The Main Contents

- What is the theory of translation?

- Definitions of translation

- The nature of translation

- Types of equivalents of correlated units

- The relationship between meaning, style and culture

- What does the translator do? What is the theory of translation?

The surface meaning of the two will be approximately similar.

Now we have to take some general points of translation into consideration. It is necessary to put
forward the matter of meanings. You have to make some comparison and contrast with the surface
meaning of the two languages before rendering. If possible, keep the original meaning of the text. The
theory of translation Basically there are two competing theories of translation. In one, the predominant
purpose is to express as exactly as possible the full force and meaning of every word and phrase in the
original, and in the other the predominant purpose is to produce a result that does not read like a
translation at all, but rather moves in its new dress with the same ease as in its native rendering.

DEFINITION OF TRANSLATION
Part I Translation is basically a change of form.
When we speak of the form of a language, we are referring to the actual words, phrases, sentences,
paragraphs, etc. The forms are referred to as the surface structure of a language. It is the structural part of
language which is actually seen in print or heard in speech. In translation the form of the source language
is replaced by the form of the receptor/target language. Translation is the expression in another language
of what has been expressed in one language. In this definition, you should preserve semantic and stylistic
equivalencies. You should be careful when you express the other people's ideas. It is very easy to be
erroneous. Translation is the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation
of an equivalent text in a second language. In this case you can understand that there must be an
equivalent text in the second language. You should try to find and create as many as equivalents as
possible. Translation is rendering a written text into another language in a way that the author intended
the text. You should bear in mind that it is important to understand the author's intention. If you have no
idea about the author's intention, you will be in the middle of the road. Translating may be defined as the
process of transforming signs or representations into other signs or representations
If the originals have some significance, we generally require that their images also have the same
significance, or, more realistically, as nearly the same significance as we can get. Keeping significance
invariant is the central problem in translating between natural languages. Translation may be defined as
follows: the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent material in another language.
In this definition, translation is expressed in the most general aspect. The replacement of the textual
material is not really easy.
Definitions of Translation Part II
To translate means “to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target
circumstances". One of the most important factors determining the purpose of a translation is the
addressee, who is the intended receiver or audience of the target text with their culture-specific world-
knowledge, their expectations and their communicative needs. Every translation is directed at an intended
audience. Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the
source-language message. In this aspect the reproduction of a language is put forward. The natural
equivalent is paid much attention to. Of course, the translator has to spend much more time on the nature
of the target language. Translation leads from a source-language text to a target-language text which is as
close an equivalent as possible and presupposes an understanding of the content and style of the original.
In translation the understanding of the content and style of the original is very necessary. It is the key
factor to render a text. The presupposition is a must for the translation process. Translation can be
conceived as an integral communicative performance, which without any extra-textual additions (notes,
explanations etc.) When the translation is an end in itself, in the sense of simply seeking to extend an
originally monolingual communicative process to include receivers in another language, it provides an
insight into the cognitive meaning, linguistic form and communicative function of the SL text.
Translating as a code-switching operation. With the more pragmatic reorientation at the beginning of the
1970s, the focus shifted from the word or phrase to the text as a unit of translation. Equivalence as a basic
concept or even constituent of translation was never really questioned. The ideal translation would be one
in which the aim in the target language is equivalence as regards the conceptual content, linguistic form
and communicative function of a source-language text. This means that the source-language content,
form, style, function, etc. must be preserved, or at least that the translation must seek to preserve them as
far as possible.
THE NATURE OF TRANSLATION
Reproducing the Message
You should bear in mind that translating must aim primarily at “reproducing the message.” To do
anything else is essentially false to one’s task as a translator. But to reproduce the message one must
