Land Use Planning

Aim of the course: The aim of this course is to provide students with the understanding of the principles
of land use planning and of the significance of appropriate land use planning for sustainable
environmental management.
Course Content
1. Nature and Scope - Concepts
 Definition and Objectives
 When is Land Use Planning Useful?
 Making the best use of limited resources
 Goals of Land Use Planning
 Planning at different level
 Elements of land use planning
 Land-use problems: symptoms and causes
 Symptoms of land-use problems
 Underlying Causes Related to Land Use
 Social Problems
 Natural Hazards and Limitations

2. Land Use Planning – Fields of Application

 Overview on Application Range –New Developments
 Land Use Planning: A Tool for Territorial Development
 Land Use Planning: A Tool for Sustainable Natural Resource Management
 Land Use Planning: A Tool for the Protection of Biodiversity
 Land Use Planning: A Tool for National Park and Buffer Zone Management
 Land Use Planning: A Tool for Food Security
 Land Use Planning: A Tool for Disaster Risk Management
 Land Use Planning: A Tool for Adaptation to and Mitigation of Climate Change
 Land Use Planning: A Tool for Conflict Prevention and Resolution
 Land Use Planning: A Tool for Responsible Land Governance
3. Overview of the Planning Process
1. The National Land Use Plan
 The Rationale for National Land Use Plan
 The Guidelines for the Development of the National Land Use Plan
2. The National Land Use Plan Committee
3. The State Land Use Plan Committee
4. The National Land Use Plan Committee to Submit Draft Plan to Council of Ministers
5. Monitor and Revise the National Land Use Plan
6. Effect of the National Land Use Plan
7. Implementation of the Plan
8. Participation of Stakeholders

4. Land Evaluation
 How Land is evaluated
 Land evaluation concepts (steps in land use planning)
 Defining objectives
 Collection of data
 Sources of data

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  Types of data
 Identifying land uses
 Identifying land units (land capability classification)
 Assessing land suitability (land suitability classification)
 Identifying environmental and socio-economic issues and appraising alternatives
 Identifying the most suitable use (choosing the best option)
 Planning land use (prepare and implement the plan)

Nature and Scope

There is bound to be conflict over land use. The demands for arable land, grazing, forestry, wildlife,
tourism and urban development are greater than the land resources available. In the developing countries,
these demands become more pressing every year. The population dependent on the land for food, fuel and
employment and it will double within the next 25 to 50 years. Even where land is still plentiful, many
people may have inadequate access to land or to the benefits from its use. In the face of scarcity, the
degradation of farmland, forest or water resources may be clear for all to see but individual land users
lack the incentive or resources to stop it. The driving force in land use planning is the need for change, the
need for improved management or the need for a quite different pattern of land use dictated by changing
circumstances. All kinds of rural land use are involved: agriculture, pastoralism, forestry, wildlife
conservation and tourism. Planning also provides guidance in cases of conflict between rural land use and
urban or industrial expansion, by indicating which areas of land are most valuable under rural use. In
developing land use plan, preliminary consideration of important variables should be taken into account.
These should include the following:
 Social and cultural issues;
 Sustainability;
 Highest returns through best use of land conservation for the future;
 Integration of conservation and production and
 Natural resources policies including laws and regulations.

Definition and Objectives

Definition of Land Use Planning

“Land use planning is a systematic and iterative procedure carried out in order to create an enabling
environment for sustainable development of land resources which meets people’s needs and demands. It
assesses the physical, socio-economic, institutional and legal potentials and constraints with respect to
an optimal and sustainable use of land resources, and empowers people to make decisions about how to
allocate those resources” (FAO/UNEP).

When is Land Use Planning Useful?

Two conditions must be met if planning is to be useful:
 the need for changes in land use, or action to prevent some unwanted change, must be accepted
by the people involved;
 there must be the political will and ability to put the plan into effect.
Where these conditions are not met, and yet problems are pressing, it may be appropriate to mount an
awareness campaign.

General Objectives of Land Use Planning

“Land use planning creates the preconditions required to achieve a type of land use that is
environmentally sustainable, socially just and desirable and economically sound. It thereby activates
social processes of decision making and consensus building concerning the utilization and protection of
private, communal or public areas”

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Specific objectives of land use planning:
a) Promotion of the rational planned use of land to discourage ill-conceived land use decisions;
b) Maximization of the productive use of land resources based on their suitability for particular land
use;
c) Ensuring the production of food crops in such quantity to avert prospects of famine;
d) Encouragement of the production of export crops in such quantity that achieves and maintains a
favourable balance of trade;
e) Prevention of the degradation of arable land and where degradation has already occurred, to
reverse its destructive effect;
f) Provision for the sustained yield of renewable resources through land use decisions which
encourage local citizens to adopt and enforce suitable husbandry practices;
g) Elimination of conflicts over land.

Making the Best Use of Limited Resources

Our basic needs of food, water, fuel, clothing and shelter must be met from the land, which is in limited
supply. As population and aspirations increase, so land becomes an increasingly scarce resource. Land
must change to meet new demands yet change brings new conflicts between competing uses of the land
and between the interests of individual land users and the common good. Land taken for towns and
industry is no longer available for farming; likewise, the development of new farmland competes with
forestry, water supplies and wildlife. Planning to make the best use of land is not a new idea. Over the
years, farmers have made plans season after season, deciding what to grow and where to grow it. Their
decisions have been made according to their own needs, their knowledge of the land and the technology,
labour and capital available. As the size of the area, the number of people involved and the complexity of
the problems increase, so does the need for information and rigorous methods of analysis and planning.
However, land-use planning is not just farm planning on a different scale; it has a further dimension,
namely the interest of the whole community. Planning involves anticipation of the need for change as
well as reactions to it. Its objectives are set by social or political imperatives and must take account of the
existing situation. In many places, the existing situation cannot continue because the land itself is being
degraded. Examples of unwise land use include: the clearance of forest on steep lands or on poor soils for
which sustainable systems of farming have not been developed; overgrazing of pastures; and industrial,
agricultural and urban activities that produce pollution. Degradation of land resources may be attributed
to greed, ignorance, uncertainty or lack of an alternative but, essentially, it is a consequence of using land
today without investing in tomorrow.

Goals of land Use Planning

Goals define what is meant by the "best" use of the land. They should be specified at the outset of a
particular planning project. Goals may be grouped under the three headings of efficiency, equity and
acceptability and sustainability.
Efficiency. Land use must be economically viable, so one goal of development planning is to make
efficient and productive use of the land. For any particular land use, certain areas are better suited than
others. Efficiency is achieved by matching different land uses with the areas that will yield the greatest
benefits at the least cost. Efficiency means different things to different people, however. To the individual
land user, it means the greatest return on capital and labour invested or the greatest benefit from the area
available. Government objectives are more complex: they may include improving the foreign exchange
situation by producing for export or for import substitution.
Equity and acceptability. Land use must also be socially acceptable. Goals include food security,
employment and security of income in rural areas. Land improvements and redistribution of land may be
undertaken to reduce inequality or, alternatively, to attack absolute poverty.
Sustainability. Sustainable land use is that which meets the needs of the present while, at the same time,
conserving resources for future generations. This requires a combination of production and conservation:
the production of the goods needed by people now, combined with the conservation of the natural

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resources on which that production depends so as to ensure continued production in the future. A
community that destroys its land forfeits its future. Land use has to be planned for the community as a
whole because the conservation of soil, water and other land resources is often beyond the means of
individual land users.
Growth management. It is recognized that there will be growth of towns and cities, especially in state
capitals. Growth of urban areas can go into two directions: outward (horizontal) or upward (vertical).
Outward growth is called urban sprawl and upward growth is called urban consolidation. The basic fact
is if more vertical growth can be achieved, there will be less need for horizontal growth. It is the balance
between the vertical and horizontal growth that planners strive to achieve. Achieving the balance is called
growth management. It is important for planners to recognize agricultural lands, forests, rangeland,
biodiversity and catchments when looking at managing the growth of urban areas of South Sudan.

Planning at different levels

Land-use planning can be applied at three broad levels: national, state and county. These are not
necessarily sequential but correspond to the levels of government at which decisions about land use are
taken. Different kinds of decision are taken at each level, where the methods of planning and kinds of
plan also differ. However, at each level there is need for a land-use strategy, policies that indicate
planning priorities, projects that tackle these priorities and operational planning to get the work done. The
greater the interaction between the three levels of planning, the better. The flow of information should be
in both directions. At each successive level of planning, the degree of detail needed increases, and so too
should the direct of participation of the local people.

National level
At the national level, planning is concerned with national goals and the allocation of resources. In many
cases, national land-use planning does not involve the actual allocation of land for different uses, but the
establishment of priorities for State-level projects. A national land-use plan may cover:
 land-use policy: balancing the competing demands for land among different sectors of the
economy food production, export crops, tourism, wildlife conservation, housing and public
amenities, roads, industry;
 national development plans and budget: project identification and the allocation of resources for
development;
 coordination of sectoral agencies involved in land use;
 legislation on such subjects as land tenure, forest clearance and water rights.

State level
State level refers not necessarily to administrative districts but also to land areas that fall between national
and county levels. Development projects are often at this level, where planning first comes to grips with
the diversity of the land and its suitability to meet project goals. When planning is initiated nationally,
national priorities have to be translated into local plans. Conflicts between national and local interests will
have to be resolved. The kinds of issues tackled at this stage include:
 the siting of developments such as new settlements, forest plantations and irrigation schemes;
 the need for improved infrastructure such as water supply, roads and marketing facilities;
 the development of management guidelines for improved kinds of land use on each type of land.

County level
The county planning unit may be the village, a group of villages or a small water catchment. At this level,
it is easiest to fit the plan to the people, making use of local people's knowledge and contributions. Where
planning is initiated at the state level, the programme of work to implement changes in land use or
management has to be carried out locally. Alternatively, this may be the first level of planning, with its
priorities drawn up by the local people. County-level planning is about getting things done on particular
areas of land - what shall be done where and when, and who will be responsible.

