INFOLINK UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

MATHEMATICS REMEDIAL COURSE

CHAPTER ONE:
SOLVING EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES
1.1 Solving Equations involving exponents and radicals
Definition: Equations with radicals that have variables in their radicands are called radical
equations. An example of a radical equation is √ .

Solving Radical Equations

To solve a radical equation, follow these steps:

Step 1 Isolate the radical on one side of the equation, if necessary.

Step 2 Raise each side of the equation to the same exponent to eliminate the radical and obtain a
linear, quadratic, or other polynomial equation.

Step 3 Solve the resulting equation using techniques you learned previously. Check your solution.

Examples

Solve the following equations

a. √ c. √
b. √ d. √ √

Solutions

a. √ Write the original equation

√ Divide each side by 2
(√ ) Square each side to eliminate the radical
Simplification
Subtract 1 from both sides
Therefore, the solution is

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 c. Solution

d. Solution

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Solving Equations Involving Exponents

When an equation contains a power with a rational exponent, you can solve the
equation using a procedure similar to the one for solving radical equations. In this
case, you first isolate the power and then raise each side of the equation to the
reciprocal of the rational exponent.

Examples

Solve the following equations

a. ( ) b. ( )

Solutions

a. Solution

b. Solution

1.2 Solving system of linear equations in two variables

Definition:
The system { where are constants is system of
linear equations in two variables.
Types of Systems
• There are three possible outcomes when graphing two linear equations in a plane.

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 • One point of intersection, so one solution
• Parallel lines, so no solution
• Coincident lines, so infinite number of solutions
• If there is at least one solution, the system is considered to be consistent.
• If the system defines distinct lines, the equations are independent.
• Change both linear equations into slope-intercept form. We can then easily determine
if the lines intersect, are parallel, or are the same line.

Example

How many solutions does the following system have?

and

Write each equation in slope-intercept form.

First equation,

– (Subtract 3x from both sides)

Second equation,

– (Subtract 3x from both sides)

– (Divide both sides by 2)

The lines are intersecting lines (since they have different slopes), so there is one solution.

Example
How many solutions does the following system have?

and –

Write each equation in slope-intercept form,

First equation,

– (Subtract 3x from both sides)

Second equation,
–
– (Divide both sides by 2)

The two lines are identical, so there are infinitely many solutions .

Example

How many solutions does the following system have?

Write each equation in slope-intercept form.

First equation,

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 – (subtract 2x from both sides)
Second equation,
– (already in slope-intercept form)

The two lines are parallel lines (same slope, but different y-intercepts), so there are no
solutions.

The Substitution Method

You solve one equation for one of the variables, then substitute the new form of the equation
into the other equation for the solved variable.

Example

Solve the following system using the substitution method.

– – –

Solving the first equation for y,

–
– – (subtract 3x from both sides)

– (divide both sides by – 1)

Substitute this value for y in the second equation.

– –
– ( – ) – (replace y with result from first equation)
– – – (use the distributive property)
– – (simplify the left side)
(add 12 to both sides)
(divide both sides by 2)

Substitute x = 2 into the first equation solved for y.

– ( )– –

Our computations have produced the point (2, 0). Check the point in the original equations.

First equation,
–
( )– true
Second equation,
– –
– ( ) ( ) – true

The solution of the system is *( )+

The Substitution Method

Steps in solving a System of Linear Equations by the Substitution Method

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 1) Solve one of the equations for a variable.
2) Substitute the expression from step 1 into the other equation.
3) Solve the new equation.
4) Substitute the value found in step 3 into either equation containing both variables.
5) Check the proposed solution in the original equations.

Example
Solve the following system of equations using the substitution method.

– –

Since the first equation is already solved for y, substitute this value into the second equation.

–
– ( – ) (replace y with result from first equation)
– (use distributive property)
(simplify left side)

There are an infinite number of solutions for this system. Any solution of one equation
would automatically be a solution of the other equation. This represents a consistent system
and the linear equations are dependent equations.

Example

Solve the following system of equations using the substitution method.

– –

Solve the first equation for y.

–
– – (subtract 3x from both sides)
– (multiply both sides by –1)

Substitute this value for y into the second equation.

–
– ( – ) (replace y with the result from the first equation)
– (use distributive property)
(simplify the left side)

There is no solution to this system.

This represents an inconsistent system, even though the linear equations are independent.

The Elimination Method

Another method that can be used to solve systems of equations is called the addition,
arithmetic or elimination method.

You multiply both equations by numbers that will allow you to combine the two equations
and eliminate one of the variables.

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Example

Solve the following system of equations using the elimination method.

– – –

Multiply both sides of the first equation by 5 and the second equation by 3.

First equation,
( – ) (– )
– – (use the distributive property)
Second equation,
( ) (– )
– (use the distributive property)

Combine the two resulting equations (eliminating the variable y).

30x – 15y = –15

12x + 15y = –27
42x = –42
x = –1 (divide both sides by 42)

Substitute the value for x into one of the original equations.

– –
(– ) – – (replace the x value in the first equation)
– – – (simplify the left side)
– – (add 6 to both sides and simplify)
– (divide both sides by –3)

Our computations have produced the point (–1, –1). Check the point in the original
equations.

First equation,
6x – 3y = –3
6(–1) – 3(–1) = –3 true
Second equation,
4x + 5y = –9
4(–1) + 5(–1) = –9 true
The solution of the system is (–1, –1).

Steps in Solving a System of Linear Equations by Elimination Method

1) Rewrite each equation in standard form, eliminating fraction coefficients.

2) If necessary, multiply one or both equations by a number so that the coefficients of a
chosen variable are opposites.
3) Add the equations.
4) Find the value of one variable by solving equation from step 3.
5) Find the value of the second variable by substituting the value found in step 4 into
either original equation.
6) Check the proposed solution in the original equations.

Example

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Solve the following system of equations using the elimination method.

2 1 3
x y 
3 4 2
1 1
x  y  2
2 4

First multiply both sides of the equations by a number that will clear the fractions
out of the equations.

Multiply both sides of each equation by 12. (Note: you don’t have to multiply each
equation by the same number, but in this case it will be convenient to do so.)

