DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY - SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

MODULE-2
HUMAN ORGAN SYSTEMS AND BIO DESIGNS - 1
Syllabus
Brain as a CPU system (architecture, CNS and Peripheral Nervous System, signal
transmission, EEG, Robotic arms for prosthetics. Engineering solutions for Parkinson’s
disease).Eye as a Camera system (architecture of rod and cone cells, optical corrections,
cataract, lens materials, bionic eye).Heart as a pump system (architecture, electrical
signaling - ECG monitoring and heart related issues, reasons for blockages of blood vessels,
design of stents, pace makers, defibrillators).

HUMAN ORGAN SYSTEMS

The human body can be considered as a biological machine. Like a machine, the human body is
composed of various interconnected parts that work together to perform specific functions. All
these organs together are called as human organ systems. There are several organ systems in the
human body, each with its own set of organs and functions.

The major organ systems are given below

1. Circulatory System 6. Skeletal System
2. Respiratory System 7. Endocrine System
3. Digestive System 8. Reproductive System
4. Nervous System 9. Urinary System
5. Muscular System 10. Integumentary System

BIO DESIGNS
Using the principles from biology and nature in the engineering field of design to create innovative
solutions for various applications is called as bio
design.
Examples:
1. Lotus leaves have inspired the development of
self-cleaning surfaces and coatings that repel
water and dirt, mimicking the lotus effect.
2. The adhesive capabilities of gecko feet have
been a source of inspiration for scientists to
produce bio-inspired adhesives.
3. Bioluminescent Lighting: Taking inspiration
from bioluminescent organisms like fireflies and
jellyfish, designers have created lighting solutions
that emit light without the need for electricity.

Department of Chemistry SVIT

 DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY - SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

HUMAN BRAIN
The brain is the center of the nervous system in humans. It is located within the skull. It is a complex and vital organ and
is responsible for controlling and coordinating various bodily functions. The brain plays central role in processing
information from the senses, enabling perception, thinking, and consciousness.
The brain is composed of billions of specialized cells called neurons. These neurons form intricate networks and
pathways throughout the brain and the rest of the body. This network allows the transmission of information and
communication with each other through electrical and chemical signals.
THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE BRAIN (ANOTOMY OF BRAIN)
The brain is a highly complex organ of human brain. It consists of different region, each region will perform their own
specialized functions. An overview of an overview of the major structural components of the brain and their functions is
given briefly below.
1. Cerebrum: The cerebrum is the largest and most prominent part of the brain. It is divided into two hemispheres, called
as the left and right cerebrums. These two are connected by a bundle of nerve fibers. The cerebrum is responsible for
higher cognitive functions, including conscious thought, reasoning, memory, language processing, perception, and
voluntary movements.
2. Cerebellum: The cerebellum is located at the back of the brain, below the cerebrum. The main functions of this part
are motor control, coordination, balance, and posture. The cerebellum receives sensory information from the muscles
and joints and helps in fine-tuning movements and maintaining equilibrium.
3. Brainstem: The brainstem is located at the base of the brain and connects the brain to the spinal cord. The brainstem is
responsible for essential functions like regulating breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, and basic involuntary actions.
4. Thalamus: The thalamus is a structure located deep within the brain. It acts as a relay station. It receives sensory
information from various senses and directs it to the appropriate regions of the cerebral cortex for processing.
5. Hypothalamus: The hypothalamus is a small area located below the thalamus. It plays a crucial role in maintaining
various bodily functions, including body temperature, hunger, thirst, sleep, and hormone production through its control
of the pituitary gland.
6. Limbic System: The limbic system is a group of interconnected brain structures located in the center of the brain
involved in emotions, memory formation, and motivation. The main structures in limbic system are hippocampus
(important for memory), and (associated with emotions and fear response).