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Starting at the local level: bottom-up planning
"Bottom-up" planning is initiated at the county level and involves active participation by the local
community. The experience and local knowledge of the land users and local technical staff are mobilized
to identify development priorities and to draw up and implement plans. The advantages are:
 local targets, local management and local benefits. People will be more enthusiastic about a plan
seen as their own, and they will be more willing to participate in its implementation and
monitoring;
 more popular awareness of land-use problems and opportunities;
 plans can pay close attention to local constraints, whether these are related to natural resources or
socio- economic problems;
 better information is fed upwards for higher levels of planning.
The disadvantages are that:
 local interests are not always the same as state or national interests;
 difficulties occur in integrating local plans within a wider framework;
 limited technical knowledge at the local level means technical agencies need to make a big
investment in time and labour in widely scattered places;
 local efforts may collapse because of a lack of higher-level support or even obstruction.

Elements of Land Use Planning

The plan should contain the following elements:
a) An inventory of those lands within the state which are currently used for mechanized agriculture
and, if more than one crop is under mechanized agriculture, an estimate of the number of feddans
utilized for each crop. Then by matching land suitability with crop requirements, the plan shall
depict all additional lands within the state which should be demarcated for mechanized farming
within 5 to 10 years. (also applied in irrigation and traditional agriculture).
b) An inventory of those lands within the state which are currently used for feeding of animals along
with a depiction of all lands within the state which should be allocated to range or pasture within
the short and long term. Again, a determination of land suitable shall be the basis for making the
choice.
c) An inventory of those lands within the state which are currently used for forestry and agro-
forestry purposes, along with an indication in each case of the reserve status of forestlands, which
are included in the inventory. By matching land suitability with forestry or agro-forestry
requirements, the plan shall also depict any additional lands within the state which should be
reserved, afforested or brought under agro-forestry production within the short and long term.
d) The identification of all lands within the state currently used for cattle routes and related
infrastructure such as watering points and feeding areas, along with a description of proposed
routes and land needed for related infrastructure within the short and long term.
e) An inventory of all lands within the state which are currently used for wildlife habitat and a
description of all additional lands within the state which should be maintain or developed wildlife
habitat purpose within the short and long term.
f) The identification of all productive or potentially productive lands within the state which are
threatened by land degradation or which can be restored to productivity through the reversal of
the process of land degradation. With respect to such lands, the plan shall propose corrective
measures, ranked by priority, which shall be undertaken to remove the threat of land degradation
or restore productivity within the short and long term.
g) A description of all lands within the state upon which there is/or may be a conflict between
different types of land uses. With respect to any lands so identified, the plan shall propose
corrective measures appropriate to reduce or eliminate such conflicts.

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 h) A description of and statutory or customary rights to the use of land in the state which are/or may
be infringed by any other use of land. In each case, the plan shall consider and identify alternative
means of resolving the conflict.
i) To determine and depict lands which should be used for needed agricultural infrastructure,
including roads necessary for the marketing of produce, processing facilities, health facilities and
related commercial and industrial development in the state.
j) Describe any change(s) in land use which may be required within the state to cope with a future
agricultural emergency such as the recurrence of a drought.

Land-Use Problems: Symptoms and Causes

1. Symptoms of land-use problems
 Migration to towns.
 Low rural incomes.
 Lack of employment opportunities.
 Poor health and nutrition.
 Inadequate subsistence production.
 Shortage of fuel and timber.
 Shortage of grazing land.
 Low, unreliable crop yields.
 Desertion of farmland.
 Encroachment on forest and wildlife reserves.
 Conflicts among farming, livestock and non-agricultural uses.
 Visible land degradation, e.g., eroded cropland, silted bottomlands, degradation of
woodland, salinity in irrigation schemes, flooding.

2. Underlying causes related to land use

a) Social problems
 Population pressure on land resources
 Unequal distribution of land, capital and opportunities
 Restrictions of land tenure and landownership
b) Natural hazards and limitations
 Inadequate water supply and distribution
 Irregular relief
 Drought-prone soils
 Poor drainage
 Diseases

Land Use Planning – Field of Application (New Developments)

In former times, mainly food was cultivated. For this purpose, as much surface as possible was cleared
and cultivated. Later fodder and renewable raw materials were added and additional cultivation areas
started to become scarce. Today, agricultural production is even more complex and complicated:
1. In addition to food and cash crops, fodder and raw material, biomass is now grown for industrial and
energy use;
2. Restrictions on the development of new agriculturally used areas with the objective to protect the
natural and cultural environment have been introduced and more are to come;
3. Accordingly, environmental assessments are becoming an integral part of formal land development
balancing economic and ecological impacts.
Terms such as “responsible cultivation areas”, “responsible biomass production” and “sustainable bio
energy production” are currently appearing. This change in agricultural development philosophy has been
triggered by serious and negative social and environmental impacts of recent large-scale agro-fuel
feedstock plantations. Partly introduced and subsidized to reduce greenhouse gas emissions when

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compared to fossil fuels, they resulted in increasing emissions from deforestation as well as negative
impacts on peoples’ livelihoods and cultural identity. It is now unambiguously clear that some areas are
so important that they should be considered as “no-go” areas, i.e., that their conversion to agricultural use
would never outweigh the overall negative impacts.

Possible criteria for “No-Go” areas:

Areas may be considered “No-Go” areas for one or more of the following reasons:
 Loss of biodiversity values considered critically important or highly significant;
 Negative impact on livelihoods or cultural values and identity;
 High levels of stored carbon;
 Damage to critical ecosystem services (other than carbon storage), such as water flows.

Land use planning and ecosystems services

Ecosystem services are the benefits mankind receives from a multitude of resources and processes that are
supplied by natural ecosystems. The UN Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2004) grouped ecosystem
services into four categories: provisioning, such as the production of food, water, pharmaceuticals and
energy; regulating, such as the control of climate and disease or the purification of air and water;
supporting, such as nutrient cycles and crop pollination; and cultural, such as spiritual and recreational
benefits. Ecosystem services are limited and threatened. Land use planning can destroy or conserve
ecosystem services. It is, therefore, important that land use planners are aware of potential ecosystem
services to balance their protection with the benefits from alternative uses. The economic value, which is
increasingly attributed to environmental services, can be helpful for decision-making. Land use planning
can also explicitly be used to preserve or improve ecosystem services. This can, for instance, be done by
identifying areas of intensive food crop production that could step-by-step be converted into agro-forestry
systems. These systems can restore many of the watershed functions normally attributed to forests and at
the same time generate more livelihood options than natural forests could. Not only does agricultural
production need to respect environmental regulations. Mining, often marked by heavy negative ecological
and social impacts, needs to heed them as well. In practice, mining in developing countries hardly ever
respect environmental and social sustainability. Also, companies are rarely responsible for the
regeneration of the area once mining has stopped. The consequent identification of high conservation
value areas and delimitation of no-go areas as an integral part of local, regional and national land use
planning could significantly improve the situation – at least in a context of good governance.

Land use planning and Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD)
REDD – Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Developing Countries – is an
effort to create a financial value for the carbon stored in forests, offering incentives for developing
countries to reduce emissions from forested lands and invest in low-carbon paths to sustainable
development. The future REDD mechanism, as currently foreseen, will allow for performance-based
compensation of non-deforestation and non-degradation (refunding opportunity costs) on the basis of
measured emission reductions. Similar to ecosystem services and high conservation values, land use
planners need to be aware of the REDD initiative. Developing countries that want to qualify for funds
need to prepare baseline studies and monitor the changes of forest covers. Land use planning could do
both: enhance the delimitation and protection of forests and benefit from special activities that are
currently implemented to assist developing countries to get ready for participation in a future REDD
mechanism. The United Nations has a Collaborative Program on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation
and Forest Degradation in Developing Countries (UN-REDD), an initiative by FAO, UNDP and UNEP.

Land Use Planning: A Tool for Territorial Development

Territorial Development – Definition:
Territorial development means the improvement of livelihoods in a territory defined by political,
administrative, natural or cultural delimitation going beyond the traditional rural-urban boundaries by

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linking activities of different policy areas using existing structures of government, private sector and civil
society on local, regional and national levels and fostering the participation of the population in the
development process.

In the past decades, the concept of rural development and its importance in development cooperation
changed several times. Territorial development draws on experiences made and presents a conceptual
framework for enhancing economic growth with social inclusion and environmental sustainability.
Territorial development is an inclusive, systemic and multisector approach that focuses on the spatial
dimension of development. Its focus is as much on a given territory as it is on the interaction between
territories. The concept is based on the perception that neither the market nor state institutions alone can
achieve sustainable development. Territorial development is, therefore, based on the negotiation and
cooperation of state institutions, private companies and civil society. State institutions are asked to come
back and restart, taking over responsibilities and playing an important role – although different to its past
one. Territorial development mainly consists of facilitation and process management. It also includes
participatory planning.

Participatory planning processes play an important role in territorial development. Land use planning is
one of the tools used to negotiate the interests of different user groups in a defined territory. For example,
the interest of farmers, herdsmen, mining companies and the population of villages and small towns have
to be satisfied in a given territory, yet respecting recreation areas and protection areas for nature and
biodiversity. Land use planning, involving the different users and interest groups actively, may help to
achieve a compromise that allows for sustainable development of the territory considering the interests of
all existing user groups.

The approach to territorial development requires an area-wide land use planning that combines local
village level land use planning based on direct participation with municipal and regional land use
planning at bigger scales and indirect participation. Horizontal and vertical cooperation are as important
as the integration of land use planning into those state institutions that are officially mandated to
coordinate the process and authorized to make the final land use plan a legally binding document.
The benefits of land use planning are that the plan contributes to avoiding land use conflicts and to
achieving land use compromises that allow a sustainable development of a given territory.

In practice, land use planning can only be successful if a consensus or a strong compromise on the
development objectives can be agreed upon. The pathway to achieve these objectives by the different
interest groups from local, regional and national levels must also be decided together. This requires that
the interests of vulnerable groups like herders or craftsmen are respected in the same way as the interests
of strong economic groups like mining companies. This means that the land use planning processes must
receive strong backing from the political leadership and skillful moderation.