make a good many grammatical and lexical adjustments. A meaningful equivalent is "tender
compassion,” and it is precise in this manner that many translations attempt to reproduce the significance
of this source-language expression. Equivalence rather than Identity The translator must strive for
equivalence rather than identity. In a sense this is just another way of emphasizing the reproduction of the
message rather than the conservation of the form of the utterance, but it reinforces the need for radical
alteration of a phrase such as I think or in my opinion which may be quite meaningless.
Dynamic Equivalence over Formal Correspondence
Equivalence in translation is considered mainly in terms of form and meaning. However, over the past
years, translation scholars have focused more on the communicative function than on the notion of
equivalence of the target text. The translator is seen as a bilingual communicator in an intercultural
situation, who can competently produce utterances which are also appropriate in the given sociocultural
circumstances. A Natural Equivalent Natural refers to three areas of the communication process: a natural
rendering should fit the whole receptor language and culture, the context of the specific message, and the
receptor-language audience. Therefore, the translation should bear no obvious trace of a foreign origin. A
natural translation would have to deal with two main areas of adaptation, that is grammar and lexicon.
THE RELATIONSHIP OF MEANING, STYLE AND CULTURE
Significance of Meaning
As the matter has already been indicated in the definitions of translating, meaning must
be given priority, for it is the content of the message which is of prime importance in
translating. Working in this way we may have formal consistency of word, phrase, and
clause order (word order is, however, more difficult to retain than phrase or clause order),
length of sentences, and classes of words, e.g., translating nouns by nouns and verbs by
verbs. All of these formal features combine to produce what is called “formal
correspondence.” However, when we speak of verbal consistency in translating, we focus
primary attention upon the way in which specific words are translated, but words are not
the only formal features involved in formal consistency.
The Significance of Style
Though style is secondary to content, it is nevertheless important. One should not
translate poetry as though it were prose, nor expository material as though it were straight
narrative. In trying to reproduce the style of the original one must beware, however, of
producing something which is not functionally equivalent. T
The Importance of Culture
Some difficulties can arise when translating. One key factor is cultural sensitivity: Not
only do translators have to communicate the message from the source language into the
target language, but they also have to take into account the culture of the target language.
In order to avoid misunderstandings, translators have to look out for the lexical content
and syntax, as well as ideologies, value systems and ways of life in a given culture –
translators need to know their audience in both languages and also consider the variants
of the target language, like European French and Canadian French, among other things.
TYPES OF EQUIVALENTS OF CORRELATED UNITS
Regular equivalents The structural similarity of ST and TT implies that relationships of
equivalence are established between correlated units in the two texts. Depending on the
type of the language units involved regular equivalents can be classified as lexical
equivalents, phraseological equivalents or grammatical equivalents. The choice of the
equivalent will depend on the relative importance of a particular semantic element in the
act of communication. Permanent equivalents You should know that there is a one-to-one
correspondence between such units and their equivalents. Thus Canada in Vietnamese is
Canada, a machine-gun as súng máy and water is nước. As a rule this type of
correspondence is found with words of specific character, such as scientific and technical
terms, proper or geographical names and similar words whose meaning is more or less
independent of the particular contextual situation. Non-permanent equivalents (variable
equivalents) The existence of a number of non-permanent (or variable) equivalents to a
SL units implies the necessity of selecting one of them in each particular case, taking into
account the way the unit is used in ST and the points of difference between the semantics
of its equivalents in TL. Occasional equivalents (contextual substitutes) We have seen
that words with regular equivalents are not infrequently translated with the help of
contextual substitutes. It is very important to find some related context clues in order to
find out the true meaning of the text.
Types of context
Linguistic context The linguistic context is made up by the other Sourse Language units
in the Sourse Translation. The linguistic context will enable the translator to make a
correct choice among the Vietnamese equivalents to an English noun and vice versa.
Situational context The situational context includes the temporal, spatial and other
circumstances under which Sourse Translation was produced as well as all facts which
the receptor is expected to know so that he could adequately interpret the message.
WHAT DOES THE TRANSLATOR DO?

