of turbulent motion, which have carried
salt with them.

17. Define Unsteady state Diffusion

If the change of concentration of a component A of the diffusive constituents in a mixture occurs
over a time at a point, the Fick’s law of diffusion at unsteady state condition can be expressed for
Z-direction as

Both the diffusive and non-diffusive constituents affect the rate of unsteady state diffusion

18. Define Mass Flux

Mass Flux of a given species is the amount of that species in either mass or moles which crosses
a given area per unit time. It is defined as the rate of mass transfer across a unit area i.e.; the area
being measured in the direction normal to the diffusion. Its unit moles/m2s.
The mass (or molar) flux of a given species is a vector quantity denoting the amount of the
particular species, in either mass or molar units, that passes per given increment of time through
a unit area normal to the vector.

19. What is the physical basis for mass transfer to occur?

 Mass Transfer phenomena arise from the distribution of sample molecules within either
the stationary phase or mobile phase.
 Existence of Concentration Gradient
 Diffusion forms the basis for several mass transfer operations.

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20. Define Diffusion Coefficient

The proportionality factor of Fick’s law is called diffusivity or diffusion coefficient, D AB which
can be defined as the ratio of the flux to its concentration gradient and its unit is m2 /s. It is a
function of the temperature, pressure, nature and concentration of other constituents.
DAB = flux/ concentration gradient

21. State Knudson diffusion?

Knudsen diffusion is a means of diffusion that occurs when the scale length of a system is
comparable to or smaller than the mean free path of the particles involved. For example in a long
pore with a narrow diameter (2–50 nm) because molecules frequently collide with the pore wall.
In other words Knudsen diffusion occurs in porous solids when the pore diameter, d to mean free
path of the gas molecules is less than 0.2 (d/λ < 0.2).

22. Define molecular diffusion.

Molecular diffusion is caused by the movement of individual molecules through a substance by
virtue of their thermal energy. Example: if colored solution is poured into a pool of water it begins
to diffuse slowly into the entire liquid

PART – B

1. Derive the equation for the rate of mass transfer in respect of ‘diffusion through a stagnant film’

2. Derive the concentration profile in the gas film for diffusion with heterogeneous chemical
reaction.

3. Derive the differential equation for the absorption of a gas film in a falling liquid film.

4. Derive the equation for Diffusion with homogeneous and heterogeneous chemical reaction

5. Derive the equation for Diffusion in to a falling liquid film

6. Derive the equation for Diffusion and chemical reaction in porous catalyst and the effectiveness
factor

7. Derive the equation for equation of continuity for binary mixtures

8. Derive the Shell mass balances

9. Derive the equation for external mass transfer using film theory model

10. Derive the equation for Leaching of a component from a spherical particle

11. Derive the equation of Continuity in three dimensional co-ordinates

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12. Derive the equation of continuity for a binary mixture?

UNIT 5
TRANSPORT IN TURBULENT FLOWS AND ANALOGIES
PART – A (Questions & Answers)

C401.5 The students would be able to understand the mechanism of Boundary layer under
different conditions.

1. Write the Blassius formula.

Blassius formula for the turbulent flow situation is given by:
 = (0.0791) / [ Re] 0.25 for 2100 < Re < 1x 106
Where  is the friction factor; Re is the Reynolds number. The formula is applicable only in
the above specified range of Reynolds number.

2. What is slip velocity?

If there is slip at the wall of a pipe then the velocity will not be zero at the wall. One can
obtain a modification of the Hagen-Poiseuille law by assuming the fluid to slip at the wall of
the cylinder. i.e., instead of assuming that v z=0 at r=R, we have to use the Boundary Condition
that .vz = -µ (d vz /dx) at r = R in which  is the coefficient of sliding friction. In most fluid-
flow problems slip is not important. The solution for flow around spheres with slip has been
used in connection with the hydrodynamic theories of diffusion. Also, slip appears to be
important in some non-Newtonian flow problems.

3. Differentiate between laminar and turbulent boundary layer?

A boundary layer may be laminar or turbulent. A laminar boundary layer is one where the
flow takes place in layers, i.e., each layer slides past the adjacent layers where there is an
intense agitation in turbulent layer. In a laminar boundary layer any exchange of mass or
momentum takes place only between adjacent layers on a microscopic scale which is not
visible to the eye. A turbulent boundary layer is marked by mixing across several layers of it.
The mixing is now on a macroscopic scale. Packets of fluid may be seen moving across. Thus
there is an exchange of mass, momentum and energy on a much bigger scale compared to a
laminar boundary layer.

4. What is Lorenz number?

For pure metals, the thermal conductivity k and electrical conductivity Ke are related
approximately as follows: k / Ke T = L = a constant. This is the famous equation of
Wiedemann, Franz and Lorenz. The Lorenz number, L is about 22 to 29 x 10-9 Volts2 (0K)-2
for pure metals at 00C., but changes little with temperature.