Department of Chemistry SVIT

 DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY - SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

THE NTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS) and PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)
The Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) are the two main components of the
nervous system in the human body.
The Central Nervous System consists of the brain and spinal cord and
is responsible for receiving, processing, and integrating sensory
information and transmitting commands to the rest of the body. The
brain acts as the command center, receiving and processing sensory
inputs and generating motor outputs, while the spinal cord acts as a
relay center, transmitting information between the brain and
peripheral nerves.
The Peripheral Nervous System, on the other hand, consists of all the
nerves that lie outside the brain and spinal cord. It is responsible for
transmitting sensory information from the periphery of the body (such
as the skin, muscles, and organs) to the CNS, and transmitting
commands from the CNS to the periphery. The PNS can be further
divided into the somatic nervous system and the autonomic
nervous system.

Figure: Representation of function of somatic nervous system

The somatic nervous system controls voluntary movements, while the autonomic nervous system controls involuntary
functions such as heart rate, digestion, and respiration.

Signal Transmission
Signal transmission in the brain occurs through the nerve cells,
or neurons.

A neuron receives inputs from other neurons at its

dendrites, integrates the information, and then generates an
electrical impulse, or action potential, that travels down through its
axon to the synaptic terminals present at the bottom of the neuron.
When it reaches the synaptic terminals, the neuron releases
chemical messenger called neurotransmitters, which cross the
synaptic gap and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron,
leading to the initiation of another action potential in the
postsynaptic neuron.

Department of Chemistry SVIT

 DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY - SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

This process of transmitting information from one neuron to another is known as synaptic transmission
and forms the basis of communication within the brain.
Different types of neurotransmitters have different effects on postsynaptic neurons, and
the balance of neurotransmitter levels can influence brain function, including mood, learning,
and memory.
ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY (EEG)
It’s a method for measuring the electrical
activity of the brain.
An EEG records the electrical signals
generated by the brain's neurons as they
communicate with each other. The signals
produced by the neurons are recorded
through electrodes placed on the scalp of the
brain and the resulting EEG pattern
produced during this process provides the
information about the synchronized
electrical activity of neurons.
Applications of EEG
 Diagnosis of Epilepsy: EEG is a widely used tool to diagnose epilepsy and other seizure disorders. It can
detect abnormal electrical activity in the brain, which can help to confirm the diagnosis and determine the
location of the seizure focus.
 Sleep Studies: EEG is often used in sleep studies to evaluate sleep patterns and diagnose sleep disorders.
 Brain-Computer Interfaces (BCI): EEG can be used to control external devices such as prosthetic limbs or
computer software. This is done by detecting specific brain waves associated with a particular mental state,
such as concentration or relaxation.
 Research on Brain Function: EEG is used in research to study brain function during various activities such
as reading, problem-solving, and decision-making. EEG can also be used to investigate how the brain
responds to stimuli such as light, sound, and touch.
 Diagnosis of Brain Disorders: EEG can be used to diagnose a wide range of brain disorders including
dementia, Parkinson's disease, and traumatic brain injury.
 Anesthesia Monitoring: EEG can be used to monitor the depth of anesthesia during surgery to ensure that
the patient remains in a safe and comfortable state.
 Monitoring Brain Activity during Coma: EEG is also used to monitor brain activity in patients who are in
a coma to determine the level of brain function and assess the likelihoodof recovery.
ROBOTIC ARMS FOR PROSTHETICS
Robotic arms for prosthetics are advanced prosthetic devices that use robotics technology to restore functionality
to individuals with upper limb amputations.
These devices typically use motors, actuators, and sensors to mimic the movements of a human arm and hand,
allowing the wearer to perform tasks such as reaching, grasping, and manipulating objects.
Robotic arms for prosthetics can be controlled in a variety of ways, including direct control through muscle
signals (myoelectric control) or brain-machine interfaces, which use electrodes implanted in the brain or placed
on the scalp to detect and interpret brain activity. Some prosthetic arms also incorporate machine learning
algorithms to improve their performance and adapt to the user's needs over time.

Department of Chemistry SVIT

 DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY - SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Robotic arm prosthetic direct control through muscle signals (Myoelectric control)
Myoelectric control of a robotic arm prosthetic involves using the electrical signals generated by the
wearer's remaining muscles to control the movement of the prosthetic. The system typically involves
electrodes placed on the skin over the remaining muscle that are used to detect and interpret the electrical
signals generated by the muscle contractions.