Translators should be familiar with: the source language You should have a perfect knowledge of the
language from which you are translating and an equally excellent knowledge of the language into which
you are translating. At this point you must have a wide knowledge in both languages for getting the
equivalence in the target language. Translators should be familiar with: the target language The
translator discovers the meaning behind the forms in the source language and does his best to produce
the same meaning in the target language - using the forms and structures of the target language.
Consequently, what is supposed to change is the form and the code and what should remain unchanged
is the meaning and the message. Translators should be familiar with: the subject matter. The translator
should understand perfectly the content and intention of the author whom he is translating. The
principal way to reach it is reading all the sentences or the text completely so that you can give the idea
that you want to say in the target language because the most important characteristic of this technique
is translating the message as clearly and naturally as possible.

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION I What is the aim of translating? Students yourselves have to make a
contribution to the answer to the question. Different students of you may bring out different ideas. The
matter is that you have to brainstorm. What are the basic characteristics of translation, according to the
definitions of translation given above? For this question you have to show your understandings on the
characteristic features of translation activities. You have to exchange your ideas. What is the nature of
translation? You have to take hold of the nature of translation. Show your understandings among your
friends.

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION II What are the different kinds of equivalents in translation? If possible,
show your strength in finding the equivalents in translation. It is better for you to make use of this. For
more information you can look back at the previous parts of the collections of the lectures. What
qualities do you think a translator needs to have to do the job based on the characteristics described in
your definition? You can choose to mention the things that you are able to do. It is better for you to
visualize the tasks and responsibilities of the translator. Try to adopt the qualities that suit you. Point out
the basic tasks the translator must perform in the job. Give examples. The tasks of translator are really
heavy. You can perform the most essential and basic ones first. Reproducing the Message Aspects to be
reproduce in translation It is necessary to reproduce the main ideas of the sourse texts. You have to pay
attention to the matter of how, when, what and where to reproduce the message. Especially, the styles
of writing and the genres of the texts. The nature of the message In some messages the content is of
primary consideration, and in others the form must be given a higher priority. The purpose of the author
and of the translator is to give information on both form and content; to aim at full intelligibility of the
reader so he/she may understand the full implications of the message. Equivalence rather than Identity
Understanding equivalence Little attempt was made to objectify the subjective importance of
equivalence as a concept. It is one thing is to argue that substantial equivalence is an illusion, but quite
another to understand why anyone should be prepared to believe in it. Equivalence must be given a
higher priority. Only equivalence can create the value of the translation. Identity is who we are. The
paradox of identity is that on the one hand it is about ‘sameness’; what we have in common with other
groups, but on the other hand, identity is about being unique. It doesn't help much for the translation.

Dynamic Equivalence over Formal Correspondence

Dynamic Equivalence

We can see that dynamic equivalence tends to favour a more natural rendering, for instance when the
readability of the translation is more important than the preservation of the original grammatical
structure. Dynamic equivalence is the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text
has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like
that of the original receptors.

Formal Correspondence

Formal correspondence tends to emphasise fidelity to the lexical details and grammatical structure of
the original language. In some business settings people may insist on formal correspondence because
they believe that fidelity to the grammatical structure of the language equals greater accuracy whereas
in literature a novel might be translated with greater use of dynamic equivalence so that it may read
well. A Natural Equivalent at at different levels

General points

Equivalence that can appear at word level and above word level, when translating from one language
into another. Equivalence at word level is the first element to be taken into consideration. In fact, when
you start analyzing the ST you look at the words as single units in order to find a direct 'equivalent' term
in the Target Language. This means that you should pay attention to a number of factors.

Grammatical equivalence

We know that grammatical rules may vary across languages and this may pose some problems in terms
of finding a direct correspondence in the Target Language. Different grammatical structures in the
Sourse Language and TL may cause remarkable changes in the way the information or message is carried
across. These changes may induce the translator either to add or to omit information in the TT because
of the lack of particular grammatical devices in the TL itself. Textual equivalence Texture is a very
important feature in translation since it provides useful guidelines for the comprehension and analysis
of the ST which can help the translator in his or her attempt to produce a cohesive and coherent text for
the TC audience in a specific context. It is up to you to decide whether or not to maintain the cohesive
ties as well as the coherence of the SL text.

Pragmatic equivalence

Implicature is not about what is explicitly said but what is implied. Therefore, you need to work out
implied meanings in translation in order to get the ST message across. Your task is to recreate the
author's intention in another culture in such a way that enables the readers to understand it clearly.

Meaning in translation

General points

Translation is not merely concerning on meaning as a unit of lexical meaning. The process of rendering
meaning involves some aspects as diction, grammatical structure, communication setting, and cultural
context of the source. Meaning of the source and target texts must be equivalent. The meaning of a
given word or set of words is best understood as the contribution that word or phrase can make to the
meaning or function of the whole sentence or linguistic utterance where that word or phrase occurs.

Referential Meaning

Referential meaning is word as symbol which refers to an object, process, abstract thing, and relation.
We should know that referential meaning is also known as ‘the meaning of reference, is often referred
to as the "referential" meaning, the "lexical" meaning, the "conceptual" meaning, or the "denotative"
meaning’. Connotative Meaning Understanding meaning of aword is not merely based on the referred
object of the word. Sometimes, you need to give emotional reaction to the word. The reaction might be
strong, weak, positive or negative. This kind of meaning is closely related to individual emotional
reaction which, then, is named as connotative meaning.

Contextual consistency

The linguistic reasons are that (1) each language covers all of experience with a set of verbal symbols,
i.e., words to designate various features of experience, and (2) each language is different from all other
languages in the ways in which the sets of verbal symbols classify the various elements of experience.
Style in translation

Officialese Language

Officialese or bureaucratese language is a derogatory term for language that sounds official. It is the
"language of officialdom". Officialese is characterized by a preference for wordy, long sentences; a
preference for complex words, code words or buzzwords over simple, traditional ones; a preference for
vagueness over directness and a preference for passive over active voice.

Official language

An official language is a language that is given a special legal status in a particular country, state, or
other jurisdiction. Typically a country's official language refers to the language used within government
(e.g., courts, parliament, administration). The term "official language" does not typically refer to the
language used by a people or country, but by its government.