Land Use Planning: A Tool for Sustainable Natural Resource Management

Sustainable Natural Resource Management – Definition:
Sustainable Natural Resource Management is the integrated management of natural resources recognizing
the values of both their conservation and their productive use and striving to achieve sustainability in all
kinds of resource use.
Key issues to natural resource management involves the investigation on how resources are used, what
affects them and how they can be best used, protected and preserved. It also aims to improve the way
people and organizations interact with natural resources to ensure their long-term availability.
Environmental conservation, erosion control, combating desertification, watershed management,
management of protected areas, buffer zone management, protection of biodiversity, sustainable forestry,
agro-forestry etc. are all either part of natural resource management or closely related to it. New tasks
have recently been added to natural resource management such as the identification, analysis and

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classification of high conservation values and the delimitation of high conservation areas or the protection
of ecosystem services.
Natural resource management aiming to contribute to sustainable development is facing a number of
challenges such as uncertainties in land tenure, lacking law enforcement, land use conflicts, changing
economic value of natural resources, agricultural expansion etc. This planning was done under the
premises of integrated rural development but is valid in the context of territorial development, as it links
up regional and local authorities with the population in a systematic way, aiming for the sustainable
development of a delimitated territory.

Contribution of Land Use Planning to Natural Resource Management:

Land use planning is a key element of an effective natural resource management. It helps to define
adequate uses which balance ecological, economic and social objectives, thereby preventing land use
conflicts as well as social conflicts. It can also help to clarify tenure issues and – if integrated into the
institutional set-up – to improve law enforcement. Land use planning represents an important decision-
making tool for natural resource management.
The approach to land use planning for natural resource management requires the full set of elements such
as collection of information, analysis of data, prognosis and development of scenarios, planning of future
land uses, political decision-making, transformation of the plans and programs into laws or regulations,
implementation, and control that have to be applied on different levels and scales (national, state, local).
Participation is integrated on all levels. During the situation analysis, those areas can be identified that
either are degraded and need regeneration or are ecologically sensitive (e.g., rain forests) or valuable (e.g.,
high conservation value areas, areas offering important ecosystem services or those being important in
terms of biodiversity) and should be protected from destruction or conversion into other uses. The
identification of “no-go areas” is recommended in situations of high commercial pressure. These are areas
with high levels of stored carbon, areas where conservation of biodiversity is considered critically
important or highly significant, areas where any change of the current land use would have a negative
impact on livelihoods and cultural values or damage critical environmental services such as water flows.
These “no-go areas” should be identified, demarked and protected from any kind of production
(agriculture, agribusiness, production of agro-fuel, rubber and other raw materials etc.). Another example
is the participatory identification, demarcation and protection of indigenous lands or areas that preserve
ecosystem services by the traditional use of natural resources. Finally, also those areas which local people
use in order to sustain their livelihoods need to be planned for, especially pastures, forests and other
common pool resources, but also private farmlands.

Land Use Planning: A Tool for the Protection of Biodiversity

Biodiversity – Definition:
Biodiversity is the variability among living organisms. The term includes both natural and agricultural
biological diversity. Agricultural biodiversity serves to promote food security in general, especially
among the rural poor. It is indispensable for future adaptation to climate change. Overall, biodiversity
makes significant contributions to income generation in rural areas and is the natural resource basis for
diverse industrial production. The protection, sustainable use and equitable benefit sharing of biological
diversity are subject to international regulation through the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
and the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA).

Contribution of Land Use Planning to the Protection of Biodiversity:

The sustainable use and protection of biological diversity is an integral component of successful land use
planning. The guiding principle here is to catalogue biodiversity together with the local population and
thus to perceive it more clearly and appreciate its importance. In successive steps, conflicts of interest are
to be brought to light and fairly resolved, resulting in greater social acceptance. At the same time, partners
are to be mobilized who can play a role in using biodiversity and thereby improve value creation (e.g., the
private sector). Another element is to document traditional wisdom as a prerequisite for ‘access and

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benefit sharing’ (ABS) regulations and to prevent restrictions on use. Protecting biodiversity does not
mean concentration on individual species, but rather forming ecosystems and contributing to their
stability or resilience. This requires a spatially oriented approach such as that offered by land use
planning. For instance, ecosystems can be interconnected in networks which can help to avoid a genetic
impoverishment.

Observing the principles described above requires a dialogue process consisting of the following steps
that can be integrated into a land use planning:
1. Collection and analysis of data concerning:
 the natural area, including the existing biodiversity (status, endangerment, local and regional
significance, current use, potential use);
 user groups (gender specific) and their various interests in the region;
 factors (global, national and local levels) influencing the biodiversity existing in the area.
2. Negotiation and agreement concerning:
 a common vision for the sustainable development of the region which takes social and individual
interests into account while promoting biodiversity;
 lines of strategic development for the area, management plans and an agreement on concrete
activities;
 monitoring mechanisms (social, national and community level);
 incentive mechanisms (subsidies, compensatory payment, benefit sharing– monetary and non-
monetary – as provided for in the CBD and ITPGFRA) to promote sustainable use in
implementing activities.
3. Implementation and monitoring of the impact on society, households and biodiversity.

Using land use planning as a tool to protect biodiversity also helps to identify the existing biodiversity as
it allows creating a broad consensus on the sustainable use of natural resources leading to the protection
of biodiversity.

Land Use Planning: A Tool for National Park and Buffer Zone Management
National Park and Buffer Zone Management – Description
National Park and Buffer Zone Management need to consider many different purposes which have to be
fulfilled and conflicts which need to be prevented. Research, tourism and the preservation of unique
ecosystems and wildlife have to be achieved in the core area. The buffer zone is subject to lower
protection, as it needs to cope with the demands of local subsistence farmers for forest products. Both
national park and buffer zone management require long- and medium-term planning when residents are
involved. It includes resource use and management plans as well as educational issues to sensitize and
coach people as well as to improve their livelihood.

Contribution of Land Use Planning to National Park and Buffer Zone Management:
Participatory resource use planning is a core element in national park and buffer zone management.
Resource use planning includes more aspects than land use planning as it can, for instance, include access
to and the use of water or non-timber forest products. Resource use planning provides the basis for
national park and buffer zone management as it defines where what kinds of use are allowed and which
ones are forbidden.

The resource use planning process needs to be undertaken in a participatory way through the integration
of local people, allowing stakeholders to contribute knowledge, share experiences and exchange ideas to
develop and implement resource use plans and to settle conflicts of interests. The results need to be
implemented into national park policies and legally binding land/resource use plans as well as
management plans and programs to ensure their implementation. The final plan indicating which uses are
allowed and which ones are forbidden in each zone of the national park and in the buffer zone,

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respectively, needs to be made publicly available in various ways reaching the local community and all
other stakeholders. Violations need to be sanctioned.

Through participatory land use planning and broader resource use planning for national parks and buffer
zones, fair and sustainable land use can be achieved, conflicts can be negotiated, livelihoods can be
improved and conservation highly enhanced.

Land Use Planning: A Tool for Food Security

Food Security – Definition:
“Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe
and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life”.
Key issue to food Security encompasses the following four dimensions:
 Availability of food;
 Access to food;
 Safe and healthy utilization of food;
 Stability of food availability, access and utilization.

Contribution of Land Use Planning to Food Security

Land use planning can contribute to improving the availability of food within a defined region at local or
national level in a number of ways:
 Through land use planning, areas for food production can be defined, zoned and protected from
being converted into construction land;
 Through the integration of rules regulating access to land and/or improving tenure security, food
production can be improved as farmers will invest in long-term measures to improve the soil or
start more expensive cultivations that provide higher yields in the long-run;
 Land use planning in combination with market analysis and infrastructure planning can improve
access to food.

During the situation analysis, areas with comparative advantages for an intensification of agricultural
production need to be identified (e.g., potential irrigation areas, areas with higher soil fertility, and areas
with better access to infrastructure, agricultural services and other inputs). In addition, all areas need to be
identified that are prone to erosion or natural disasters, and necessary measures to protect these and other
lands from erosion and disasters need to be defined. Also, all areas need to be identified that are
threatened by misuse, overuse or contamination, and measures to rehabilitate them need to be defined.
Further, the protection of biodiversity can be promoted and supported and scenarios on the future
development of climatic conditions can be made and discussed to assess which crops need to be replaced
by more heat/storm/hail/rain resistant crops or in which areas agriculture is no longer feasible and can be
switched to livestock keeping or other extensive uses. In addition, during the situation analysis, traditional
knowledge on agricultural products and production methods as well as on livestock keeping and non-
timber products can be mobilized and enhanced. During the zoning of future uses, sufficient land and
water areas need to be reserved for agriculture, livestock production, community forestry, fishery, home
gardens etc. and effectively protected from conversion into construction land or private concessions.
During the planning phase, stakeholders need to define land use regulations for common resources and
their sustainable use.

Land use planning is beneficial and can mainly contribute to the first two dimensions of food security
mentioned earlier: availability and access to food. In many regions, the recognition and promotion of
subsistence farming as well as the promotion and support of agricultural production for the local markets
during land use planning can also contribute to food security.

Land Use Planning: A Tool for Disaster Risk Management

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Disaster Risk Management – Definition:
Disaster risk management aims to avoid, lessen or transfer the adverse effects of hazards such as storms,
earthquakes, floods, droughts or landslides through a variety of activities and preventive measures,
mitigation and preparedness.

Disaster risk management strategies and initiatives are based on a participative risk assessment which
considers current hazard and vulnerability patterns as well as trends such as climate change or land
degradation and aims at making people and communities more resilient. Disaster risk management lays
emphasis on capacity building at all levels: local, regional and national.

Contribution of Land Use Planning to Disaster Risk Management:

In rural regions in particular, natural disasters have a detrimental impact on development efforts,
frequently claiming lives and destroying the results of years of work and investment. Land use planning is
a very important instrument in disaster risk management. By determining land uses, it affects both the
vulnerability of the local population and infrastructure as well as potential hazards, and can accordingly
be used to minimize disaster risk. The goal of land use planning for disaster risk management is to
achieve a utilization of land and natural resources which is adapted to local conditions and needs and
takes into account disaster risks.