First equation,
2 1 3
x y 
3 4 2
2 1   3
12 x  y   12  
3 4   2
8 x  3 y  18
Second equation,
1 1
x  y  2
2 4
1 1 
12 x  y   12 2
2 4 
6 x  3 y  24
Combine the two equations.
8x + 3y = – 18
6x – 3y = – 24
14x = – 42
x = –3 (divide both sides by 14)
Substitute the value for x into one of the original equations.
8x + 3y = –18
8(–3) + 3y = –18
–24 + 3y = –18
3y = –18 + 24 = 6
y=2
Our computations have produced the point (–3, 2).
1.3 Solving equations involving absolute value
Properties of absolute value.
1. For any real number
2. For any real number ,

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 3. {
4. For any non- negative number , means .

Example

Solve the equation,

Solution:
For any non- negative number , means .
So, you begin by making it into two separate equations and then solve them separately.

means:

Hence, = −21 7 are solutions of the equation.

Remark: An absolute value equation has no solution if the absolute value expression equals
a negative number since an absolute value can never be negative. For example: has
no solution. (Why?)

Example

Solve the equation,

Solution

Use case method.

The zeros of and are

Then construct sign chart

-3 2

Case 1: when

( )

The value of is not in the interval Therefore,

Case 2: when

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 , -

Hence, * +

Case 3: when

( )

Hence,

Therefore, the solution set is * +

1.4 Solving inequality involving absolute value

Definition
1. For . Then
a.
b.
c.
d.
2. For . Then
a. , then the solution set is the set of real numbers
b. , then the solution set is empty set

Example

Solve the following inequality

a. b. c.

Solution

a.

The solution is * + ( ) ( )
b.

Therefore, the solution is * + , -

c.

The zeros of and are

Then construct sign chart

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 Case 1: when

( ]

The solution set is the intersection of ( ) ( 1

Therefore, ( )
Case 2: when

( -
The solution set is the intersection of ( ] 0 1
Therefore, , -
Case 3: when

, )
The solution set is the intersection of , ) . /
Therefore, , )
Therefore, the solution set is ( )
1.5 Solving system of linear inequality in two variables
Important procedures in solving inequalities in two variables graphically
֍ To solve an inequality in two variables graphically, first sketch the boundary lines on
the same − plane.
֍ This graph is the boundary line (or curve); since all points that make the inequality
true lie on one side or the other of the line. Before graphing the equations, decide
whether the line or curve is part of the solution or not, that is, whether it is solid or
dashed. If the inequality symbol is either ≤ ≥, then the points on the boundary line
are solutions to the inequality and the line must be solid. If the symbol is either < >,
then the points on the boundary line are not solutions to the inequality and the line is
dashed.
֍ Next, decide which side of the boundary line must be shaded to show the part of the
graph that represents all ( , ) coordinate pairs that make the inequality true. To do
this, choose a point not on the boundary line. Substitute the - and -values of this
point into the original inequalities. If the inequality is true for the test point, then
shade the region on the side of the boundary line that contains the test point.
֍ If the inequality is false for the test point, then shade the opposite region. The shaded
portion represents all of the ( , ) coordinate pairs that are solutions to the original
inequality. The solution to the system of inequalities is the overlap of the shading from
the individual inequalities. When two boundary lines are graphed, there are often four

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 regions. The region containing the coordinate pairs that make both of the inequalities
true is the solution region.
Example
Solve the system of linear inequalities ≤ − 2 and > −3 + 5 using graphical
method.
Solution:
First, graph the inequality ≤ − 2. The related equation is = – 2 Since the
inequality is ≤ , not a strict one, the border line is solid. Graph the straight line.

Consider a point that is not on the line - say, (0, 0) - and substitute in the inequality
≤ −2
0≤0−2
0 ≤ −2
This is false. So, the solution does not contain the point(0, 0). Shade the lower half of
the line

Similarly, draw a dashed line for the related equation of the second inequality
which has a strict inequality. The point (0, 0) does not satisfy the
inequality, so shade the half that does not contain the point (0, 0).

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 The solution of the system of inequalities is the intersection region of the solutions of
the two inequalities

1.6 Solving quadratic equations and inequality

Definition
An equation of the form where a, b, c, R and is a quadratic
equation. Here, is called the leading coefficient, is the middle term and is the
constant term
Solving quadratic equations
There are three basic methods for solving quadratic equations: factorization (if
possible), completing the square and using the quadratic formula method.
How to solve a quadratic equation by factorization method?
1. Put all terms on one side of the equal sign, leaving zero on the other side.
2. Factorize the equation.
3. Set each factor equal to zero.
4. Solve each of these equations.
5. Check by inserting your answer in the original equation.
Example
Solve the quadratic equation .
Solution:
Factorizing this we have, (Find two numbers whose sum is product is ).
They are . Hence, ( )( ) .

Recall that if and only if

Hence, the solution of the quadratic equation is

Example
Solve the quadratic equation
Solution:
writing
( ) ( )
( )( ) ( )

Hence, the solution set of the quadratic equation is 2 3

Completing the square method
Example

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 Is it possible to solve using factorization method?
Solution:
Since there are no two integers whose sum is equal to 6 and product is equal to 4, this
quadratic equation may not be solved using factorization method. Hence, we need
another method to solve the equation.
Completing the square is where we take the quadratic equation
and convert it into . / as follows

( )

. / Taking half of the coefficient of the middle term and

squaring it and adding its opposite). The expression in the bracket is a perfect square.
Hence, after simplifying, we have

( ) ( )

Equivalentely, if and only if . /

Example

Solve using completing the square method.

Solution:

(Adding the square of half the coefficient of the middle term 6

and its opposite)

( ) (Collecting those terms which sum up as a perfect square)

( )

√ (taking the square root)

Therefore, √ and √ are solutions

Example
Solve using completing the square method.