When the wearer contracts their muscles, the electrodes detect

the electrical signals and send them to a control unit, which
interprets the signals and uses them to control the movement of the
robotic arm. Depending on the specific design, the control unit may
use pattern recognition algorithms to determine which movement the
wearer is intending to perform, or the wearer may use a combination
of muscle signals to control specific degrees of freedom in the
prosthetic arm.
Myoelectric control has the advantage of being directly
controlled by the user, allowing for a more intuitive and natural interaction with the prosthetic. It can also
provide a high level of control and precision, as the electrical signals generated by the muscles are unique to
each individual and can be used to perform a wide range of movements.
However, myoelectric control systems can be complex and may require extensive rehabilitation and training
to use effectively, as well as ongoing maintenance to ensure proper function. Additionally, the system may
not be suitable for individuals with muscle weakness or other conditions that affect the ability to generate
strong electrical signals.
Robotic Arm Prosthetic by Brain-Machine Interfaces
Brain-machine interfaces (BMIs)
are a type of technology that allows a user
to control a robotic arm prosthetic directly
with their brain activity. The system
typically involves electrodes placed on the
scalp or implanted directly into the brain
by surgery to detect and interpret the user's
brain signals.
When the user thinks about moving the
prosthetic arm, the electrodes detect the
corresponding brain activity and send the
signals to a control unit, which uses
algorithms to interpret the signals and
control the movement of the prosthetic.

Figure: Representing brain-machine interfaces

The user can then control the movement of the prosthetic in real-time by thinking about the desired movement.
BMIs have the advantage of providing a direct and intuitive connection between the user's brain and the
prosthetic, allowing for a high level of control and precision. Additionally, BMIs can be used to provide sensory
feedback to the user, allowing them to experience the sensation of touch through the prosthetic.

Department of Chemistry SVIT

 DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY - SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
However, BMIs can be complex and invasive systems, requiring surgical implantation and ongoing
maintenance to ensure proper function. Additionally, they may not be suitable for individuals with conditions
that affect brain activity or who are unable to generate strong enough brain signals to control the prosthetic
effectively.
ENGINEERING SOLUTIONS FOR PARKINSON’S DISEASE
Parkinson's disease is a neurodegenerative disorder that affects movement and motor function. There are
several engineering solutions aimed at improving the quality of life for individuals with Parkinson's disease,
including:
 Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS): DBS involves the implantation of electrodes into specific regions of
the brain to deliver electrical stimulation, which can help to relieve symptoms such as tremors,
stiffness, and difficulty with movement.
 Exoskeletons: Exoskeletons are wearable devices that provide support and assistance for individuals
with mobility issues. Some exoskeletons have been developed specifically for people with Parkinson's
disease, and can help to improve balance, reduce tremors, and increase overall mobility.
 Telerehabilitation: It involves the use of telecommunication technology to provide physical therapy
and rehabilitation services to individuals with Parkinson's disease, without the need for in-person visits
to a therapist.
 Smart watch Applications: Smart watch applications can be used to monitor symptoms of Parkinson's
disease, such as tremors, and provide reminders and prompts for medication and exercise.
 Virtual Reality: Virtual reality systems can be used for rehabilitation and therapy for individuals with
Parkinson's disease, providing interactive and engaging environments for patients to practice
movements and improve coordination and balance.

Figure: Representing typical appearance of Parkinson’s disease.

EYE AS A CAMERA SYSTEM

The human eye can be compared to a camera system, as both the eye and a camera capture the light and convert
it into an image.
The main components of the eye that correspond to a camera system include:
 The Cornea: This transparent outer layer of the eye functions like a camera lens, bending light to focus

Department of Chemistry SVIT

 DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY - SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
it onto the retina.
 The Iris: The iris functions like the diaphragm in a camera, controlling the amount of lightthat enters the
eye.
 The Pupil: The pupil functions like the aperture in a camera, adjusting the size to control the amount of
light entering the eye.
 The Retina: The retina functions like the camera film or sensor, capturing the light and converting it into
electrical signals that are sent to the brain.
 The Optic Nerve: The optic nerve functions like the cable connecting the camera to a computer,
transmitting the electrical signals from the retina to the brain.