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5. Compare the temperature, pressure and composition dependence of mass

diffusivity.thermal conductivity and viscosity.
The mass diffusivity DAB for a binary mixture is a function of temperature, pressure and
composition., where as viscosity µ and thermal conductivity k for a pure fluid are functions
of temperature and pressure.

6. What is the relationship between friction factor and JH factor.

For long smooth pipes Colburn has proposed the following empirical analogy for
Reb > 10000 : jH = (f/2) in which jH is given by jH = [hln/Cp G] (Pr) 2/3

7. Compare and contrast conduction and convection.

Conduction heat Transfer Convection Heat Transfer

1. Occurs if a temperature gradient exists in 1. This phenomenon refers to the flow of
a continuous substance, without any heat, associated with the movement of a
observable motion of matter. fluid such as hot air from a furnace enters a
room. Or to the transfer of heat from a hot
surface to a flowing liquid.
2. Thermal conduction follows Fourier’s 3. Newton’s law of Cooling is followed in
law of heat conduction this process.
3. In metals, thermal conduction results 3. Natural convection occurs due to currents
from the motion of free electrons. There is in a fluid result from buoyancy forces created
close correspondence between thermal by the density differences, and the density
conductivity and electrical conductivity. differences are caused by the temperature
gradients in the fluid.
4. In solids that are poor conductors of 4. When the currents are due to a mechanical
electricity, and in most liquids, thermal device such as a pump or agitator, the flow is
conduction results from momentum independent of density differences and the
transfer between adjacent vibrating phenomenon is called Forced Convection.
molecules or atoms.
5. In gases, conduction occurs by the 5. Buoyancy forces also exist in forced
random motion of molecules so that heat is convection, although they have little effect.
diffused from hotter regions to colder
regions.

8. Define mass average velocity

In a diffusing mixture the various chemical species are moving at different velocities. If vi
denotes the velocity of the ith species with respect to the stationary coordinate axes, then for
the mixture of n species the local mass average velocity ‘v ‘ is defined as:
v = [ nI=1 I vi ] / [nI=1 I ]
This is the local velocity one would measure by means of a pitot tube

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.
9. Define skin and form friction.
In the case of a fluid under creeping flow past a sphere the forces acting on the surface of the
sphere are 1] Buoyant force, 2] form drag and 3] Friction drag. The form drag corresponds
to the kinetic behaviour and the the friction drag corresponds to the tangential force.
It can be describes by:
F = [(4/3) R3  g] + [ 2  µ R v ∞ ] + [ 4  µ R v∞ ]
Buoyant force Form drag friction drag

10. What is eddy viscosity?

It is defined by the Boussinesques equation  yxt = - µ’ [d v x / dy ] where µ’ is the co efficient
of viscosity called Eddy viscosity which comes into picture when flow is turbulent.

11. What is Brinkman number?

Brinkman number is given by
Br = [µ V2 / k (Tb – T0)]
It is a measure of the extent to which viscous heating is important relative to the heat flow
resulting from the impressed temperature difference (Tb – T0). It is visualized as the ratio of
heat production by viscous dissipation and heat transport by conduction.

12. What is a Boundary layer?

Whenever a fluid if flowing past a solid body we know that because of the condition of no
slip at the wall the velocity of the fluid layer immediately near the wall will also be zero.
However the velocity of the fluid in the main stream will be at the regular value. Thus there
is a velocity drop from the wall to the main stream. This velocity gradient normally exists in
a relatively thin layer of fluid near the wall. This layer thickness decreases with the increase
in turbulence and velocity in the main stream. Such a layer of fluid through which, almost
the, entire velocity drop occurs is called the Boundary Layer.

13. State if the momentum boundary layer thickness is lower than the thermal boundary
layer thickness.
Normally the momentum boundary layer thickness is larger than the thermal layer thickness.
t(x)/ (x) = < 1. At times it is also possible for  > 1. this is possible if the main stream
velocity past a flat plate is not very large but the temperature difference between the heated
wall and the main stream is high [T0 – T].

14. Define “Instantaneous Pressure” and “Time smoothed Pressure”.

Instantaneous pressure p is an irregularly oscillating function in a fully developed flow
situation and time smoothed pressure p is defined by taking a time average of p over a time
intervalt0 large with respect to the time of turbulent oscillation but small with respect to the
time-changes in the impressed pressure drop causing the flow:

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1 t
P = ( ) ∫ 0p dt
t0 t
Instantaneous pressure can then be written as the sum of the time smoothed p and a pressure
fluctuation p’: p = p + p’

15. Define Reynold’s stress.

In the case of Turbulent flow we come across the turbulent momentum flux tensor τ(t) with
components

These quantities are known as the Reynolds stresses.