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 The quadratic formula method
There are quadratic equations that cannot be solved by factorization method. This is
generally true when the roots are not rational numbers. Consider the quadratic
equation

Example

( ) √( ) ( )( )
( )

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 Discriminant
The discriminant is the value under the radical sign which is . A quadratic
equation with real numbers as coefficients can have the following: The roots of the
√
quadratic equation are: , where
֍ If , it has no real root
֍ If , it has only one real root
֍ If , it has two distinct real roots
Example
Check whether has distinct real roots, one real root or no real roots.
If root exists, find it.
Solution

Example

Relationships between roots and coefficients of a quadratic equation.

Example

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 Example

Quadratic inequality

Definition

An inequality that can be reduced to any one of the following forms

or

or

where a, b and c are constants and is called quadratic inequality

Note

1. When the discriminant , then

i. The solution set of is the set of real numbers if and empty
set if

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 ii. The solution set of is the set of real numbers if and empty
set if
2. Product property
i. if and only if or
ii. if and only if or
Example
Solve each of the following inequalities:
a. b.

Solution

a. By product property 1: ( )( ) is positive if either both

factors are positive or both are negative.
Now, consider case by case as follows
Case i When both the factors are positive

The intersection of and is This can be illustrated on the

number line as shown in figure below.

The solution set for this first case is * + ( ).

Case ii When both the factors are negative

The intersection of and is This can be illustrated on the

number line as shown in figure below.

The solution set for this second case is * + ( ).

Therefore, the solution set of is:
* + ( ) ( ).
b. By product property 2: ( )( ) is negative if one of the
factors is negative and the other is positive. To solve ( )( ) ,
consider case by case as follows:
Case i When

There is no intersection of Graphically

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 So, .
Case ii When

The intersection of is This can be illustrated on

the number line as shown in figure below.

The solution set for this second case is * + , -.

Therefore, the solution set of ( )( ) is:
* + , -.
Solving Quadratic Inequalities Using the Sign Chart Method
Steps to solve quadratic inequality using sign chart method
Step 1 Factorize the expression
Step 2 Find the zeros of each factors
Step 3 Draw a sign chart, noting the sign of each factors
Step 4 Read the solution from the last line of the sign chart
Example
Solve the inequality using the sign chart method:
Solution

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1.7 Rational Expression and Rational Equation
A. Rational Expressions
Definition
( )
A rational expression is the quotient ( )
of two polynomials ( ) ( ), where
( ) . ( ) is called the numerator and ( ) is called the denominator.
To simplify a rational expression:
1 Find the domain.
2 Factorize the numerator and denominator completely.
3 Divide the numerator and denominator by any common factor (i.e. cancel like terms).
Example
Find the domain of the rational expression .
Solution

Simplify the expression . to the lowest term

a. Factor the numerator and denominator.

b. Determine the domain and write the domain in set-builder notation.
c. Simplify the expression.

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 Simplify

Solution

B. Rational Equation
Definition
( )
Equation that can be reduced to the form of ( )
where ( ) ( ) are polynomials
and ( ) is called rational equation.
Steps for Solving a Rational Equation
1. Factor the denominators of all rational expressions. Identify any values of the variable
for which any expression is undefined.
2. Identify the LCD of all terms in the equation.
3. Multiply both sides of the equation by the LCD.
4. Solve the resulting equation.
5. Check the potential solutions in the original equation. Note that any value from step 1
for which the equation is undefined cannot be a solution to the equation.

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Examples

Example

Solve the equation .

Solution

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 Application problems

Example
An athlete’s average speed on her bike is 14 mph faster than her average speed
running. She can bike 31.5 mi in the same time that it takes her to run 10.5 mi. Find
her speed running and her speed biking.

Solution

Because the speed biking is given in terms of the speed running, let x represent
the running speed.

Let x represents the speed running. Then represents the speed biking. Organize
the given information in a chart given below.

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 Because

The time required to run 10.5 mi is the same as the time required to bike
31.5 mi, so we can equate the two expressions for time:

Example

The ratio of male to female police officers in a certain town is 11:3. If the total
number of officers is 112, how many are men and how many are women?

Solution:
Let x represent the number of male police officers. Then 112 – x represents the
number of female police officers.

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 Review Exercise

1. Solving equations involving exponents and radicals

Solve the following equations
a. √ c. √ e. √ g. ( )
b. √ √ d. √ f. √ √ h. ( )
2. Solving equations involving system of linear equations
Solve the following system of linear equations

a. { b. { C. { d. {

3. Solving equations involving absolute value

Solve the following absolute value equations
a. c. e.
b. d. f.
4. Solving inequality involving absolute value
Solve the following absolute value inequality
a. c. e.
b. d. f.
5. Solving system of linear inequality in two variables

{ b. { C. { d. {

6. Solving quadratic equations and inequality

Solve the following quadratic equations
a. Find the roots of i) ii)
b. Solve for x: i) ii)
Solve the following quadratic inequalities
a. c. e.
b. d. f.
7. Solving equations involving rational expressions
Solve the rational equations
a. d. g.

b. e. h.

c. f.

Word Problem

1. Find two consecutive odd integers whose product is 99.

2. A certain number added to its square is 30. Find the number.
3. A plot of land for sale has a width of x cm., and a length that is 8 cm less than its width.
A farmer will only purchase the land if it measures 240 square cm. What value of x will
cause the farmer to purchase the land?

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4. The length of a rectangle is 5 inches more than twice a number. The width is 4 inches less
than the same number. If the area of the rectangle is 15, find the number.
5. The square of a number exceeds the number by 72. Find the number.
6. The ages of three family children can be expressed as consecutive integers. The
square of the age of the youngest child is 4 more than eight times the age of the
oldest child. Find the ages of the three children.
7. The altitude of a triangle is 5 less than its base. The area of the triangle is 42 square
inches. Find its base and altitude
8. The length of a rectangle exceeds its width by 4 inches. Find the dimensions of the
rectangle if its area is 96 square inches.
9. If the measure of one side of a square is increased by 2 centimeters and the measure of
the adjacent side is decreased by 2 centimeters, the area of the resulting rectangle is 32
square centimeters. Find the measure of one side of the square (the original figure).
10. Kassa is building a deck on the back of his house. He has enough lumber for the deck to
be 144 square feet. The length should be 10 feet more than its width. What should the
dimensions of the deck be?
11. The product of two consecutive negative odd integers is 483. Find the integers.
Ans:
12. Suppose the solution set of consists of the set of all real
numbers. Find all possible values of t.
Ans: [ √ √ ]
13. Michael buys two bags of chips and three boxes of pretzels for $5.13. He
then buys another bag of chips and two more boxes of pretzels for $3.09.
Find the cost of each bag of chips and each box of pretzels.