Disaster risk management should be integrated in all phases of land use planning, from its preparation and
base-line assessment through decision making, implementation and monitoring. In addition to the existing
risks, future trends provoked by climate change must be considered in order to achieve more
sustainability. Disaster risk management and land use planning can be combined at any moment during
planning or implementation. For this purpose, the following tools need to be included into land use
planning:
 Risk assessment (on the basis of hazard and vulnerability analysis) should be integrated in the
base-line assessment for land use planning;
 Risk mapping should be part of zoning and other methods of scenario building;
 Disaster risk management measures should be integrated in the land use plan, e.g., introduction of
sustainable agriculture to avoid soil degradation;
 Local regulations to enforce land use criteria and decisions should explicitly mention relevant
disaster risk management strategies and criteria;
 Disaster risk management indicators should be integrated in the established monitoring and
evaluation mechanisms;
 Disaster risk management should be considered in the involvement of relevant actors and
organizational mechanisms (e.g., participation of population at risk and disaster risk management
actors at the local, regional and national level).

Land Use Planning: A Tool for Adaptation to and Mitigation of Climate Change
Adaptation to and Mitigation of Climate Change – Definitions and Concepts:
The human response to global climate change and climate variability can be characterized in two ways:
adaptation and mitigation.

Adaptation:
Adaptation involves developing ways to avoid negative impact on people, their livelihoods, economic
activities and places by reducing their vulnerability to climate impacts. Adaptation is about doing things
differently because of climate change. Examples of adaptation include changing building codes, for
instance, to make constructions more resistant against hurricanes, building infrastructure to protect
communities against increased flooding, relocating buildings to higher ground and making changes in
land use such as switching to more drought-resistant crops, or substituting intensive with extensive
agriculture.

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Mitigation:
Mitigation involves attempts to slow the process of global climate change by lowering the level of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Examples include mechanisms such as reducing emissions from
deforestation and forest degradation or planting trees that absorb carbon dioxide from the air and store it
in the soil or in their trunks and roots. Global efforts for mitigation are prerequisites for sustainable
development.

In many developing countries, in particular in increasingly water scarce areas and coastal areas, pressure
on land will increase through climate change. Both, mitigation of and adaptation to climate change are
crucial for vulnerable communities to ensure their livelihoods. The ability of communities to adapt to and
to mitigate climate change is determined by their level of development, their access to resources and their
scientific and technical capacity. Thus, it is often the poorest that are the most vulnerable.

Contribution of Land Use Planning to Adaptation to and Mitigation of Climate Change:

1. Land Use Planning for Adaptation:
Adaptation consists of assessing vulnerabilities and impacts related to climate change, identifying and
prioritizing adaptation options, often from a cross-sectoral perspective, and governing the implementation
of adaptation. Impacts and adaptation needs are very different from location to location; therefore, land
use planning has an important role to play in adaptation to climate change.
Based on the analysis of observed and projected climate data, vulnerability mapping can be included in
the analytical phase of land use planning. Once vulnerable zones are identified, alternative uses and
adaptation options can be discussed jointly and agreed upon by all stakeholders – with support from
experts such as engineers and specialists from biology, forestry and agriculture.
By considering climate change, land use planning can be made resilient and contribute to adapting to
climate change. It enables site-specific adaptation e.g., by adjusting the assessment of guiding parameters
like land suitability for different purposes.
2. Land Use Planning for Mitigation:
Land use planning can be used to reduce deforestation and forest degradation by limiting agricultural
expansion, conversion of forests to pasturelands, infrastructure development, destructive logging, fires
etc. Land use planning can also be used to identify areas for carbon sequestration (as an environmental
service for which farmers could receive a payment), e.g., through afforestation or for the introduction of
agroforestry. Another way of land use planning to contribute to mitigation of climate change is the
identification of suitable sites for wind mill parks or for the production of solar energy.

Integrating mitigation into land use planning or applying land use planning to mitigate climate change
may not require the introduction of new tools. It requires awareness of the potentials of land use planning.
During land use planning, areas of current deforestation or forest degradation can be identified, different
future scenarios discussed and more sustainable uses defined, decided upon and passed on. Land use
planning can also serve to monitor the realization of decided land use changes. Alternatively, areas for
afforestation or the production of “clean energy” could be identified.
Apart from environmental improvements, municipalities and individual land users can benefit from
payments for environmental services – depending on national laws.

Land Use Planning: A Tool for Conflict Prevention and Resolution

Conflict Prevention and Resolution - Definition:
Conflict resolution addresses the causes of conflict and seeks to build new and lasting relationships
between hostile groups. Conflict prevention aims at preventing the outbreak of (violent) conflict.

Quite often, social and socio-economic conflicts as well as social instability result from conflicts over
access to land and/or to other natural resources. Nationalization of traditional land under common

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property regimes, possible multiple and/or new usages, illicit practices during privatization, illegal or
irresponsible allocation of public land (e.g., to foreign companies), multiple sales of private land,
increased land scarcity due to environmental degradation or climate change as well as mass migration and
(returning) refugees can lead to land conflicts that are often disguised as ethnic or political conflict. There
are a number of ways to prevent and resolve such conflicts. Typical ways of (land) conflict resolution are
facilitation, moderation, consultation, conciliation, mediation, arbitration and adjudication by judiciary,
special land courts, land administration, political institutions, party systems, customary and religious
institutions as well as civil society and private sector mediators. In case of land conflicts, conflict
resolution often needs to be accompanied by land administration and management tools, such as land use
planning.

Contribution of Land Use Planning to Conflict Prevention and Resolution:

Land use planning is the key instrument in reconciling competing interests in land between individuals as
well as groups, between different villages and distinct users as well as between traditional rights’ holders
and state authorities or private companies etc. A participatory comprehensive land use planning which
anticipates and guides future land use while respecting existing uses represents an effective tool for
preventing and solving land conflicts
Land conflicts can be prevented if all relevant stakeholders are involved in a joint land use planning. In
the case of existing conflicts, discussions about current and future land uses and the joint definition of
land use rules can help to reduce or even stop land use conflicts. This can be done through the preparation
of land use maps and plans as well as by local agreements, both consisting of or being accompanied by
land use regulations. The latter are very popular in Sub-Saharan Africa where they are frequently used to
solve conflicts among farmers and pastoralists as well as among local and foreign users of common
resources.

Experience shows that land and other resource conflicts can be significantly reduced by local agreements
which establish transparency of land use, strengthen consensual approaches within the community, boost
a
sense of responsibility, introduce penalties and rely on social control.

Land Use Planning: A Tool for Responsible Land Governance

Responsible Land Governance – Definition:
Land governance concerns the rules, processes and structures through which decisions are made about
access to land and its use, the manner in which the decisions are implemented and enforced as well as the
way that conflicting interests in land are managed. Land governance encompasses statutory, customary,
religious, rules and processes governing access to and use of land. Weak land governance gives rise to
state capture (e.g., illegal allocation of public land), large-scale land acquisitions and leases (often
ignoring local people’s rights over land) and administrative corruption (e.g., illegal allocation of building
permits due to bribery). Correspondingly, responsible land governance means that decision-making over
access to and use of land as well as its enforcement and the reconciliation of conflicting interests is done
in a fair and transparent way, allowing everybody to equitably participate and to receive an adequate
share while at the same time an economically, socially and environmentally sustainable land development
is guaranteed (FAO/UNHABITAT 2009).
Responsible land governance is characterized by the following principles: equity, accountability,
transparency, effectiveness, rule of law, legal security, civic engagement, subsidiarity, security, and
sustainability.

Contribution of Land Use Planning to Responsible Land Governance:

Effective, transparent and participatory land use planning contributes to responsible land governance in
different ways:

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 1. Broad participation allows for the inclusion of society’s current and future needs into decision-
making over the use of land;
2. Transparent land use planning reduces opportunities for rent-seeking (state capture and
administrative corruption) and it thereby limits the risk for the rural poor to be de facto
expropriated and to become landless;
3. Land use planning is a key instrument for reconciling competing interests in land and thereby
preventing land use conflicts;
4. Land use planning can help to identify local peoples’ use and possession rights over land and
prepare for their formal recognition (legalization);
5. Land use planning can help to avoid that state concessions overlap with local peoples’ farmlands,
pastures, community forests etc.

Land use planning which is conducted jointly by all relevant stakeholders and which is supported by
experts is an ideal tool to ensure that decision making over the use of land (and at least partially over
access to land) as well as its enforcement and the reconciliation of conflicting interests is done in a fair
and transparent way. This allows everybody to equitably participate and to receive an adequate share
while at the same time guaranteeing an economically, socially and environmentally sustainable land
development is guaranteed.

Overview of the Land Use Plan Process

1. The national Land Use plan

i. Rationale for the national plan
In order to fulfill the country’s laws and regulations, it is essential that a national plan for land
use, including a national land use map be prepared in accordance with reasoned planning
principles, based on reliable technical data and be developed with the broadest possible public
input. Such plan shall guide the future use of land and shall be called the National Land Use Plan
of the country.
ii. Guidelines for the development of the national plan
The following basic guidelines shall control the development of the National Land Use Plan as
well as development of the state land use plans:
a. Land shall be devoted to the use for which it is most appropriately suited. For the purpose
of this guideline, suitability shall be determined by reference to:
 Soil quality or classification;
 The quantity and quality of available water supply;
 The potential for land degradation;
 The land requirements and the impact of the proposed use.
b. Existing land use rights whether based upon statutory or customary laws and whether
recorded or not, shall be respected and shall not be infringed unless the national interest
so requires.
c. When a proposed land use is being evaluated, not only the benefits of the proposed use,
but also its direct and secondary costs, including social and environmental costs shall be
considered.
d. Despite its suitability, no land shall be proposed for a particular use by the plan, unless it
is determined that the benefits of the proposed use exceed its direct and secondary costs.
e. Where land is suitable for two (2) or more alternative uses, each of which meets the
criteria mentioned in (d) above, the preferred use shall be that which has the lower social
and environmental costs.
f. The plan shall propose a particular use land only if it is determined from a review of all
relevant facts that the proposed use is reasonable in the circumstance.

