Mechanical Engineering Department
UR-CST 2029-2020
Elementary Fluids Mechanics. Handout-9
Syllabus:
What is a Fluid? – just so we are clear!
Dimensional Analysis – a powerful tool to find relationships between variables.
Fluid Statics – fluids not in motion, particularly with application to water.
Fluid Dynamics – fluids in motion, here without friction, particularly air flow and
water flow.
Continuity
Bernoulli’s Equation and Energy Equation
Momentum Equation and Forces
Aims of this lecture:
1. To derive Bernoulli’s equation from the equation of motion.
2. To derive Bernoulli’s equation from Energy equation.
3. To appreciate the physical significance of the terms in Bernoulli’s equation
4. To understand the assumptions (limitations) and applicability of Bernoulli’s Equation
9.1. Introduction
Daniel Bernoulli was an eminent Italian Engineer in the 18th century. His equation (Bernoulli’s
Equation) has been called the most used and misused equation in Fluid Mechanics. It is
certainly very useful and helps us to understand a lot about how fluids flow. But it has
limitations which means it has to be applied with care – you need to understand what you
are doing!
Bernoulli’s equation is a restricted form of the steady flow energy equation that you did in
Thermodynamics. But it can also be derived from the equation of motion, that is Newton’s
laws applied to a fluid particle. This can help us understand its significance.
9.2. Equation of Motion and Bernoulli’s Equation.
Consider a particle of fluid travelling along a
streamline. The distance along the streamline
is denoted by s.
The distance it moves in time, δt, is δs. The
change in velocity of the particle in time δt is
δu.
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If the flow is unsteady, u changes with both t and s, we can say
that the change in velocity is given by:
u u
u .s .t
s t t s
u u s u t
Dividing by δt gives: . .
t s t t t s t
Du u u
Thus the acceleration of the particle is given as δt→0: a u
Dt s t t s
Note:
1. du/dt would denote the rate at which u changes with t and would be used where u is a
function of t only. Du/Dt is the total rate of change with both u and s. It is also known as
the substantive derivative (have you done this sort of thing in Maths – function of more
than one variable?).
2. ∂u/∂t is used to denote the rate at which u changes with t keeping other variables (e.g. s)
constant (i.e. the rate of change of velocity at a specific point in space).
Class Exercise 9.1:
The velocity of air in a nozzle at a point is a steady 10 m/s.
At another point 0.1 m further down the nozzle, the velocity is 10.5 m/s 10 10.5
What is the (approximate) value of the acceleration of the air? m/s m/s
Answer 9.1:
0.1 m
Forces
The mass of the particle (length δs) is: m .A.s
where A is cross sectional area
Assuming no viscous forces, only pressure and gravity are acting on the particle. Thus, the
net external force applied to the particle in the stream-wise direction is therefore:
F p.A p p.A [Link] p.A .A.[Link]
z
But Cos , so F p.A .A.g.z
s
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where p is pressure, g is acceleration due to gravity, z is height (altitude)
Now we can apply Newton’s second law (F = m.a):
u u
F p.A .A.g.z m.a .A.s.u
s t
Dividing by δs and in the limit δs→0:
u u 1 p z
u g. 0
t s s s
This is called Euler’s Equation of Motion in the streamwise direction.
Making two more assumptions (remember we already assumed no viscous forces)
1. Assume constant density,
2. Assume steady flow: ∂u/∂t = 0 (the velocity of the particle can still vary as it moves
along the streamline BUT the velocity at a particular location in the flow is constant with
time)
u 1 p z
u g. 0
s s s
u2 p
Integrate along the streamline (i.e. with respect to s): g.z Constant
2
Or between two positions, 1 and 2:
2 2
u1 p u p
1 g.z1 2 2 g.z2 Constant along a streamline ……………….. Eqn. 9.1
2 2
Rearranging:
p1 21 u12 gz1 p2 21 u 22 gz2 Constant along a streamline ……………. Eqn. 9.2
These are two forms of Bernoulli’s Equation for ideal fluid .
Class Example 9.2:
In Ex. 9.1, the pressure is 100 N/m2 at the first point. What is the pressure at the point 0.1 m
down the nozzle? The density of air is 1.1 kg/m3 and the nozzle axis is horizontal.
Answer 9.2: Using Eqn. 9.2 and noting z is constant:
Note that the pressure falls as the velocity increases.
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9.3. Energy Equation and Bernoulli’s Equation.
2
The steady flow energy equation (per unit mass) for
a control volume with one entrance and one exit can
be written as:
q w h2 21 u 22 gz 2 h1 21 u12 gz1 1
We can apply this to a streamtube, i.e. along a
streamline:
Notation:
q = Heat flow into the streamtube
w’ = shear force work into the streamtube
h = enthalpy – this is the internal energy (associated with temperature) plus the ‘flow work’,
p/ρ which is due to the work required to cause the flow to enter or leave the control
volume.