In both the eye and a camera, the captured light is transformed into an image by the lens and the light-
sensitive component. The eye processes the image further, allowing for visual perception, while a camera
stores the image for later use.
It's important to note that the eye is much more complex than a camera and has several additional
functions, such as adjusting for different levels of light and adjusting focus, that are not found in a camera.
The eye also has the ability to perceive depth and color, as well as adjust to movements and provide a
continuous, real-time image to the brain.
ARCHITECTURE OF ROD AND CONE CELLS
Rod cells are photo receptor cells in the retina of the eye that are responsible for detecting light and
transmitting signals to the brain for the perception of vision, especially in low light conditions. Since these
cells are present in the outer part of the retina, rod cells are more sensitive to light than cone cells but do not
distinguish color as well.
Cone cells are photoreceptor cells in the retina of the eye that are
responsible for color vision and visual acuity. There are three types of
cone cells, each containing a different photo pigment sensitive to
different wavelengths of light (red, green, and blue), which allow for the
perception of color. Cones are less sensitive to light than rod cells but
provide better visual acuity and color discrimination. They are
concentrated in the fovea, the central part of the retina responsible for
detailed and sharp vision.
Rod and cone cells have a similar basic structure, but there are some
differences that are crucial for their different functions.
Both types of cells have a photoreceptor outer segment that contains the

Department of Chemistry SVIT

 DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY - SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
photo pigment rhodopsin in rod cells and photo pigments in cone cells, that absorbs light and triggers a change
in membrane potential. The inner segment contains the cell's organelles, including the nucleus and
mitochondria.
The major difference between rod and cone cells is their shape. Rod cells are elongated and cylindrical in
shape, while cone cells are shorter and more conical in shape. This difference in shape affects the distribution
of photo pigments and the number of synaptic contacts with bipolar and ganglion cells, which transmit the
signals from retina to the brain. Rod cells have a single long outer segment, while cone cells have several
shorter segments. Due to this difference rod cells make synapses with one bipolar cell, while cone cells
synapse with one of several bipolar cells.
Optical Corrections
Optical corrections refer to devices or techniques used to improve or correct vision problems caused by a
refractive error in the eye.
Refractive errors occur when light entering the eye is not properly focused on the retina, leading to blurred
vision. There are several types of refractive errors, including:
Myopia (nearsightedness): Light is focused in front of the retina, making distant objects appear blurry.
Hyperopia (farsightedness): Light is focused behind the retina, making near objects appear blurry.
Astigmatism: Light is not focused evenly on the retina, leading to blurred or distorted vision.
The most common optical corrections include:
Eyeglasses: Glasses with corrective lenses can be used to refocus light onto the retina, improving vision.
Contact lenses: Corrective lenses in the form of contacts sit directly on the cornea and work similarly to
eyeglasses.
Refractive surgery: Surgical procedures, such as LASIK and PRK, can reshape the cornea to correct
refractive errors.
Optical corrections can greatly improve visual acuity and quality of life for people with refractive errors.
However, it is important to have regular eye exams to determine the appropriate correction and monitor eye
health.
Cataract
A cataract is a clouding of the lens of the eye that affects vision. The lens, located behind the iris and pupil,
normally allows light to pass through to the retina and produces
clear, sharp images. However, as we age or due to other factors,
the proteins in the lens can clump together and cause the lens to
become opaque, leading to vision problems.
Symptoms of a cataract include blurred or hazy vision, increased
sensitivity to glare and bright lights, faded or yellowed colors, and
double vision in one eye. Cataracts can also cause frequent
changes in prescription for eyeglasses or contacts.
Cataract surgery is a common and safe procedure to remove the
cloudy lens and replace it with an artificial lens. The surgery is
typically performed on an outpatient basis and most people experience improved vision within a few days
after the procedure.
In conclusion, cataracts can significantly affect vision, but surgical removal and replacement with an