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2. The National Land Use Plan Committee
Preparation of the National Land Use Plan shall be the responsibility of a multi-disciplinary committee
which is intended to be a high-level body, established by the president, which is capable of developing the
government’s land use policy. For this reason, the committee shall be headed by a minister and be
composed of in most cases of undersecretary-level technical officials. Finally, for the purpose of
including public input to the planning process at the national level, the committee shall include
representatives from several sectoral organizations.
To assist the national committee in the performance of its functions, a technical secretariat shall be
established which shall be responsible for the collection and assessment of the national planning data, the
review and evaluation of state land use plans and preparation of a preliminary draft land use plans for
consideration by the National Committee.
3. The State Land Use Plan Committee
The creation of a state land use plan committee provides for vertical integration of the planning process
with the national committee. The state land use plan committee shall be chaired by the state governor and
having membership composed of:
 State directors of sectoral ministries concerned;
 Commissioners of each counties in the state;
 Local council representatives from each county.
Then in accordance with the national land use policies, goals and objectives developed by the national
committee, each state land use committee is required to prepare a land use plan containing the elements
discussed in the guidelines for the development of the National Plan.
Finally, after completing the development of a draft state land use plan in accordance with the procedures
outlined in the law, each state committee is required to submit its plan to the National Committee for
review. Upon its approval by the National Land Use Committee, each state plan takes its place as a part of
the composite national plan.
4. The State Land Use Plan Committee to Conduct County Hearings
Following the preparation of a preliminary draft of state land use plan, each state land use committee shall
hold a meeting with each county of the state for the purpose of explaining the plan to the local land users
and receiving their comments. The state land use committee shall evaluate the preliminary draft land use
plan for the state and in light of any comment received from the county land users. Based on those
comments, it may make any change(s) to the draft state plan that it deems appropriate in light of the
policies, priorities, objectives and guidelines. Thereafter, the state land use plan committee shall submit
the draft state land use plan to the National Land Use Plan Committee for consideration.
5. The National Committee to Submit the Draft Plan to the Council of Ministers
Within thirty (30) months, the National Land Use Plan Committee shall submit the draft National land
Use Plan to the council of ministers for review. Upon its approval by the council of ministers, the plan
shall enter into force as the National Land Use Plan of the country.
6. Monitor and revise the National Land Use Plan.
Monitor the progress of the plan towards its goals; modify or revise the plan in the light of experience. At
regular intervals not exceeding three (3) years, the national committee shall revise the National Land use
plan to determine if it remains consistent with the National Land Use policies, priorities and objectives.
Should the National Committee decide that a review of the plan is required, it shall so advise the
appropriate state land use plan committee or committees which shall undertake preparation of a draft state
land use plan(s). Upon completing its work, the state committee shall submit the revised state land use
plan to the national land use plan committee, which shall evaluate the revisions and make any further
changes which it deems appropriate. Such final revisions to the plan shall be submitted to the council of
ministers for review and upon approval, shall be incorporated as amendments to the National Land Use
Plan of the country.
7. Effect of the National Land Use Plan

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Upon its entry into force, the National Land Use Plan shall be binding in the country. There upon, no land
shall be used for any agricultural or agriculturally related purpose, including any government-financed
agricultural or agriculturally related development projects, except in accordance with the provisions of the
plan. Nor shall land be used for any agricultural or agriculturally related project financed by investors,
including any public or private donor organization, except in accordance with the provisions of the
National Land Use Plan.
8. Implementation of the National Land Use Plan
Implementation the National Land Use Plan is perhaps the most important component of the process.
Once the plan has been adopted by the council of ministers, it should as soon as possible, be
implemented. It is important to keep advising the community about the progress of the plan
implementation. The important thing is to keep them regularly informed about the process. If not, they
lose interest in the matter and it is likely not to be accepted. This is more important for the long term non-
statutory recommendations. In most cases, however, implementation is not part of the planning process as
such, but is a separate exercise. At the national level, implementation is usually a matter of government
decisions on priorities. In planning at the state level, implementation will often be achieved through a
development project, requiring considerably greater resources of personnel and finance than the planning
exercise. It is only at the county level that implementation may be more integral with planning, using the
same team and resources.
9. Participation of Stakeholders in Planning
Community consultation or stakeholder consultation as it is sometimes called, is a very important
component of developing any planning strategy. In fact, it should be a compulsory component of the
development and preparation of local plans, state plans and other development plans. The community be
involved in the preparation of the document, not just commenting on it. Land-use planning involves
getting many different people to work together towards common goals. Three groups of people are
directly involved:
Land users. These are the people living in the planning area whose livelihood depends wholly or partly
on the land. They include not only farmers, herders, foresters and others who use the land directly but also
those who depend on these people's products, e.g., operators in crop or meat processing, sawmills and
furniture factories. The involvement of all land users in planning is essential. Ultimately, they have to put
the plan into effect and must therefore believe in its potential benefits as well as in the fairness of the
planning process. The experience and determination of local people in dealing with their environment are
often the most neglected, as well as the most important, resource. People will grasp development
opportunities that they themselves have helped to plan more readily than any that are imposed on them.
Without the support of local leaders, a plan is not likely to succeed. Achieving effective public
participation in planning is a challenge. Planners have to invest the time and resources needed to secure
participation through local discussions, by broadcasting and newspaper articles, through technical
workshops and extension services. Imagination, a sincere interest in people and the land as well as a
willingness to experiment mark the more successful efforts.
Decision-makers. Decision-makers are those responsible for putting plans into effect. At national and
district levels, they will usually be government ministers; at the local level, they will be members of the
council or other authorities.
The planning team provides information and expert advice. The decision-makers guide the planning team
on key issues and goals while also deciding whether to implement plans and, if so, which of the options
presented should be chosen. Although the leader of the planning team is in charge of day-to-day planning
activities, the decision-maker should be involved at regular intervals. Decision-makers also have a key
role in encouraging public participation through their willingness to expose their decisions and the way
they are reached to public scrutiny.
The planning team. An essential feature of land-use planning is the treatment of land and land use as a
whole. This involves crossing boundaries between disciplines (natural resource, engineering, agricultural
and social sciences), so teamwork is essential. Ideally, a team needs a wide range of special expertise; for
example, a soil surveyor, a land evaluation specialist, an agronomist, a forester, a range and livestock

17
specialist, an engineer, an economist and a sociologist. Such a range may only be available at the national
level. At the local level, a more typical planning team may consist of a land-use planner and one or two
assistants. Each must tackle a wide range of jobs and will consequently need specialist advice.
Government agency staff and universities may be useful sources of assistance.

4. Land Evaluation
The Need for Land Evaluation
When populations were far smaller than today, most societies were able to live in balance with their
natural environment. As populations increased, people had greater impact on the land through clearance
for farming and to obtain fuel and construction material. In most places, this was a gradual process and
social groups were able to develop often complex systems for exploiting natural resources on a
sustainable basis.
More recently, human populations have increased rapidly, especially in the developing countries and
demand for food and fuel has grown alarmingly. At the same time, changing economic and social
conditions have destroyed traditional systems of land resources management. Thus, not only is the land
being cropped and grazed are more intensively practiced, with fallow periods being drastically reduced or
eliminated, but effectives systems for maintaining fertility are no longer being applied. The result has
been massive soil degradation (e. g. desertification) on a large scale, through loss of plant nutrients and
organic matter, erosion, buildup of salinity, damage to soil structure.
Increasing demand for food, plus the fact that parts of the land most suited to crop production have been
destroyed, has led to expansion of cultivation and grazing into areas less suited to such uses and
ecologically more fragile. This has destroyed natural ecosystems and modified or eliminated natural
populations of flora and fauna.
Much of the damage is irreversible as when fertile topsoil has been stripped off to expose infertile subsoil
or bare rock or where plant and animal species has been wiped out. In other cases, the damage can be
economically irreversible, such as when millions of hectares or feddans become infertile due to build-up
of salinity.
There is an urgent need for a new approach. Traditional systems must be preserved and strengthened
where ever possible, but it is clear that they alone are far from sufficient in view of the magnitude of the
problem and the rate of destruction of the world’s land resources.
Therefore, land evaluation or technical known as land suitability evaluation is part of the process of land
use planning.

How Land is evaluated?

The essence of land evaluation is to compare or match the requirements of each potential land use, the
characteristics of each kind of land. Once the objectives of the study have been established, the collection
of basic data can begin. At this stage, there are two (2) main aims:
1. To catalogue the different types of land that exist in the study area;
2. To identify the possible uses to which they might be put.
The ideas on how the land should be used are likely to exist before the formal planning process begins.
These ideas, which often reflect the wishes of the people, are usually included among the possible uses to
be assessed in the evaluation and will thus, influence the range of basic data which needs to be collected.
As the study proceeds, new ideas on the way the different types of land could be used will emerge. Not
only will these need to be evaluated but conceivably, additional basic data need to be collected. The
original objectives of the study may even need revising.
A wide range of specialists’ knowledge is needed to collect and analyze all the data relevant to land
evaluation. A multi-disciplinary team that includes social and economic experts as well as biophysical
scientists’ best undertake the work. Ideally, such a team should work together throughout the study so that
each member can influence the others with his/her special knowledge and view point. In practice, it is not
possible to field the whole team at once. In this case, the physical aspects of land are usually studied and

18
mapped first to provide a geographical framework into which the socio-economic dimensions are inserted
later. A two stage approach is obviously less well integrated and will take longer to complete.
A reliability of land evaluation can be no greater than that of the data on which it is based. Ideally, fresh
data should be obtained to answer all questions raised by the study, although time and expense usually
prevent this being done as thoroughly as possible. The one really important requirement is that the
reliability of each data source is checked. Any shortcomings that are not subsequently made good should
be highlighted in the evaluation report. In order to be objective and as far as possible, quantitative land
evaluation follows certain established procedures based on the concept of land qualities and
characteristics. Land characteristics are single factors such as annual rainfall or soil texture which can be
measured and estimated. Land qualities on the other hand, are complex properties of the land such as
moisture availability or fertility, produced by combination of groups of land characteristics. Land
suitability is rated for a given use by comparing the requirements of the use, which must of course first be
identified with the qualities of the land unit. The evaluation process can be automated and carried out
quite rapidly once all the necessary data are available by setting up computerized data bank or
geographical information system (GIS), and establishing rules and decision-trees to carry out the match
process, which provides the evaluation.