16. Define Nusselts number.

Nusselts number is basically a dimensionless temperature gradient averaged over the heat
transfer surface, given by:
Nu = h D / k
Where h is the heat transfer coefficient, D is the dimension of the tube and k is the thermal
conductivity of the fluid.

17. Define Reynolds number. What are its dimensions?

Reynolds number is defined as the ratio of the Viscous forces to the kinetic forces. It is given
by:
Re = Dv  / µ
Where D is the diameter of the pipe or any linear dimension of the flow situation, V is the
velocity of the fluid,  is the density of the fluid and µ is the viscosity of the fluid. Reynolds
number is a dimensionless number.

18. Define Prandtl number.

A simple semi empirical method of handling energy exchange in polyatomic gases was
developed by Euchen. His eqn. For thermal conductivity of a polyatomic gas at low density
is
k = [Cp + (5/4)(R/M)] µ.
This gives a simple method of estimating the Prandtl number Pr = Cp µ / k a dimension less
quantity of importance in convective heat transfer.

19. Write down the Ergun’s equation.

When the Blake-Kozney equation for laminar flow through a packed bed and the Burke-
Plummer equation for turbulent flow through a packed bed are added together we get an
expression for pressure drop in the form of dimensionless groups as follows:
[(P0 - PL )  / G02 ] (Dp / L)[ Є3 / (1-Є) ] = 150 [(1-Є) / (Dp G0/ µ)] + 1.75
This is the Ergun Equation.

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20. Write down the Burke-Plummer equation?

For turbulent flow of fluids through packed bed Burke-Plummer equation predicts the
pressure drop per unit length of the bed as:
[P0 - PL ] / L = 3.50 (1/Dp) (1/2)  (v0)2 [(1-Є) / Є3]
Where DP is the mean particle diameter; v0 is the average flow velocity and Є is the ‘void
fraction’ of the bed.
Burke-Plummer equation is valid for
[Dp G0/ µ][1 - Є]-1 >1000

PART – B

1. Derive the logarithmic velocity distribution for turbulent flow. [Nov 2012]

2. Estimate DAB for the methane-ethane at 1040F and 1 atm. Using the following methods
a)Slattery equation, b)Chapman Enskog theoretical equation,using critical temperature and
pressure to estimate Lennard Jones Potential. Data: ΩD,AB= 1.45,a=2.754X 10-4, b=1.823
Compound M (g/ gmole) Tc (K) Pc( bar)
Methane (A) 16.04 190.7 45.8
Ethane(B) 30.07 282.4 50.0

3. Discuss about the time smoothed equations of change for incompressible fluid. [Nov 2013]

4. Explain the nature of turbulence? [Dec 2015]

5. Discuss the temperature fluctuations and time smoothed temperature in turbulent flow. Bring
out the analogus nature of the phenomena with the momentum transfer. [May 2016]

6. Calculate the thickness of boundary layer at a distane of 3 inch from the leading edge of a flat
surface over which air at 80oF is flowing with a free stream velocity of 35ft/sec.Also estimate
the rate of growth of the boundary layer. For air,take ρ = 0.0735 lb/ft3 and v= 1.69 X 10-4
ft2/sec

7. Obtain an expression for time smoothed temperature distribution for turbulent flow in tubes
[May 2016]

8. Derive an expression for universal velocity profile? [Dec 2015]

9. Derive equation that describe time smoothed equation of continuity and motion for an
incompressible fluid?

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10. Explain instantaneous velocity,time smoothed velocity and fluctuating velocity in turbulent
flow?

11. a] Explain with a neat sketch, the velocity distribution for turbulent flow in tubes.
[b] Write down the equations for the three regions of turbulent flow.

12. Explain The following : (a) Reynolds stresses, (b) Eddy Viscosity, (c) Creeping flow (d)
Drag coefficient

13. A hollow sphere 5 mm dia, with a mass of 0.0500 g is released in a column of liquid and
attains terminal velocity of 0.5 cm/s. The liquid density is 0.9 gm/cm3. Compute the drag
force, drag coefficient and the viscosity of the fluid.

14. Explain in detail, the following: (a) Prandtl’s mixing length and (b) Friction Factor

15. Explain in detail, the following: (a) Flow through packed bed & (b) Von Karman’s similarity
hypothesis

16. Derive the Ergun Equation for the flow of liquid through the packed bed.

17. What do you know about Boundary Layer?

18. Discuss the laminar and turbulent hydrodynamic, thermal and concentration boundary layer
thicknesses.

19. Obtain a description of the incompressible flow pattern near the leading edge of a flat plate
immersed in a fluid stream.

20. For the turbulent flow in smooth circular tube, the curve fit function VX/VXmax = [1- r/R](1/n)
is useful. Derive the equations for the ratio of average to maximum velocity?

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