Department of Chemistry SVIT

 DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY - SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
artificial lens can restore clear vision and improve quality of life. Regular eye exams can help detect
cataracts early and prevent vision loss.
Lens Materials
The artificial lenses used in cataract surgery or for vision correction can be made of a variety of materials,
each with its own unique properties and benefits. The most common lens materials include:
Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA): PMMA is a type of plastic that has been used for many years in
artificial lenses. It is a durable and affordable material, but does not have the ability to flex and
adjust focus like the natural lens.
Silicone: Silicone is a soft, flexible material that is resistant to cracking and breaking. It is often used
in phakic intraocular lenses (IOLs), which are implanted in front of the natural lens.
Acrylic: Acrylic is a lightweight, clear material that is similar in properties to PMMA. It is often
used in foldable IOLs, which can be inserted through a smaller incision.
Hydrophobic acrylic: Hydrophobic acrylic is a type of acrylic material that has a special surface
treatment that helps to reduce glare and halos around lights.
Hydrophilic acrylic: Hydrophilic acrylic is a type of acrylic material that is designed to be more
compatible with the natural fluid in the eye, reducing the risk of vision-threatening complications.
The choice of lens material will depend on several factors, including the patient's individual needs, the
surgeon's preference, and the potential risks and benefits of each material.
BIONIC EYE OR ARTIFICIAL EYE
A bionic eye, also known as a retinal implant, is a type of prosthetic
device that is surgically implanted into the eye to help restore vision to people
who have lost their sight due to certain conditions such as retinitis pigmentosa
or age-related macular degeneration.
The device typically consists of a camera, a processor, and an electrode
array that is attached to the retina. The camera captures images and sends
signals to the processor, which then transmits electrical stimulation to the
electrodes in the retina to stimulate the remaining healthy cells and restore
vision. The restored vision is not perfect, but it can help people with vision
lossto perform daily tasks more easily and safely.
Materials Used in Bionic Eye
The materials used in a bionic eye can vary depending on the specific device and manufacturer. However,
some of the common materials used in bionic eye technology include:
Silicon or other semiconducting materials for the camera and the electrode array.
Biocompatible materials for the casing of the device and the electrode array, such as titanium or
titanium alloys, to minimize the risk of infection and rejection by the body.
Conductive materials, such as platinum, iridium, or gold, for the electrodes in the array to provide
efficient electrical stimulation to the retina.
Polymers, such as silicone or polyimide, for insulation and protection of the electrodes and other
components.
Optical materials, such as glass or acrylic, for the lens of the camera.

Department of Chemistry SVIT

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY - SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Biocompatible and flexible materials for the electrical connections between the camera and the
processing unit and between the processing unit and the electrode array.
In addition to these materials, advanced computer algorithms and machine learning techniques are also used
to improve the accuracy and reliability of the bionic eye technology.
HEART AS A PUMP SYSTEM
The heart is a complex pump system that circulates blood
throughout the body.
It consists of four chambers, the right atrium, the left atrium, the
right ventricle, and the left ventricle. Blood enters the right atrium
from the body and is pumped into the right ventricle, which then
pumps the blood to the lungs for oxygenation. Oxygenated blood
returns to the heart and enters the left atrium, which pumps the
blood into the left ventricle. The left ventricle then pumps the
oxygenated blood out to the rest of the body.
Between each chamber, there are one-way valves that ensure the
blood flows in the correct direction and prevent backflow. The heart is also surrounded by the pericardium, a
sac that contains a small amount of fluid and helps to protect and
lubricate the heart as it beats.
The Heart Beat
The heart's pumping action is controlled by a complex network of
electrical and chemical signals, which generate the rhythm of the
heartbeat.
Figure: Representation of electrical system of the heart
An electrical stimulus is generated in a special part of the heart
muscle called the sinus node. It's also called the sino atrial node
(SA node). The sinus node is a small mass of special tissue in the
right upper chamber of the heart (right atrium). In an adult, the sinus node sends out a regular electrical
pulse 60 to 100 times per minute. This electrical pulse travels down through the conduction pathways and
causes the heart's lower chambers (ventricles) to contract and pump out blood. The right and left atria are
stimulated first and contract to push blood from the atria into the ventricles. The ventricles then contract to
push blood out into the blood vessels of the body.
ELECTRICAL SIGNALING – ECG MONITORING AND HEART RELATED ISSUES
The heart's pumping action is controlled by electrical
signaling, which generates the rhythm of the heartbeat. This
electrical signaling can be monitored using an
electrocardiogram (ECG), which records the electrical
activity of the heart and provides important information
about the heart's function.
An ECG measures the electrical signals produced by the
heart as it beats and generates a trace or waveform that
reflects the electrical activity of the heart. This trace can be
used to diagnose heart conditions and monitor the heart's
function.