Concepts of Land Evaluation

Land suitability is evaluated for specific types of Land use may be defined either at a general level, (e.g.,
land uses rain fed agriculture) or as a particular crop at a specified
level input.
Evaluation includes a consideration of inputs and The level of material inputs is defined in the evaluation as
projected output. are land improvements such as soil conservation, drainage,
etc., and their overall impacts is taken into account in
predicting crop yields.
Land evaluation requires specialists of different The land evaluation team must coordinate surveys and
disciplines. work in consultation with soil scientists, agro-ecologist,
socio-economists, climate scientists, planners, etc.
Land evaluation relates to the environmental and Land evaluation recommendations should relate to
socio-economic conditions of the area. existing farming systems and to changes in land use which
are technically feasible and socially and politically
acceptable.
Land suitability refers to use on sustainable basis. Recommended land uses must not cause soil erosion but
must conserve the land for long-term production.
Land evaluation involves comparison of more than Improving the productivity of land use systems may
one land use. involve introduction of new crops, changes in land
management or other innovations in the existing farming
system.

Land evaluation shall be carried out according to the following procedures:

1. Defining objectives;
2. Collecting the data;
3. Identifying land use;
4. Identifying land units;
5. Assessing land suitability;
6. Identifying environmental and socio-economic issues;
7. Identifying the most suitable use;
8. Planning land use: Application of Land Evaluation or Implementing Land Use Plan

1. Defining the Objectives

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The most significant decision at this stage relates to the level of planning that the study must serve.
Because these determine the precision of the evaluation and thus, the intensity of every aspect of the
investigation.
The definition of the objectives is a critical step in the evaluation procedure. It largely determines how
elaborate the study must be, how long it will take and how much it will cost. It also ensures that the
investigation set off in the right direction, with a good chance of providing all the advice that the planners
will need. The procedure allows for minor revisions of the initial objectives in the course of the study but
a major change at a late stage would be likely to involve repetition of fieldwork at a considerable cost.
Often, the most efficient approach is to phase the study through successive stages of increasing details.
The objectives must establish the boundaries and thus, the size of the study area. They must also provide
a first selective list of the forms of land use to be evaluated and indicate whether these evaluations need to
be made in qualitative or quantitative form. The study team needs guidance on these issues because the
choices must reflect the special interest of the planners and the aspirations of the local people.
Furthermore, without this guidance, the choice of land use alternatives to be considered could be
unlimited.
In framing the objectives, the need for comparison in land use planning must be recognized. For example,
if a major costly improvement such as new irrigation are planned, the objectives of the land evaluation
should include comparisons with the existing un-improved uses of the land so that the advantages of the
planned development can be truly assessed.
Environmental conservation is always an objective of land evaluation. It is assumed therefore, that no
form of land use will be judged suitable unless it can be sustained on a long-term basis without significant
damage to the land.

Major stages in defining objectives

Land evaluation for land use planning can be carried out on different scales such as national, state, county
or farm level. Objectives will be different at each of these levels, but the same approach is used to define
the objectives, which in turn determine the best land use for the area. The major stages are to:
 Identify relevant types of land use;
 Carry out surveys to establish needs and wishes of the local land users, needs of the community
as a whole;
 Rank objectives in order of priority.

2. Collection of Data
The range of data that could be relevant to land evaluation is huge and collecting it can be costly in both
time and money. There are three main ways to minimize costs:
 Focus on data that are essential to the evaluation;
 Search out and make maximum use of the existing data;
 Use new technology in data collection.
Selecting the right data is the most difficult of these economies for it is not easy to know in advance
which kinds of data will prove essential. If a need is not identified until late in the study, serious delays
ensue until the missing data are found.
Valuable data are often hidden in obscured archives and can be traced only by systematic enquiry. Once
located, old data must be carefully compared with the present situation to establish their relevance and
reliability. Satellite imagery, for example, sometimes reveals alarming inaccuracies in older maps.
Despite these warnings, using earlier survey data in conjunction with such modern aids as remotely
sensed imagery can make huge savings in time and money.
The new technology that is available for land evaluation consists mainly of the use of remote sensing and
computers. Stereoscopic examination of paired, black and white photographs obtained by conventional
aerial photography, the best tested form of remote sensing, remains the mainstay for interpretation of land
form, vegetation, land use, soils and geology and for other purposes such as contouring.

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Sources of Data
Type of Survey Source of Data Range of Data
Satellite Digital taps, Photographs, other imagery Water resources, vegetation, land use, infrastructure,
land forms, soil, etc.
Air craft Photographs (conventional infra-red), radar Land form, soils, vegetation, land use, farm
imagery. boundaries, water resources, crops, infrastructure,
wildlife, etc.
Ground Reports, Questionnaires, maps, etc. Soil, climate, land form, vegetation, land use,
population, socio-economic data, wildlife, etc.
Computers can now be used to store and manipulate the huge amounts of data needed in land evaluation.
Portable computers are being increasingly used to record, store, interpret, test and communicate, data at
the survey site.
The main impact of these new technologies has been to save time and money and to extend the range and
depth of land evaluation, allowing data to a greater complexity of land use alternatives to be collected
than was in the past.
However, many kinds of data have to be collected traditionally. For instance, the soil surveyor must dig
or drill holes to describe the sequence of soil horizons with depth. The hydro-geologist may have to drill
deeper holes to prove the existence of suspected ground water. The hydrologist has to set up gauges on
streams to measure surface water flow. The meteorologist has to rely on systematic measurements of
change in the weather at all established weather stations. Agriculturist, economist and sociologists,
observe people in action in farms, villages and markets and by means of questionnaires and other
enquiries, establish the patterns of their businesses. Foresters and livestock specialists make inventories
and observe how their respective resources are exploited, propagated and conserved. These and other
scientists collect the central core of basic data on land much as they have done for decades.
Aerial photographs are used to verify the accuracy of existing maps when collecting data to be used in
land evaluation.

Types of Data Needed

1. Physical Land Resources.

 Land
 Water resources
 Vegetation
 Soil, etc.
2. Socio-economic issues
 Human population
 Land tenure
 Other legal issues and constraints
 Development objectives and policies
3. Present land use
 Climate
 Major land uses and land use types
 Vegetation types and distribution
 Prevalent pests and diseases
 Infrastructure

3. Identifying Land Uses

The aim is to recognize and describe land utilization types that are either in existence or could be
developed.
A plot of land can often be put to any one of several possible uses, but rarely with the same degree of
success. One of the objectives of land evaluation is to inform this choice by assessing the suitability of

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each use for each land unit and vice versa. The first step in this procedure, is therefore, to determine
which forms of land are worth considering.
In reconnaissance study of a large area, it may be sufficient to identify possible land uses in general
terms, such as rain fed agriculture, irrigated agriculture, forestry and wildlife reserves, without further
definitions. Indeed, over a large area, the range of possible uses could be too large to handle if it were
sub-divided further. These sub-divisions are called major land use types.

4. Identifying Land Units

In a more detailed study, land use types have to be more carefully defined. Their definition must include
details not only of the produce foreseen but also of the production method and the socio-economic
settings of the production. These definitions are called Land Utilization Types (LUTs).
The forms of land utilization that are to be evaluated if not set out in the study objectives, need to be
identified early on because this may have a bearing on the data that need to be collected. Initially, the
descriptions can be fairly general. Typical examples are:
 Smallholder rain fed agriculture based on maize and cassava;
 Improved village woodland;
 Smallholder coffee farming;
 Government nature reserve; etc.
As the work proceeds, the descriptions of the utilization types can be modified and elaborated in keeping
with the overall precision of the work.

5. Assessing Land Suitability

Suitability is a measure of how well the qualities of a land unit match the requirements of a particular
form of land use. Suitability is assessed for each relevant use and each land unit identified in the study.
Matching land use to land is the essence of land evaluation and often influences all the other steps in the
study. For example, early investigations may show that parts of an area are too dry to grow a desired crop,
irrigation may therefore be needed. An additional land utilization type involving irrigation would then
have to be recognized and increased relevance of slope and drainage might then lead to changes in way
land units were mapped. The important point is that the systematic process of matching can really begin
only after the most informative definitions of land uses and land units have been established. In FAO’s
Framework for Land Evaluation, land is first classed as suitable (S) or not suitable (N). These
suitability classes can then be further sub-divided as required. In practice, three (3) classes S1, S2 and S3
are often used to distinguish land that is highly suitable, moderately suitable and marginally suitable
respectively for a particular use. Two (2) classes of Not Suitable can usefully distinguish land that is
unsuitable for particular use at present but which might be useable in the future (N1), from land that
offers no prospect (N2).
Each land use has requirements and limitations that relate separately to its objectives, its management
needs and to environmental issues. Different crops clearly have specific physiological requirements but
land use objectives such as recreation or watershed protection also have requirements related to soils and
climate. Management requirements include factors such as workability of the land, access to markets and
size of local land holdings. The environmental requirements of the land relate mainly to erosion and other
forms of soil degradation but can also include pollution, increased salinity and water logging.
The requirements and limitations of each land use can usually be specified in terms of a limited number
of land qualities, a growing period requirement, a moisture availability requirement or a water quality
limitation. The FAO guidelines for land evaluation for irrigated agriculture lists Thirty-Two (32) such
class-determining factors. If suitability classes have been defined in terms of a range of values for each
factor, the assessment is then straight forward.

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It is sometimes possible to change land qualities. For example, swampy land can be drained or steep land
terraced. If the suitability of the land for a particular use is assessed both with and without such
improvement, then the evaluation will provide a measure of the value of the improvement itself.
The first step in classifying land suitability is to decide which factor should be used to define suitability
class. Upper and lower limits for each relevant land characteristic or quality are then set for each class.
Local agronomic experiments are the best guide in the process. If these experiments cannot be carried out,
class-determining limits must be based on the experience of local farms or farms elsewhere. If no other
information is available, estimates from first principles may have to be used to set the limits. After this,
the properties of each land unit are reviewed and compared to the class limits. Each land unit can then be
assigned a suitability classification for each type of land use.