Ans $ 0.99 for a bag of chips; $ 1.05 for a box of pretzels

14. At a restaurant four people order fried crab claws and four people order a
cup of gumbo, with a total bill of $ 31. If only two people had ordered the
crab claws and one person ordered the gumbo, the bill would have been
$ 12.25. How much is each order of fried crab claws and each cup of
gumbo?
Ans: $4.50 for an order of crab claws; $3.25 for a cup of gumbo
15. If one of the roots of a quadratic equation exceeds the other by 1, then find
the value of t.
Ans: t = 5
16. If are the roots of the quadratic equation , then find the value of
.
17. The product of the ages of Abebe and Belay is 130 less than the product of their ages in 5
years. If Belay is 3 years older than Abebe, what are their current ages?

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 CHAPTER 2
RELATION AND FUNCTION
2.1 Definition and Examples of Relation

A relation R from a non-empty set A to a non-empty set B is a subset of the Cartesian

product A × B. The set of all first elements of the ordered pairs in a relation R from a
set A to a set B is called the domain of the relation R. The set of all second elements in
a relation R from a set A to a set B is called the range of the relation R. The whole set
B is called the codomain of the relation R. Note that range is always a subset of the
codomain

Types of Relations

A relation R in a set A is subset of A × A. Thus empty set φ and A × A are two extreme
relations.
(i) A relation R in a set A is called empty relation, if no element of A is related to any
element of A, i.e., R = φ ⊂ A × A.

(ii) A relation R in a set A is called universal relation, if each element of A is related

to every element of A, i.e., R = A × A.

(iii) A relation R in A is said to be reflexive if aRa for all a A, that is for all a A, ( ) R is
symmetric if aRb bRa, ∀ a, b A and it is said to be transitive if aRb and bRc aRc
∀ a, b, c A.

Any relation which is reflexive, symmetric and transitive is called an equivalence relation.

Example

Example

Let A = {0, 1, 2, 3}. R = {(0, 0), (0, 2), (0, 3), (2, 3)}. Is R reflexive, symmetric, and transitive?

Solution

Not reflexive. e.g.: (1, 1) 6 R. ∃x A, (x, x) 6 R.

Not symmetric. e.g.: (0, 3) R but (3, 0) 6 R. ∃x, y A, if (x, y) R, then (y, x) 6 R.

Transitive. ∀x, y, z A, if (x, y) R and (y, z) R, then (x, z) R.

Example

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Find the domain range the following relations

a. *( )( )( )( )( )+ b. *( ) +

Solution

a. Domain of * + and Range of * +

b. First sketch the graph of . Sketch the graphs of y < 2x and y > –x on same
coordinate system. Note that these two lines divide the coordinate system into four
regions. Take any points one from each region and check if they satisfy the relation.
Say, (3, 0), (0, 4), (–1, 0) and (0,–2). (3, 0) satisfies both inequalities of the relation. So
the graph of the relation is the region that contains (3, 0).

From the graph above,

Domain of * + Range of * +

Example

From the graph of each of the following relations, represented by the shaded region, specify
the relation and determine the domain and the range:

Solution

a. R = {(x, y): y  x+1 and x  2}; Domain = {x: x  2} and Range = {y: y  3}
b. R = *( )  + Domain * + and Range * ++

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Inverse of a relation

Definition:
Let R be a relation from A to B. Then inverse relation from B to A is:

*( ) ( ) +

For all x A and y B, (x, y) R ⇔ (y, x)

Example

Let A = {2, 3, 4} and B = {2, 6, 8}. Let R: A to B. For all (a, b) A × B, a R b ⇔ a | b

Determine R and . Draw arrow diagrams for both. Describe in words.

Solution

R = {(2, 2), (2, 6), (2, 8), (3, 6), (4, 8)} = {(2, 2), (6, 2), (8, 2), (6, 3), (8, 4)} For all (b, a) B × A,
(b, a) ⇔ b is a multiple of a

Example

Let R *( ) + Find

Solution

Remark!

1. Domain of Range of R
2. Range of Domain of R
3. ( )
4. If the boundary curve in the graph of a relation is not part of the relation, it is shown
using a broken line otherwise it is shown by solid line
5. The graph of is the mirror image of the graph of about the line

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Example

Let *( ) + Draw the graph of R and using the same coordinate axes.

Solution

*( ) +

Notice that and meet at (0, 0) and (1, 1). The equation of the line through the
two points is y = x.

2.2 Definition and examples on Function

Definition: A function is a relation in which each element of the domain is paired with
EXACTLY one element of the range. That is. A function is a relation such that no two ordered
pairs have the same first-coordinates and different second-coordinates.

Examples

1. The relation *( ) ( ) ( )+ is not function. Because 1 element of the

domain related with 3 and 5.
2. The relation *( ) ( ) ( )+ is a function. Because 1 element of the domain
related with 3 and 3.
3. The relation *( ) + is not function.

If *( ) ( )+ and *( ) ( )+, write the range of .

Solution: The range of * + and * +.

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 Define a relation R from R to R as follows: For all (u, v) R × R, u R v ⇔ v = 2|u|.
Draw the graphs of R and in the Cartesian plane. Is a function?

2.3 Classification of Function

Definition

A function f : A → B is said to be
i. Odd, if and only if, for any x A, ( ) ( )
ii. Even, if and only if, for any x A, ( ) ( ) The evenness or oddness of a
function is called its parity.

Example

a. ( ) is odd function, since ( ) ( ) ( )

b. ( ) is even function, since ( ) ( ) ( )
c. ( ) is neither odd nor even, since ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
and ( ) ( ) ( )

One to one function

Definition

A function is defined to be one-one (or injective), if the images of distinct elements

of X under f are distinct. i.e.