Formal language

A broad term for speech or writing marked by an impersonal, objective, and precise use of language. A
formal prose style is typically used in scholarly books and articles, technical reports, research papers,
and legal documents.

Informal language

A broad term for speech or writing marked by a casual, familiar, and generally colloquial use of
language. An informal writing style is often more direct than a formal style and may rely more heavily on
contractions, abbreviations, short sentences, and ellipses.

Slang Slang is the use of words that are not considered standard English. It should never be used in
academic or professional writing. Often, these words are developed from fads or simple laziness.
Sometimes slang is used by a given group and those outside the group do not understand it. Slang can
also be insulting to some people or groups.

Taboo

Taboo words are those that are to be avoided entirely, or at least avoided in 'mixed company' or 'polite
company.' Typical examples involve common swear words such as Damn! or Shit! The latter is heard
more and more in 'polite company,' and both men and women use both words openly. Many, however,
feel that the latter word is absolutely inappropriate in 'polite' or formal contexts. In place of these
words, certain euphemisms--that is polite substitutes for taboo words--can be used. Colloquial It is the
characteristic style of writing that seeks the effect of informal spoken language as distinct from formal or
literary English.

Colloquial language is a variety of language commonly employed in conversation or other

communication in informal situations. It is the variety of language that speakers typically use when they
are relaxed and not especially self-conscious.

Culture in translation

Untranslatability

Untranslatability is a property of a text, or of any utterance, in one language, for which no equivalent
text or utterance can be found in another language when translated. Terms are, however, neither
exclusively translatable nor exclusively untranslatable; rather, the degree of difficulty of translation
depends on their nature, as well as on the translator's knowledge of the languages in question.

Adaptation

An adaptation, also known as a free translation, is a procedure whereby the translator replaces a term
with cultural connotations, where those connotations are restricted to readers of the original language
text, with a term with corresponding cultural connotations that would be familiar to readers of the
translated text. Cultural elements The cultural elements are the name of a company or a product,
humor, material culture such as names of food, the style of the language and the target audience,
pictures, symbols, colors, gestures, habits, traditions as well as cultural references on which you can rely
to correctly convey a cultural equivalent in the target language.

Regular equivalents in translation

Lexical equivalence

Lexical equivalence deals with translation of words and rendering their meanings which consists of two
componenst – denotation and connotation. There are a lot of differences in the range of denotational
and pragmatic semantic units when comparing a lexical item with its equivalent in a different language.

Phraseological equivalence

Phraseological units are lexical combinations, the meaning of which is defined by the whole expression.
The most distinctive feature of phraseological unit is its emotional expressiveness and conciseness of
thought expression. Phraseological units are functioning in the newspaper style. It should be noted that
defining phraseological units in the text and the ability to find an equivalent to it during the translation
process is the most important stage for the translator.

Grammatical equivalence

The choice of grammatical units in TT largely depends on the semantics and combinability of its lexical
elements. Therefore there are practically no permanent grammatical equivalents. The variable
equivalents in the field of grammar may analogous forms in TL or different forms with a similar meaning.
As often as not such equivalents are interchangeable and the translator has a free choice between them.
Occasional equivalents in translation

Loan-word usage

We use loan-words imitating in TL the form of the SL word or word combination, or using an explanation
to convey the meaning of the SL unit followed by a foot-note explaining the meaning of the equivalent-
lacking word in ST.

Approximate substitute usage

We use approximate substitutes (approximate translation) when we want to make use of a Targget
Language form partially equivalent to the equivalent-lacking Sourse Language unit. Transformation
application We use transformations (transformational translation) (nouns into verbs, phrases into
clauses…), when we want to make our translations more vivid and interesting.

Zero translations

We use zero translations when the meaning of the grammatical unit is not rendered in the translation
since it is non-existent in TL or practically identical to the meaning of some other unit and can be safely
left out.

Tips for better translation Tip 1 You should understand perfectly the content and intention of the author
whom he is translating. The principal way to reach it is reading all the sentences or the text completely
so that you can give the idea that you want to say in the target language.
Tip 2 You should have a perfect knowledge of the language from which you are translating and an
equally excellent knowledge of the language into which you are translating. At this point you must have
a wide knowledge in both languages for getting the equivalence in the target language.

Tip 3 You should avoid the tendency to translate word for word because doing so is to destroy the
meaning of the original and to ruin the beauty of the expression.

Tip 4 You should employ the forms of speech in common usage. You have to bear in mind that the
people to whom the translation will be addressed and use words that can be easily understood