6. Identifying Environmental and Socio-economic Issues

Before a land use can be recommended in development plans, its environmental and socio-economic
implications must be evaluated further. Conservation interests are taken into account in the matching
process because suitability is assessed on sustained basis. But the environmental impacts the land use may
have on other land systems must also be assessed.
Irrigation schemes, for example change the pattern of water distribution in an area and can also affect
water quality. These changes may be significant or minor but can rarely be ignored. While drainage can
protect an irrigation scheme from water logging and salinization, then output from drainage can produce
these effects further downstream. If ground water is used excessively for irrigation, other wells, pumps
and natural springs may dry up and saline water may enter the aquifer with highly detrimental effects.

Forestry activities, whether they involve clearance, production or plantation are also likely to affect the
environment, particularly in relation to soil erosion, the rate of which may increase dramatically as forest
cover is removed, affecting agricultural production. The soil that is eroded may be deposited a long way
downstream, where it may even be more damaging to fishery and other aquatic organisms.

Changes in microclimate, moisture retention and runoff associated with large-scale felling of forest or
plantation are more difficult to assess. Local changes in vegetation and wildlife, which can result from
forestry and the prospects for regeneration after felling, should be evaluated as part of the matching
process. But these changes need to be assessed in a regional context. Will enough land still be devoted to
wildlife, for example?

Soil erosion and degradation of soil fertility, leading to loss of vegetation and further erosion, are the
principle environmental hazards associated with rain fed agriculture. Land utilization types that involve
the build-up of humus and ground cover on the plains, and the use of tree crops and agro-forestry on the
steeper slopes, should contain these problems on a local scale. But the effects of run-off, sedimentation
and pollution from excessive use of fertilizer are felt downstream and must be kept within acceptable
limits.

A number of other awkward questions may well arise, such as: Could future population growth render
current precautions inadequate? Could overstock lead to migrating livestock trample down land around
villages and water points, leading to destruction of topsoil that worsen erosion? Not all such problems are
addressed to complete solution but a first defense is to be aware of a threat before it develops beyond
control.

A new or improved land use can succeed only if it can be adapted to fit local social and economic
conditions. Socio-economic investigations are therefore a vital part of land evaluation, starting with the
initial formulation of the study’s objectives. Attention needs to be paid to markets (local, national and
even international), population levels and growth rate, problems of land tenure, the availability of skilled
and unskilled labour, transport of inputs and products and the ease with which subsistence needs for such

23
things as firewood, building materials and local grazing can be met. Local religions and cultures may be
important, particularly if new techniques, such as irrigation are being considered. Political circumstances
cannot be ignored and any analysis should take into account the needs of all members of the population,
including the minority groups.

In quantitative land evaluation, more detailed and expert economic studies are necessary. These can take
several forms and more than one form of presentation may be required. The balance of advantage, that is
profit or loss, can be assessed by financial analysis in relation to the individual farmer (or the enterprise of
which he is part) and by economic analysis in a broader national or community context.

It is important to distinguish the economics of land evaluation from project cost benefit analysis. Land
evaluation is concerned with land use on individual land units and develops assessments which, when
combined with other information, can greatly increase precision possible in project analysis. In
quantitative land evaluation, the range of each suitability class is always expressed in monetary cost-
benefit terms.

7. Identifying the Most Suitable Land Use

The best land use has to be selected in light of economic, social, environmental and sometimes political
factors. Once evaluated, land units are rated according to their suitability for a range of uses, including
the production of individual crops. The requirements of types of land use or crop are compared with the
characteristics and qualities of each land unit. This matching process provides a measure of how
successful any land use would be on a specific land unit.

Since land use normally involves the production of crops or products for consumption or sale, the
matching process concentrates on soil and climatic factors, measuring the level of output that could be
produced from a particular land unit using a given production system or level of inputs. In fact, the
resulting suitability rating often represents average expected yield levels.

But the suitability-matching process does not take into account whether a potential market exists or
whether it would be necessary to transport products to the market. It is as far as possible, a technical
process, which does not include off-farm, or non-production factors such as the availability of credits and
does not make value judgements on the potential uses of the land. That is a separate and subsequent stage
at which environmental, social and economic issues are taken into consideration.

Once the land unit has been rated in terms of its suitability and potential for crops or uses, the best use has
to be selected in the light of economic, social and sometimes political factors. In general, this will entail:
 A review of objectives in order to select land uses which have the potential to produce the
required outputs.
 An economic evaluation to compare input levels with expected output levels, establish which of
the land uses would be economically viable and whether the required inputs and infrastructure
are available, or could be availed.
 A socio-political evaluation to establish whether potential land uses are socially, legally and
politically viable and whether their viability be explained for acceptance.
 An environmental impact assessment to establish the long-term effect of potential land uses and
production systems on the land units for which they are proposed.
The result of the above procedure will often be a proposed modification of existing land uses and
production systems and may also indicate the need to modify the economic or legal environment, provide
training, institutional and financial support and infrastructure as part of a proposed development plan.
These activities form the borderline between land evaluation and land use planning.

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8. Planning Land Use: Applications of Land Evaluation

1. Application of Land Evaluation in Rain fed Agriculture

Arable land and permanent crops cover about 1500 million hectares of the earth’s surface. Only 15
percent of this area is irrigated. The remaining area depends on rainfall.
Recent droughts and famine, notably in the Sahel region are a reminder of how precarious this
dependence on rainfall can be. Reduced production due to moisture stress, however, is not confined to
arid areas. It can occur wherever rainfall fails. Moisture availability is thus a land quality of special
importance in land evaluation. It is a complex quality, reflecting the interaction of many characteristics of
climate, soil, landform and hydrology. The balance between rainfall and evaporation is of course, the
primary determinant, but effects on plants are modified by the capacity of the soil to accept, store and
release excess moisture to the roots. Topographical position and the presence of groundwater may modify
the plants water supply. Changes in any of these factors can alter moisture availability and therefore, the
suitability of land for a particular rain fed crop or farming system.

These factors not only change from place to place but also with the seasons and from year to year.
Furthermore, different plants and even different stages of growth of a single plant, respond to moisture
stress in unique ways.
The FAO approach to land evaluation emphasizes the possibility of raising the suitability of a land unit
for particular use by good management. For example, even if irrigation water is not economically
available, it may still be possible to improve moisture availability by water harvesting, through minimum
tillage, better weed control, mulching and planting wind breaks to reduce evaporation. These techniques
can raise productivity to make a previously unsuitable farming system suitable.
Many other land qualities are open to improvement by good management practice. Nutrient availability,
for example, can be by judicious use of mineral fertilizers, animal manure or garden compost. Improved
management can also control erosion and flood hazards, soil workability and susceptibility to pests and
diseases.
During the process of matching land and use, all these constraints are examined and the possibility of
making improvement is considered. The selected management techniques are written into the definition
of the Land Utilization Type (LUT), which is then evaluated on the assumption that these techniques are
used.
If a new technique such as irrigation or terracing involves major investment or will induce major changes
in the nature of the land, the evaluation can be approached in two ways: by recognizing and comparing
the land use with and without the investment as two separate Land Utilization Types (LUTs) or by
defining a present suitability classification (without change) for uses with the same end product. In either
case, the advantage or otherwise of any major investment can be readily assessed.

Qualities to be Examined when Choosing Land for Rain fed Agriculture

Radiation regime (Total radiation, day length Soil toxicity

Temperature regime Pests and diseases
Moisture availability (moisture critical periods, drought Soil workability
hazard
Oxygen availability to roots (drainage conditions) Potential for mechanization
Nutrient availability Conditions for land preparation or clearance
Nutrient retention capacity Conditions for storage and processing
Rooting conditions Conditions affecting timing of production
Conditions affecting germination Access within production units
Air humidity Size of potential management units
Conditions for ripening Location

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 Flood hazards Erosion hazard
Climatic hazards Soil degradation hazard

Land use and units within a region form a complex land system. Choosing which systems are worth
evaluating is complicated by the range of crops that can be grown separately, in sequence or in mixed or
intercropped systems.

2. Application of Land Evaluation in Irrigated Agriculture

The amount of irrigated land in developing countries has increased by more than 50 million hectares over
the past 25 years and there is a scope for a similar increase in the next 25 years. Where rainfall is
inadequate or uncertain, notably in much of Africa, only irrigation can provide enough water for reliable
higher crop yields. Careful land evaluation is especially important in planning irrigation, as without it,
irrigation can be costly, disruptive of lifestyles and environmentally damaging.
Irrigated land utilization types are diverse and a wide range of crops can be grown, even including dry
land and wetland crops within the same year. There are two main ways of dealing with the variations in
water availability that occur. Separate land utilization types can be defined for specific crop sequences
and water requirements; or water availability can be used as a factor to determine the suitability class of a
smaller number of land utilization types.
Without careful planning and evaluation, irrigation can lead to soil damage, erosion and the spread of
vector-borne diseases.
Separate land utilization types may need to be recognized to distinguish alternative methods of irrigation.
Surface irrigation, for example often involves spending a great deal on land levelling and drainage. These
preparations are less crucial for sprinkler irrigation but the costs of pipes, sprinklers and pumping
equipment may be high.
Because of the investment involved, land evaluation for irrigation should always be carried out so that
scheme’s economic and financial feasibility can be analyzed. Estimates of capital investment and land
development costs, for example, need to be defined as class-determining factors in evaluating the
suitability of different methods of irrigation.
Quantified evaluation calls for detailed examination of the physical environment. Irrigation water is an
erosion hazard even on gentle slopes and water that cannot drain away will cause water logging and other
negative effects. Thus, the factors that bear directly on these hazards - topography, the physical
characteristics of the soils and hydrology – are especially important in relation to irrigation.
In the early stages of an investigation, the amount of water available for irrigation and the exact areas that
can be supplied are likely to be uncertain. If this is the case, a suitability classification identifying
provisionally irrigatable land can be carried out for the whole project area. This will help in the
formulation of a project plan and will indicate the areas that are physically unsuitable for irrigation and
can therefore be excluded from further investigation.
The possibility of environmental degradation as a result of the introduction of irrigation is very real.
Historical evidence of the collapse of civilizations from this cause underlines the need to look beyond
mere economic yardsticks in predicting the suitability of land for irrigation. Apart from damage to soils
which may be difficult to reverse, the risk of spreading vector-borne diseases such as malaria, bilharzia
and river blindness must also be considered. So too, must a wide variety of socio-economic issues,
ranging from traditional attitudes, laws and customs to problems of labour supply and food preferences.
Any of these can prejudice the success of new irrigation schemes.