( ) ( )

Example

Show that, given by ( ) is one-to-one function.

Solution

Let , be any two elements such that ( ) ( )

Then, ( ) ( ) . Thus, is one-to-one.

The horizontal line test:

A function is one-to-one, if and only if any horizontal line crosses its graph at
most once.

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 Example

Using the horizontal line test show that, given by ( ) is not one-to-one.

Solution

A horizontal line crosses the graph of at two points (Figure below). Thus, f is not
one- to- one.

Onto function

Definition

A function A → B is onto (a surjection), if and only if, Range of That is.

A function is defined to be onto (or surjective), if every element of Y is the image

of some element of X under . i.e. for every there exists an element such that
( )

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One-to-one Correspondence

Definition

A function: A Bf → is a one-to-one correspondence (a bijection), if and only if, f is one-to-one

and onto.

Example

Let be given by ( ) – . Show that f is a one-to- one correspondence.

Solution

Let , such that ( ) ( )

– – – –

So, is one-to-one.
Let . Is there such that ( )?
If there is, it can be found by solving ( ) –

So for any , take .

Then, ( ) . / . /

So, is onto. Therefore, is one-to-one correspondence.

Example

Let be given by ( ) Check whether or not f is a one-to-one correspondence.

Solution

For any

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Thus, f is one-to-one. But, f is not onto, because negative numbers cannot be images. For
instance, take –
Since for every , it is not possible to have for which Thus, f is not
onto. Therefore, f is not a one-to-one correspondence.

Invertible Functions

Definitions

Steps to find the inverse of a function

1. Interchange x and y in the formula of

2. Solve for y in terms of x.
3. Write ( )

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Example

Which of the following functions are invertible?

Solution

Functions given under a and c are invertible, but choice be is not invertible because it is not
one-to-one function.

Example

Sketch for each of the following functions.

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Solution

2.4 Composition of Functions

Combination of functions

Note

Recall the following

֍ Let be any two functions, then

( )( ) ( ) ( )
( )( ) ( ) ( )
( )( ) ( ) ( )
( )
. /( ) ( )

֍ Domain of ( ) Domain of ( ) Domain of ( )

Domain of Domain of

֍ Domain of . / Domain of Domain of * ( ) +.

Example

Let *( ) ( ) ( ) ( )+ and *( ) ( ) ( ) ( )+ be two

functions. The find

a. c. e.
b. d. f. ( )
Solution

First find their domains as

Domain of * + Domain of * +

Domain of Domain of * +

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 a. {( ( ) ( )) ( ( ) ( )) ( ( ) ( ))} *( ) ( ) ( )+
b. {( ( ) ( )) ( ( ) ( )) ( ( ) ( ))} *( ) ( ) ( )+
c. {( ( ) ( )) ( ( ) ( )) ( ( ) ( ))} *( ) ( ) ( )+

Domain of Domain of * ( ) + * +

d. {( ( ) ( )) ( ( ) ( ))} 2( ) . /3
e. *( ) ( ) ( )+ *( ) ( ) ( )+ *( ) ( )
( )+
f. . / 2. ( ( ) ( ))/ ( ( ( ) ( )))3 *( ) ( )+

Definition of composite of functions

i. Let and be two functions. Then the composition of f and g

denoted by , is defined as the function given by ( )( )
( ( )) ∀
ii. If and are one to one, then is also one to one.
iii. If and are onto, then is also onto.
However, converse of above stated results (ii) and (iii) need not be true. Moreover,
we have the following results in this direction.
iv. Let and be given functions such that, is one-one. Then f is
one-one.
v. If and be given functions such that, is onto. Then g is onto.

Examples

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Set by: Fekereab Y. Page 38
Example

Let ( ) ( ) , Then find the formula for ( )( ) ( ) ( ) and also

find

Domain of ( )( ) and ( ) ( ).

Solution

( )( ) ( ( )) ( )

( )( ) ( ( )) ( )

Domain of ( )( ) 2 3

Domain of ( )( ) * +

Method 2

The two step method

To find Domain of ( )( )

Step 1: Find domain of the inner function which is * +

Step 2: Solve the equation ( ) , and exclude this

value of x from the domain. That is.

Domain of ( )( ) * +

Similarly, you can find Domain of ( )( ), which is left for you as an exercise.

Example

Let ( ) and ( ) , find the value of k for which ( )( )

( )( )

Solution

( )( ) ( ) and ( )( ) ( ) ( )

Now, ( )( ) ( )( )

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2.5. Types of Functions

2.5.1 Polynomial function

Definition:

Let n be a non-negative integer and let , be real numbers with

. The function ( ) is called a polynomial
function in variable x of degree n.

Constant, linear and quadratic functions are all special cases of a wider class of
functions called polynomial functions.

Note, in the equation: ( )

1. are called coefficients

2. The number is called the leading coefficient of the polynomial function and
is the leading term.
3. The number is called the constant term of the polynomial.
4. The number n (the exponent of the highest power of x), is the degree of the
polynomial.
5. Note that the domain of a polynomial function is .

Example

Which of the following functions are polynomial functions? For those which are
polynomials, find the degree, leading coefficient, and constant term.

a. ( ) e. ( )
b. ( ) √ f. ( ) √
c. ( ) g. ( )
d. ( ) ( √ )( √ ) h. ( )

Solution

a. It is a polynomial function of degree 5 with leading coefficient and constant

term .
b. ( ) √ , so it is a polynomial function because it can be
written in the form ( ) .
c. ( ) so it is a polynomial function of degree 0 with leading coefficient
1 and constant term 1.
d. It is a polynomial function of degree 2 with leading coefficient – 3 and constant
term 1.
e. It is not a polynomial function because its domain is not .
f. ( ) √ , so it is not a polynomial function because it
cannot be written in the form ( ) .

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 g. It is not a polynomial function because one of its terms has a negative
exponent.
h. It is not a polynomial function because its domain is not .

