EARTH’S CURVATURE AND ATMOSPHERIC REFRACTION
The fundamental difference between plane and geodetic surveying is the latter takes into account
the size and shape of the earth. However, there is no distinct point where surveying crosses from
one classification to the other; there tends to be a gray area in between. This is because much of
the technology we use today allows us to measure over larger areas than just a few decades ago.
Earth curvature and atmospheric refraction are two primary systematic errors that must be taken
into account when measurements become sufficiently long. Curvature and refraction affect any
measurements dependent on an optical line of sight or energy wave, which is quite a few.
For long sights and accurate levelling work, the effects of curvature of the earth and refraction of
the line of sight shall have to be taken into consideration. Due to curvature, the points appear to
be lower than they actually are; while due to refraction, they appear to be higher than they
actually are. The effect of curvature being greater than that of refraction, the combined effect
causes the points to appear to be lower than they actually are.
Curvature:
Earth has a curved face which is assumed to be a level surface but the line of sight as furnished
by the levelling instrument is horizontal and not the level line. Therefore, all points on the line of
sight are not equidistant from the surface of the earth and consequently the points read on the
staff are not strictly at the same level as horizontal hair of the diagram.
The level line falls away from the horizontal line of sight and the vertical distance between the
horizontal line and the level line denotes the effect of curvature of the earth.
In Fig., 7.24. A’ is the instrument station and P the point where the staff is held. On looking
through the telescope, we sight along AB, the horizontal line of sight, and take the staff reading
PB. The point B is consider to be at the same level as A, but actually the points C and A are at
the same level. The true reading is, therefore, PC.
The difference BC between the observed and true staff readings denotes the error due to
curvature of the earth, which may be determined as follows:
Refraction:
It is a well-established law of physics that rays of light passing through layers of different
densities do not remain straight but are refracted or bent down towards the denser medium.
Consequently, the ray of light from the staff to the instrument is not straight as AB in fig. 7.26
but it follows a curved path AD concave towards the earth as the near the surface of the earth is
denser than the upper layers of air.
Under normal atmospheric conditions, arc AD may be taken as circular and of radius seven times
that of the earth. The effect of refraction is therefore 1/7th of that of the curvature, but is of
opposite nature. Hence the correction for refraction is additive to the staff reading.
Combined Correction due to Curvature and Refraction:
Since the effect of curvature is to increase the staff readings and that of refraction is to decrease
them and also the effect of curvature is greater than that of refraction, the combined effect is
therefore, to increase the staff readings, hence the combined correction is subtractive.
For ordinary lengths of sights, the error is very small and hence negligible. It may be well
understood that for 200 m length, it is only 0.003 m and it is just perceptible on ordinary
levelling staff. Therefore sights less than 200 m in length, the effect may be neglected.
The combined correction can be application two ways:
(i) By decreasing each staff reading by the amount 0.067 and then finding, the reduced levels
and
(ii) By first finding the reduced levels of the points in the usual way and then increasing them by
the amount 0.067 .
The error due to curvature and refraction can be eliminated by equalising back sight and
foresight distances and also by the method of reciprocal levelling.
Where:
hcr = combined effect of earth’s curvature and atmospheric refraction (in meters)
K = distance from the point of tangency to the point observed or point of observation (in
kilometres)
R = radius of earth
Problem 1. Determine the combined effects of the earth’s curvature and atmospheric refraction
on sight distances of 60, 90, 120, 150, and 500 m.
SOLUTION:
Note: as you can observe in the formula above, (K) must be in kilometres. Since the given are in
meters, we will convert it to kilometres.
Problem 2. Two points A and B are 525.850m apart, a level is set up on the line between A and
B and at a distance 240.500m from point A. If the rod reading on point A is 3.455m and that of
point B is 2.806m. Determine the difference in elevation between the two points taking into
account the effects of curvature and atmospheric refraction.
Note: A level surface is the equipotential surface of the earth’s gravity field. It is a curved
surface and every element of which is normal to plumb line. A body of still water provides the
best example of a level surface. A line lying in a level surface is a level line. It is thus a curved
line normal to the plumb at all points.
SOLUTION:
5
Note: since we are considering the effects of curvature and atmospheric refraction. Our
measurements will be based on the curve lines and not on the line of sight.
Solving for
Solving for
Solving for
Solving for
Solving for DE
Problem 3. Two hills A and B are 90 km apart are at elevation 60m and 200m above sea level.
What would be the minimum height of the tower that must be constructed on top of hill B so that
it could be seen from hill A considering the effects of earth’s curvature and atmospheric
refraction?
SOLUTION:
Solving for
Solving for
Solving for
Solving for ht
Problem 4. Two stations are at the water edge on opposite sides of a lake 16km wide. a) what
equal heights of tower at the two stations would be required in order to be inter-visible w/o the
line of sight approaching nearer than 1.8m to the water? b) if the transit at one edge is 1.8m
above the water level. What minimum height of tower is needed at the other edge that will be
visible w/o the line of sight approaching nearer than 1.8m to the water?
SOLUTION FOR (a):
Note: Since we’re having equal towers, they are equidistant from the tangent point, and hcr are
the same in both sides.
Solving for K
Solving for hcr
Solving for ht
SOLUTION FOR (b):
Note: since the transit is in one edge and the tower is at the edge, K is equal to 16 km.
Trigonometric Leveling
with applied
Earth’s Curvature and Atmospheric Refraction Correction
Inclined Vertical Angle
Note: Since we are considering the effect of earth’s curvature and atmospheric refraction, we
will consider the mean sea level as a curve line and parallel to the level line.
All elevations are measured from the mean sea level (zero elevation), as you can observe with
Elev.A and Elev.B.
All points along the Level line have the same elevation.
Where:
A = Location of the surveying instrument
B = Location of the target
Elev.A = elevation of point A
Elev.B = elevation of point B
HI = height of the instrument
Ω = vertical angle
hcr = combined effect of earth’s curvature and atmospheric refraction
HD = horizontal distance from A to B
SD = slop distance
VD = vertical distance
RR = rod reading
Therefore:
Note: A and B are only an assigned letters these can vary between problems.
Depressed Vertical Angle
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Therefore:
Note: A and B are only an assigned letters these can vary between problems.
Problem 5. In the figure below, a vertical angle of is read to a target 1.23 m above
point B. The measured inclined distance is 823.29 m and the elevation of point A is 123.65 m
above datum. If the height of instrument at A is 1.35 m, determine the difference in elevation
between A and B and the elevation of B, considering the effects of curvature and atmospheric
refraction.
SOLUTION:
Solving the difference in elevation between A and B.
Note: the difference in elevation (DE) is the distance between the two yellow lines.
As you can observe in the illustration above
Therefore
Before we can compute DE we need to solve hcr and VD first.
K here is the Horizontal Distance (HD) and must be in kilometers
Since we already computed hcr and VD, we can now solve DE
Solving the elevation of point B.
Note: as you can observe below, we can solve the elevation of point B by using DE.
Alternative solution for using:
As you can observe DE = HI + hcr + VD - RR
Problem 6. A vertical angle of is measured to the top of a water tank from an
instrument set up on a hill 585 m away from it. The telescope of the instrument is 1.45 m above
the ground whose elevation is 462.73 m. Making due allowance for earth’s curvature and
atmospheric refraction, determine the elevation of the base of the water tank if the water tank is
32 m high.
SOLUTION:
We need to compute first hcr and VD in order to get
K here is the Horizontal Distance (HD) and must be in kilometers
Note: do not include the negative sign of the given vertical angle in the computation. The sign
only indicates the direction of the vertical angle (+ inclined) or (- depressed).