3. Application of Land Evaluation in Extensive Grazing

Rangeland occupy more than one-third of the Earth’s land surface and although generally ill-suited to
farming because of insufficient or reliable rainfall, short growing season or excessively rugged terrain,
they provide a livelihood for more than 25 million people engaged in two of human oldest activities –
livestock grazing and hunting. Demand for animal products continues to increase and there is a tendency
for farmers to increase livestock numbers, sometimes beyond the viable carrying capacity of the land. In

26
the drier rangelands, the risk of desertification through overgrazing is increasing and in the wetter areas
pressure from expanding human populations is leading to competition between pastoralists and farmers.
Well planned livestock grazing and farming can be mutually supportive and such arrangement provides
plant feed for the herds in critical seasons in exchange for animal protein, manure and power. In contrast,
straight competition can be disastrous, leading only to erosion and the loss of farmlands and pasture. Such
competition for land calls for careful planning and creates an important demand for land evaluation.
The financial return from extensive grazing is low. This fact has two important consequences for land
evaluation. Firstly, it makes it difficult to justify large expenditures on data collection and analysis.
Secondly, it implies that land improvements requiring significant expenditure are un-likely to be feasible,
particularly if the expenditure would be recurrent as in repeated application of fertilizers. These
considerations greatly reduce the predictive value of land evaluation for extensive grazing, as land must
be mainly evaluated in its current condition, using the status of the existing vegetation as a general
yardstick.
Suitability of land for extensive grazing is normally measured in terms of the number of animals that can
wisely be allowed to graze a land unit for all or part of a year, the carrying capacity. This depends mainly
on the amount of feed and water that will be available to the animals on that land in all but exceptional
years. Other factors that may enter the suitability analysis include biological hazards (toxic plants, pests
and diseases), climatic hazards and practical issues such as access to grazing areas, ease of fencing and
location.
Grazing Capacity is a measure of the ability of land to meet just the feed requirements of a particular
species during a particular part of the year. This can be used in evaluation as a kind of super land quality,
embracing the interacting effects of all the big climatic factors in producing feedstuff. Since grazing
capacity can be assessed by sampling existing vegetation in conjunction mainly with climatic data, the
need for other aspects of basic data collection is reduced.
Distances which herds are moved in search of fresh grazing and water and in response to the seasons vary
greatly with the kind of livestock husbandry being practiced. In communal grazing, possibly combined
with agriculture, movement is limited and may be negligible. In ranching, movement is greater but still
systematic between fenced areas. Nomadism extends erratically as need dictates, over considerable
distances while herdsmen may move their livestock hundreds of kilometers over traditional routes in
pursuit of seasonally favourable conditions. These, together with hunting and recreation represent the
major kinds of grazing land use, but can be sub-divided for evaluation purposes in terms of kinds of
animals and animal produce and by criteria such as labour intensity, capital input, knowledge and
attitudes.
The mobility of livestock presents a special problem in land evaluation because it implies that the
acceptability of a single land utilization type may depend on its suitability on each of several successive
land units during specific periods of the year. An acceptable sequence and timing for the use of different
land units may have to be recognized and assessed, creating problems that have to be faced anew in each
location. A suitable grazing use will be one that provides a herd of desired size with adequate feed and
water throughout most years, without placing any part of the land under excessive pressure. Defining the
desired size of herd is itself a complex socio-economic issue and the solution must take into account the
needs and attitudes of the local people.

4. Application of Land Evaluation in Forestry

Every year, more than 25 million hectares of forestland are converted to other uses, even though fuel
wood is in critically short supply in many parts of the world. Land evaluation has an essential role to play
in deciding which areas should be preserved for production and conservation, where forest clearance is
justified and where new forests should be planted or allow to develop.
In the past, forestry was often assigned to the poorest classes of rocky, stony or steeply sloping land.
While forestry may well be the best and even the only effective use of such land, future demand for fuel
wood and timber will be met only if the specific growing requirements of these trees are taken into

27
consideration. Furthermore, in deciding whether better quality land should be allocated to forestry, all the
benefits of forestry must be considered.
The major benefits of forestry include the production of commercial timber, pulp and household items
(including fuel wood and products as diverse as dyes, medicines, fiber, glues, mushrooms and honey), the
protection of land and water resources and the creation of resources for tourism. These major forestry
land uses apply to natural forests and plantations.
These categories can then be sub-divided into land utilization types defined by the nature of the products
and expected benefits and by the forms of management and investment planned. In detailed studies,
examples of criteria that can be used to distinguish different forestland utilization types include the
intended level of labour, capital investment and technology for use in silviculture, harvesting and
conservation (notably firefighting).
Because forests nearly always serve more than one purpose, the multiple land utilization type is the norm
in forestry. Mutually supportive combinations of forestry and agriculture (cropping), known as agro-
forestry, often deserve consideration, especially in cases where forests are being re-established or where
risks of wind or erosion are severe. Soil and water conservation are nearly always important objectives of
forestry and there is also growing appreciation of the importance of the preservation of genetic resources,
both of flora and fauna. This diversity of potential uses calls for wide-ranging consultation with users,
policy-makers and technical experts when formulating evaluation objectives and land utilization types.
The process of suitability assessment is essentially the same as that used for rain fed agriculture. The data
collection stage, however, may need to include established procedures of forest inventory, volume
measurement and yield prediction to provide knowledge of existing forest stands and growth potential.
Moreover, the evaluation must take account of the long time-scale involved in bringing a forest to
maturity and harvest. This does not involve any change in principle because even cropping should be
evaluated on a sustained basis, but it may be of relevance when assessing other pressures on the land over
the long term.

Types of Data Required for Forestland Evaluation

Biophysical Economic Socio-cultural

Precipitation Access by kind Total population
Bedrock, kind and depth, etc. Timber haulage, distance Population structure
Mineral and coal deposits, landform, slop, elevation, Internal markets Tribal/cultural communities
etc.
Soil depth, pH, drainage, soil texture, fertility, erosion External markets Land ownership
evidence, etc.
Current land cover and land use Products Employment
Timber volume by vegetation class Production disposition Community service
Herbage production by vegetation class Disposable income
Wildlife, kinds and distribution Total income
Water table location
Water, quality and availability
Flood hazard

In establishing study objectives, land uses shall be identified for investigation. These will include
protective forest, agricultural, residential and industrial uses, settlement, fish farming, mineral
exploitation, recreation and grazing.
The land uses shall then be defined and their characteristics and requirements specified. Land units shall
be identified and mapped by overlaying maps of land forms, soil and vegetation types. The characteristics
of each land unit, defined in biophysical, economic and socio-cultural terms shall then be matched with
the requirements of the separate uses to develop suitability classifications for each land use.

28
This approach can be very useful and particularly satisfactory for guiding land use planning in politically
sensitive areas such as in watersheds.
The difficulties are likely to occur principally in defining appropriate economic and socio-cultural criteria
and securing confidence and cooperation of local people in divulging information of this kind. A need to
develop simple yet comprehensive operational procedures for collecting field data is recognized. Subject
to suitable adjustments in light of the experience, the procedures may be suitable for nationwide
application.

5. Application of Land Evaluation for New Lands for Settlement

Overcrowding in fertile areas in the developing world can be solved either by using land more intensively
or by resettling people on new land. In both cases, careful land evaluation is required.
Unfortunately, most of the still unsettled areas are agriculturally poor and cannot support sustained
cropping. This is obvious in places that are arid, cold or steeply sloping but less obvious in the tropical
rain forest. However, lush forest vegetation is no guarantee of high soil fertility. More often, the soils
contain a limited volume of nutrients originating mainly from the vegetation itself. This supply of nutrient
is irretrievably lost if the forest is felled. Usually, less than 20 percent of this kind of land can sustain the
unsophisticated cropping with limited fallow that typifies resettlement.
In the past, much money and effort has been wasted by planning and even implementing resettlement
schemes without first establishing the suitability of a chosen site. The distress suffered by unsuccessful
settlers on these sites has been even more painful. To rely on chance when selecting a site is to accept
odds at least five to one (5:1) against success.
The first task is to use land evaluation to identify suitable areas for settlement. Very large areas, perhaps a
whole nation, may have to be examined; however, if no national overview exists, the study can be
planned to serve many purposes besides resettlement. Many countries could benefit from such an
overview, which can unify much scattered, uncorrelated information. Modern technology, especially
satellite imagery, radar scanning (so useful in the cloud-covered humid tropics) and computerized data
storage are crucial. In the context of resettlement, the aims of the review should not be ambitious. Small-
scale mapping (say 1:250000) will not yield more than broad indications of the likely quality of the soils
but it will help eliminate huge areas by revealing unfavourable aspects of topography, existing land use,
swamps and other factors. The remaining areas are worth further examination.
Two more stages of land evaluation are often desirable before detailed planning can begin. The first
confirms the general suitability of the soil, examines alternative land use possibilities and indicates where
each alternative should be considered. The final step is a detailed land evaluation, particularly if the
topography and soils are complex, so that optimum land use pattern can be determined.
Land evaluation for resettlement concerns people who have moved from a familiar environment. If new
conditions are very different, their situation is correspondingly more difficult. They may lack experience
of how their new land should be used or of the harshness of local climate and soils, an unusual and
precarious situation for farming families. Sometimes, farmers who used to grow paddy rice have to be
resettled in areas where only dry land cropping is possible. In such circumstances, land evaluators have a
special responsibility to anticipate all the problems that may arise in relation to the land utilization types
that they put forward.

References
GIZ (2012). Land Use Planning: Concepts, Tools and Application
FAO (1993). Guidelines for Land Use Planning. FAO Development Series No.1

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