We can restate the definitions of linear and quadratic functions using the terminology
for polynomials. Linear functions are polynomial functions of degree 1. Nonzero
constant functions are polynomial functions of degree 0. Similarly, quadratic
functions are polynomial functions of degree 2. The zero function, ( ) , is also
considered to be a polynomial function but is not assigned a degree at this level.
Note that in expressing a polynomial, we usually omit all terms which appear with
zero coefficients and write others in decreasing order, or increasing order, of their
exponents.

Note: Based on the types of coefficients it has, a polynomial function, p is said to be:

a polynomial function over integers, if the coefficients of p(x) are all integers.
a polynomial function over rational numbers, if the coefficients of p (x) are all
rational numbers.
a polynomial function over real numbers, if the coefficients of p (x) are all real
numbers.

Example

The function ( ) is a polynomial function over rational numbers.

The function ( ) is a polynomial function over integer.

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OPERATIONS ON POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS

ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION POLYNOMIALS:

Adding and subtracting polynomials is the same as the procedure used in combining
like terms.

֍ When adding polynomials, simply drop the parenthesis and combine like terms.
֍ When subtracting polynomials, distribute the negative first, then combine like
terms.

Example

Addition:

( ) ( )
Subtraction:

( ) ( )

MULTIPLICATION POLYNOMIAL:

1. Monomial times Monomial: To multiply two monomial terms, just multiply the
numbers then multiply the variables using the rules for exponents.

Example

( )

2. Monomial times Polynomial: Simply use the distributive property to multiply a

monomial times a polynomial.

Example

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

3. Binomial times a Binomial: To multiply two binomials, use the FOIL method (First
times first, Outside times outside, Inside times inside, and Last times last).

Example

( )( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

Special Products: The following formulas may be used in these special cases as a
short cut to the FOIL method.

Difference of square Example

( )( ) ( )( )
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Perfect squares Example

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

4. Polynomial times polynomial: To multiply two polynomials where at least one has
more than two terms, distribute each term in the first polynomial to each term in the
second.
Examples:

i. ( )( )

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

ii. ( )( )

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

DIVISION OF POLYNOMIALS:

1. Division by Monomial: Each term of the polynomial is divided by the monomial

and it is simplified as individual fractions.

Examples

2. Division by Binomial or Larger Polynomial:

Use the long division format as follows:

֍ Both the divisor and the dividend must be written in descending order.
֍ Any missing powers should be replaced by zero.
֍ All remainders are in fraction form (remainder/ divisor⁄) and are added to the
quotient.

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 Examples:

a. ( ) ( ) b.

Detail solution

x3 b 2x 2  4x  8
a x  4 x  7 x  12
2 2 x  4 4 x  15
3

 ( x 2  4 x) 
 4 x 3  8x 2 
 3 x  12 8 x 2  15
  3 x  12  
 8 x 2  32 
0 17

Theorems on Polynomials

Theorem 1.1 Polynomial division theorem

If ( ) and ( ) are polynomials such that ( ) , and the degree of ( )

is less than or equal to the degree of ( ), then there exist unique
polynomials ( ) and ( ) such that

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

where ( ) or the degree of ( ) is less than the degree of ( ) If the

remainder ( ) is zero, ( ) divides exactly into ( )

Theorem 1.2 Remainder theorem

Let ( ) be a polynomial of degree greater than or equal to 1 and let c be any real number. If
( ) is divided by the linear polynomial ( – ) then the remainder is ( )

Theorem 1.3 Factor theorem

Let ( ) be a polynomial of degree greater than or equal to one, and let c

be any real number, then

i. – is a factor of ( ) if ( ) , and
ii. ( ) if – is a factor of ( )

Zeros of Function

Definition:

For a polynomial function f and a real number c, if 𝑓(𝑐) then c is a zero of 𝑓.

If (𝑥 𝑐)𝑘 is a factor of 𝑓 (𝑥) but (𝑥 𝑐)𝑘 is not, then c is said to be a zero of

multiplicity
Set k ofY. 𝑓.
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A polynomial function f has a real zero r if and only if ( ) is a factor of ( ).

If r is a zero of even multiplicity, then the factor (x − r) occurs an even number of times. The graph
then looks like the graph of an even power function at that zero. Hence the function “bounces” there.

If r is a zero of odd multiplicity, then the factor ( ) occurs an odd number of times. The
graph then looks like the graph of an odd power function at that zero. Hence, if (x − r) occurs
once, the function passes “straight through” at that zero and if (x − r) occurs any other odd
number of time, the function “flattens” there.

Example

If and are the factors of a polynomial function ( ), then the following holds.

and are factors of ( ),

and are factors of ( ),

Example

If ( ) is divided by then find the remainder.

Solution

Since is the zero of , using remainder theorem, the remainder is ( ).

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

Theorem 1.4 Location Theorem

If P is a polynomial function and ( ) and ( ) have opposite signs, then there exists
at least one value c between a and b for which ( )

Theorem 1.5 Rational Root Test

If the rational number , in its lowest terms, is a zero of the polynomial

( )

With integer coefficients, then p must be a factor of and q must be a factor of .

GRAPH OF POLYNOMIAL:
Graph of a polynomial functions are smooth curves with no breaks or corners.
The end behavior of a polynomial is a description of what happens as x becomes large
in the positive or negative direction.

Notation:

֍ means “x becomes large in the positive direction”

֍ means “x becomes large in the negative direction”

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For any polynomial, the end behavior is determined by the term that contains the highest
power of .

If P is a polynomial function, then c is called a zero of P if ( )

In other words, the zeros of P are the solutions or roots of the polynomial equation ( )

If P is a polynomial and c is a real number, then the following are equivalent.

֍ c is a zero of P.
֍ is a solution of the equation ( ) .
֍ – is a factor of ( )
֍ is an x-intercept of the graph of P.

GRAPHING POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS

If ( ) is a polynomials of degree n, then the graph of P

has at most n – 1 turning points or local extreme.

The graph of every polynomial function has no sharp corners; it is a smooth and continuous
curve.

1. Find all the real zeros or x-intercepts. Break it down into linear factors by factoring
methods and/or quadratic formula.
2. Plot the x-intercepts and determine the shape near the intercepts according to the
multiplicity of the factor.
3. Determine the end behavior of the polynomial.
4. Make a table of values including test points to determine where the graph is above or
below the x-axis and y-intercept.
5. Plot the test points and y-intercept and sketch a smooth curve passing through the
points and having the required end behavior.