We assume no viscous forces, so that w’ = 0
1
We have the thermodynamic relationship: T .ds dh dp
If the flow is reversible, which is implied by no viscous forces, then dq T .ds
And integrating for constant density we get:
dp h2 h1 p2 p1
2 1 2 1
q dh
1 1
Substituting into the SFEE above, we get:
q h2 h1
1
p2 p1 h2 21 u 22 gz2 h1 21 u12 gz1
p1 p2
Or 21 u12 gz1 21 u 22 gz2 - That is the same as Eqn. 9.1
Thus, we can think of Bernoulli’s Equation, either as the integral of the equation of motion
(forces and acceleration) or a form of the energy equation.
9.4. Physical Significance of Terms in Bernoulli’s Equation.
9.4.1 Energy Form
Thinking of Bernoulli’s equation as a form of the energy equation can help us to understand
the physical significance of the terms:
p/ρ is the flow work associated with pressure – sometimes called ‘pressure energy’
½u2 is the kinetic energy
gz is the potential energy
The sum of these energies is a constant
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Note that the Units of Eqn. 9.1 are specific energy (J/kg)
Class Example 9.3: A fire hose nozzle directs a jet of water vertically upwards
3
with a velocity of 20 m/s. It is supplied with high pressure water at a distance
0.5 m below the nozzle exit, and the ratio of inlet diameter to exit diameter is
3:1
h
Neglecting any frictional forces, calculate:
a) How high does the jet reach?
b) At what pressure is the water supplied?
2
Answer 9.3:
0.5 m
9.4.2 Head Form
Another form of Bernoulli’s Equation is given by dividing Eqn 9.1 by g:
2 2
u1 p u p
1 z1 2 2 z2 Constant ……………………Eqn. 9.3
2g g 2g g
Note that each term has units of length only. This length corresponds to the height (or
head) of a column of fluid that has a potential energy equal to that of the energy source in
question.
p
Hence: is referred to as the pressure head
g
u2
is the velocity head
2g
z is the potential (or static) head
Class Example 9.4
In example 9.3, what are the values of pressure head, velocity head and potential head at
the points 1, 2 and 3?
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Answer 9.4:
Pressure Head Dynamic Head Potential Head Total Head
Point 1
Point 2
Point 3
9.4.3 Pressure Form
Going back to Eqn 9.2, we see the units of each quantity is pressure:
p1 21 u12 gz1 p2 21 u 22 gz2 Constant along a streamline ……………. Eqn. 9.2
So as with the head form we can say:
p -represents the (static) pressure
½ρu2-represents the dynamic pressure
ρgz -represents the potential (gravity) pressure.
We can also see that if the fluid is not moving,
p1 gz1 p2 gz2 Constant, which is the hydrostatic equation in Handout 4, Eqn 5.2
9.5. When to apply Bernoulli’s Equation.
Remember the assumptions:
Reversible Flow (no viscosity) – Steady Flow – Constant Density
Reversible Flow:
No real fluid has zero viscosity, so this condition is never met perfectly. We have to use our
judgement whether B’s Eqn. can be applied to a reasonable accuracy.
e.g. in the fire nozzle example above, the surface area of the pipe in contact with the water
is small, so the viscous forces will be small (F = shear stress x surface area).
But if we are considering a pipeline of some length, we have to allow for the fluid viscosity
(see last section of lecture course)
A horizontal pipe has the same diameter at
1 and 2, so the u1 = u2 and z1 = z2, so p1 = p2
1 2
if B’s Eqn. is accurate. In fact there will be a
pressure drop between 1 and 2.
Another situation is where there is considerable
turbulence, e.g. an obstacle placed in the flow. The
flow behind the obstacle is varying and chaotic, and
could not be said to be even approximately
reversible.
Mechanical Engineering Department
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Compare also examples on Sheet 8 of where we can apply the Continuity Equation.
Steady Flow:
The obstacle in the flow above causes unsteady flow on a short timescale. Another situation
would be the flow through a propeller. Even though the propeller does not cause much
turbulence, it chops the flow streamlines, so the flow is unsteady as the propeller turns.
Constant Density:
Density may vary due to temperature or pressure differences. The density change will mean
that Bernoulli’s equation gives the right trend, but the answer will be inaccurate – the
integration of the Euler Equation in Section 9.2 is only accurate if density is constant.
Thus if flow is heated in a constant area pipe, the
flow speeds up due to the density reducing – from 1 2
the continuity equation: 1 A1 v1 = 2 A2 v2
Since 1 > 2, v1 < v2 Heating
Bernoulli’s equation tells us that the pressure will
fall as the velocity increases, but calculation will not be accurate if the density change is
large.
A second case is of high speed flow. When there is a large velocity change, the large change
in pressure itself causes a significant density change, rendering Bernoulli’s equation
inaccurate.
Conclusion
You have to have practice in examining whether to apply Bernoulli’s equation, and when it
will be inaccurate – build up experience in understanding the sorts of flow involved!
TUTORIAL
Water flows in a circular pipe. At one section the diameter is 0.3 m, the static
pressure is 260 kPa gauge, the velocity is 3 m/s and the elevation is 10 m above ground level.
The elevation at a section downstream is 0 m, and the pipe diameter is 0.15 m. Find out the gauge
pressure at the downstream section. Frictional effects may be neglected. Assume density of water to
be 999 kg/m3.
Mechanical Engineering Department
UR-CST 2029-2020
Mechanical Engineering Department
UR-CST 2029-2020