Department of Chemistry SVIT

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY - SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Some common heart-related issues that can be diagnosed or monitored using an ECG include:
Arrhythmias: Abnormalities in the heart's rhythm or rate can be detected using an ECG.
Heart disease: Changes in the heart's electrical activity can indicate the presence of heart disease,
such as coronary artery disease or heart attacks.
Heart attack: An ECG can help diagnose a heart attack by detecting changes in the heart's electrical
activity that indicate a lack of blood flow to the heart.
Overall, the ECG is a useful tool for diagnosing and monitoring heart-related issues and helps to provide
important information about the heart's function and health.
Reasons for Blockages of Blood Vessels
High cholesterol levels: Excessive amounts of low-
density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol in the blood can
lead to the formation of plaque in the blood vessels,
which can narrow or block them.
High blood pressure: Over time, high blood pressure can
cause damage to the blood vessels, leading to the
formation of plaque and blockages.
Smoking: Smoking can damage the inner walls of blood
vessels and promote the buildup of plaque, leading to
blockages.
Diabetes: People with uncontrolled diabetes are at a
higher risk of developing blockages in their blood
vessels, due to damage to the blood vessels from high levels of glucose.
Age: As people age, the blood vessels can become stiff and less flexible, increasing the risk of
blockages.
Genetics: Some people may be predisposed to developing blockages in their blood vessels due to
genetic factors.
Poor diet: A diet high in saturated fats, trans fats, and cholesterol can increase the risk of
developing blockages in the blood vessels.
DESIGN OF STENTS
Stents are small, metal mesh devices that are used to treat
blockages in blood vessels. They are typically used in
procedures such as angioplasty, where a balloon catheter
is used to open up a blocked blood vessel and a stent is
placed to keep it open.
The design of stents can vary depending on the type of
stent and the specific medical condition it is used to treat.
Some common design features of stents include:
Shape: Stents can be designed in a variety of shapes,
including cylindrical, helical, and spiraled, to match the
shape of the blood vessel and provide adequate support.
Material: Stents can be made of different materials, including stainless steel, cobalt- chromium, and

Department of Chemistry SVIT

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY - SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
nitinol (a type of metal that is flexible and can return to its original shape after being expanded).
Coating: Stents can be coated with different materials to prevent blood clots from forming and reduce
the risk of restenosis (recurrent blockage of the blood vessel).
Expansion mechanism: Stents can be designed to expand in different ways, such as by balloon
inflation or self-expansion, depending on the type of stent and the specific medical condition it is used
to treat.
Overall, the design of stents plays an important role in their effectiveness and safety. Stents must be
designed to provide adequate support to the blood vessel, prevent restenosis, and minimize the risk of
complications such as blood clots.
PACE MAKERS
A pacemaker is a small device that is surgically implanted in the
chest to regulate the heartbeat. It is used to treat heart rhythm
disorders, such as bradycardia (a slow heartbeat) or arrhythmias
(abnormal heart rhythms), by delivering electrical impulses to the
heart to regulate its rhythm.
The basic design of a pacemaker consists of
Generator: The generator is the main component of the
pacemaker and contains a battery and electronic circuitry to
generate and control the electrical impulses.
Leads: Leads are thin wires that connect the generator to the
heart and carry the electrical impulses from the generator to
the heart.
Electrodes: The electrodes are located at the end of the leads
and are used to deliver the electrical impulses to the heart.
Pacemakers can be designed to work in different ways, including:
Single-chamber pacemaker: A single-chamber pacemaker delivers electrical impulses to either the
right atrium or the right ventricle of the heart to regulate its rhythm.
Dual-chamber pacemaker: A dual-chamber pacemaker delivers electrical impulses to both the
right atrium and the right ventricle of the heart to regulate its rhythm.
Biventricular pacemaker: A biventricular pacemaker delivers electrical impulses to both ventricles
of the heart to coordinate their contractions and improve heart function in people with heart
failure.
Construction of a Pacemaker
The construction of a pacemaker involves the use of high-quality materials and specialized
manufacturing processes to ensure their safety and reliability. Materials used in the construction of
pacemakers include:
Medical-grade plastics: Medical-grade plastics, such as polycarbonate, are used to construct the
exterior of the device and to provide insulation and protection for the internal components.
Metals: Metals, such as stainless steel and titanium, are used in the construction of the leads and
electrodes to ensure their durability and long-lasting performance.