Example

Which of the following are graphs of a polynomial functions and which are not?

a. Not polynomial function because vertical line cross twice.

b. Not polynomial function because there is gap.

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Answer

c. Not polynomial function because there is sharp edge.

d. Not polynomial function because there is hole.
e. It is polynomial function.
f. It is polynomial function.

General Shapes of graphs of a polynomial functions with leading term

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The chart below summarizes the end behavior of a Polynomial Function.

Example

Use the four-step process to sketch the graphs of the following polynomial functions:

( ) ( ) ( )

Step 1. Determine the end behavior. Odd with leading -, so left hand up, right hand down.

Step 2. Plot the y-intercept ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) .

Step 3. Completely factor f to find all real - with multiplicity 2

zeros and their multiplicities. with multiplicity 1.

2.5.2 Rational function and their graphs

Definition
( )
A rational function is a function of the form ( ) , where ( ) and ( ) are polynomials in
( )
x and ( ) .

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Example

Which of the following are rational functions?

a. ( ) b. ( ) c. ( ) √

Solution

are rational functions, while is not rational function. ( ) is the same as

so any polynomial function is a rational function.

Note:

֍ A rational function is said to be in lowest terms, if ( ) and ( ) have no common

factor other than 1.
֍ The domain of a rational function is the set of all real numbers except the values
of x that make the denominator ( ) zero.

Example

Give the domain of the function ( ) .

Solution

The denominator ( )( ) Thus, our domain

is the set of all real numbers except and , because and 2 both make the
denominator equal to 0.

Definition

The line is called a vertical asymptote of the graph of f if ( ) or ( )

– , either from the left or from the right.
The line is called a horizontal asymptote of the graph of f if ( ) as
or as .

Rules for asymptotes and holes

( )
Let ( ) , be a rational function, where n is the largest
( )
exponent in the numerator and m is the largest exponent in the denominator.

֍ The graph will have a vertical asymptote at if ( ) and ( ) . In

case ( ) ( ) , the function has either a hole at or requires further
simplification to decide.
֍ If n < m, then the x-axis is the horizontal asymptote.
֍ If , then the line is a horizontal asymptote.
֍ If , the graph has an oblique asymptote and we can find it by long
division.
֍ If , the graph has neither an oblique nor a horizontal asymptote.

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Example

Give asymptote to the function ( ) .

Solution

Factorizing numerator and denominator gives:

( ) ( )( )
( )
( ) ( )( )

At – , (– ) (– ) . Reducing to lowest terms we have:

( ) which gives (– ) – . Thus, f has a hole at (−1, −2).

At – , (– ) and (– ) . Thus – gives a vertical asymptote. Since the

degree of the numerator is equal to the degree of the denominator, is a horizontal
asymptote.

Example

Find the oblique asymptote of the function ( ) .

Solution

Since the degree of the numerator is one more than that of the denominator,
the graph of f has an oblique asymptote. Applying long division yields:

( ) ( )

Thus, the equation of the oblique asymptote is the quotient part of the answer
which would be

The zeros of a rational function

Definition
( )
Let ( ) be a rational function. An element a in the domain of f is called a
( )
zero of f, if and only if ( )

Example

Find the zeros of the rational functions: ( ) .

Solution

We first factorize both numerator and denominator.

( )( )
( ) ( )( )
The domain is * + Now for any x in the domain ( )
means the numerator, , i.e. x = –1 or . But, since – is not in the
domain of f, the only zero of f is

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Graphs of Rational Functions
Steps to sketch the graph of a rational function:

1. Reduce the rational function to lowest terms and check for any open holes in the
graph.
2. Find x-intercept(s) by setting the numerator equal to zero.
3. Find the y-intercept (if there is one) by setting x = 0 in the function.
4. Find all its asymptotes (if any).
5. Determine the parity (i.e. whether it is even or odd or neither).
6. Use the x-intercepts and vertical asymptote(s) to divide the x-axis into intervals.
Choose a test point in each interval to determine if the function is positive or
negative there. This will tell you whether the graph approaches the vertical
asymptote in an upward or downward direction.
7. Sketch the graph! Except for breaks at the vertical asymptotes or cusps, the graph
should be a nice smooth curve with no sharp corners.
( )
To draw the graph of ( )
( )

We need to find Criteria

Domain * ( ) +
x - intercept Zeros of
y - intercept or
Vertical asymptote ( ) ( )
Horizontal asymptote Degree of ( ) Degree of ( )
Oblique asymptote Degree of ( ) Degree of ( )
Parity is odd or even or neither

Example

Sketch the graph of each of the functions: ( ) ( )(

.
)

Solution

The function ( ) ( )( )
cannot be reduced any further. This means that there will be no
open holes on the graph of this function.

x - intercept x = 0 or (0, 0)
y - intercept y = 0 or (0, 0)
Vertical asymptote x = –1 and x = 2
Horizontal asymptote y = 3 Note that the graph crosses the horizontal asymptote at x = −2.
Oblique asymptote None
Parity f is neither even nor odd. You can check this by taking a test
point. For instance, f (−4) ≠ f (4) and f (−4) ≠ −f (4).
Next, we find and plot several other points on the graph.

X 1 4 5
y 4.8 4.17

Finally, we draw curves through the points, approaching the asymptotes.

Thus, the graph of f is:

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2.5.3 The exponential functions and their graphs
Definition

A function ( ) given by ( ) , is called an exponential function.

Basic properties

The graph of ( ) ,, has the following basic properties:

1. The domain is the set of all real numbers.

2. The range is the set of all positive real numbers.
3. The graph includes the point (0, 1), i.e. the y-intercept is 1.
4. The function is increasing.
5. The values of the function are greater than 1 for x > 0 and between 0 and 1 for x < 0.
6. The graph approaches the x − axis as an asymptote on the left and increases without
bound on the right.

Example

Draw the graph of ( ) and ( ) . / on the same co-ordinate system.