Department of Chemistry SVIT

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY - SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Electronic components: Electronic components, such as microprocessors, batteries, and
capacitors, are used to control the delivery of the electrical impulses and to provide power to the
device.
Adhesives: Adhesives, such as cyanoacrylate and epoxy, are used to secure the components of
the device and to provide insulation and protection for the internal components.

DEFIBRILLATORS
A defibrillator is a medical device that delivers an
electric shock to the heart to restore its normal
rhythm in cases of cardiac arrest or other life-
threatening heart rhythm disorders. Defibrillators can
be external (placed on the chest) or internal
(implanted within the body).
The basic design of a defibrillator consists of:
Power source: The power source, typically a
battery, provides energy to deliver the electric
shock to the heart.
Electrodes: The electrodes are placed on the
chest and deliver the electric shock to the heart.
Circuitry: The circuitry in the defibrillator
controls the delivery of the electric shock,
including the timing, strength, and duration of the shock.
Display: A display on the defibrillator provides information about the heart rhythm, battery life, and
other relevant information.
Automated External Defibrillators
External defibrillators, also known as automated external defibrillators (AEDs), are designed for use by
laypeople and are commonly found in public places such as airports, shopping centers, and schools.
They are relatively simple in design and typically have voice prompts and visual cues to guide the user
through the process of delivering the electric shock.
Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillators
Internal defibrillators, also known as implantable cardioverter defibrillators (ICDs), are surgically
implanted within the body and are used to treat people with a high risk of sudden cardiac arrest. They
are typically more complex in design, including features such as continuous monitoring of the heart
rhythm, and automatic delivery of shocks when necessary.
Construction of defibrillators
The construction of defibrillators involves the use of high-quality materials and specialized
manufacturing processes to ensure their safety and reliability.
Materials Used
Materials used in the construction of defibrillators include:
Medical-grade plastics: Medical-grade plastics, such as polycarbonate, are used to construct the
exterior of the device and to provide insulation and protection for the internal components.

Department of Chemistry SVIT

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY - SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Metals: Metals, such as stainless steel and titanium, are used in the construction of the leads and
electrodes to ensure their durability and long-lasting performance.
Electronic components: Electronic components, such as microprocessors, batteries, capacitors, and
high-voltage transformers, are used to control the delivery of the electrical impulses and to provide
power to the device.
Adhesives: Adhesives, such as cyanoacrylate and epoxy, are used to secure the components of the
device and to provide insulation and protection for the internal components.
The manufacturing process for defibrillators includes multiple quality control measures to ensure their
safety and reliability. This includes testing of individual components and final assembly testing to
verify the proper operation of the device before it is released for use.
Basic Design
The basic design of a defibrillator consists of:
Power source: The power source, typically a battery, provides energy to deliver the electrical
impulses to the heart.
Electrodes: The electrodes are placed on the chest and deliver the electrical impulses to the heart to
restore normal rhythm.
Circuitry: The circuitry in the defibrillator controls the delivery of the electrical impulses,
including the timing, strength, and duration of the impulses.
Display: A display on the defibrillator provides information about the heart rhythm, battery life,
and other relevant information.

Department of Chemistry SVIT