Solution

Evaluate and . / for some integral values of x and prepare a table of values.

( )

( ) ( )

Now plot these points on the co-ordinate system and join them by a smooth curve to obtain
the graph of ( ) ( ) . / .

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Basic properties
The graph of ( ) ,, has the following basic properties:

1. The domain is the set of all real numbers.

2. The range is the set of all positive real numbers.
3. The graph includes the point ( ), i.e. the y - intercept is 1.
4. The function is decreasing.
5. The values of the function are greater than 1 for and between 0 and 1 for
6. The graph approaches the x-axis as an asymptote on the right and increases
without bound on the left.

Example

Draw the graph of ( ) . / and ( ) . / on the same co-ordinate system.

Solution

Evaluate . / and . / for some integral values of x and prepare a table of values.

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

Now plot these points on the co-ordinate system and join them by a smooth curve to obtain
the graph of ( ) . / ( ) . / .

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The Natural Exponential Function
For any real number x, the function, ( ) defines the exponential function with base
e, usually called the natural exponential function.

2.5.4 The logarithmic functions and their graphs

Definition

A function ( ) given by ( ) , is called a logarithmic function.

Basic properties
The graph of for has the following properties.
1 The domain is the set of all positive real numbers.
2 The range is the set of all real numbers.
3 The graph includes the point ( ) i.e. the x-intercept of the graph is 1.
4 The function increases, as x increases.
5 The y-axis is a vertical asymptote of the graph.
6 The values of the function are negative for and they are positive for

Example

Draw the graph of ( ) and ( ) . / on the same co-ordinate system.

Solution

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The tables below indicate some values for ( ) and ( ). Plot the corresponding points on
the co-ordinate system. Join these points by smooth curves to get the required graphs as
indicated in figure below.

( )
( ) ( )

Now plot these points on the co-ordinate system and join them by a smooth curve to obtain
the graph of ( ) ( ) . / .

Basic properties
The graph of for has the following properties.
1 The domain is the set of all positive real numbers.
2 The range is the set of all real numbers.
3 The graph has its x-intercept at ( ) i.e. its x-intercept is 1.
4 The function decreases as x increases.
5 The y-axis is an asymptote of the graph.
6 The values of the function are positive when and they are negative when

Example

Draw the graph of ( ) . / and ( ) . / on the same co-ordinate system.

The tables below indicate some values for ( ) and ( ). Plot the corresponding points on
the co-ordinate system. Join these points by smooth curves to get the required graphs as
indicated in figure below.

Solution

Evaluate . / and . / for some integral values of x and prepare a table of values.

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Now plot these points on the co-ordinate system and join them by a smooth curve to obtain
the graph of ( ) . / ( ) . / .

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The relationship between exponential function and logarithmic functions
In general, the relation between the functions and ( ) is shown below:

From the graphs above, we observe the following relationships:

The domain of is the set of all real numbers, which is the same as the range
of .
The range of is the set of all positive real numbers, which is the same as the
domain of .
The x-axis is the asymptote of , whereas the y-axis is the asymptote of
.
, has a y-intercept at ( ) whereas has an x-intercept at ( )

Domain of is equal to the range of .

Range of is equal the domain of .
The functions ( ) and ( ) ( ) are inverses of each other.

The Natural Logarithm

If we start with natural exponential function and interchange x and y, we obtain
which is the same as .

is the mirror image of along the line y = x.

Notation

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 ֍ is used to represent .
֍ ln x is called the natural logarithm of x.

The graphs of , and the line are shown below:

Solving Logarithmic Equations

If a, b, c, x and y are positive numbers and then

1.
. /
2.

3. For any real number k,

4.
5.

6. --- Change of base law.

7.

Example

Solve each of the following for x, checking that your solutions are valid.
( ) ( )
a. ( ) b.

Solution

a. log 8x + log (x – 20) is valid for and – ; i.e. for and So

( )
Now log 8x + log (x – 20) = 3

( – ) ----

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 ( – )

--- dividing both side by 8.

( )( ) --- Factoring the equation.

So, x= −5. But ( )

So the only solution is x = 25.

( ) ( )
b. is valid for and
i.e. for x > −1 and x > −3.
Therefore the U = (–1, ∞).
( ) ( )

. / . /
--- since .

Therefore – and –
However, – 4 is NOT in the universe. Hence, there is no x satisfying the given equation and
the solution set is the empty set.

2.5.5 Power function, Absolute value function, Signum function and Greatest
integer function

1. Power function
Definition

A power function is a function which can be written in the form ( ) , where r is a

rational number and a in ℝ , is a fixed number.

Note

Don't confuse power functions with exponential functions.

֍ Exponential function: (a fixed base is raised to a variable exponent)

֍ Power function: (variable base is raised to a fixed exponent)

Example

The function ( ) is a power function

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The end behavior is the behavior of the graph of a function as the input decreases without
bound and increases without bound.
A power function is of the form: ( ) where k and p are constant. p determines the
degree of the power function and both k and p determine the end behavior.

Comparing Power Functions:

2. Absolute value function

Definition

The modulus (Absolute value) function is the function given by ( ) .

Set by: Fekereab Y. Page 59

 Note:
Domain of . Since ( ) , for each , Range of , )

Example

Give the domain of each of the following functions.

a. ( ) b. ( )

Solution

a. b.

Example

Sketch the graph of ( )

Solution

3. Signum function

Definition

The signum function, read as signum x, is written as sgn x and is defined by

( ) {

Observe that, { we have {

Note

The domain of is the set of real number and its range is * +.

A signum function is an odd function.

Example

Sketch the graph of the following functions and also find their domain and range

a. ( ) c. ( )
b. ( ) d. ( )

Solution

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 a. { * + c. { ( ) * + ( )
b. { d. { , )

Their graphs

a. c.

b. d.

Example

Define the function ( ) piece wisely.

Solution

( ) {

4. Greatest Integer Function

Definition

The greatest integer function, denoted by ( ) ⌊ ⌋ is defined as the greatest integer .

Note

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Domain of ( ) ⌊ ⌋ is the set of real number and its range is the set of integers.

Example

Find ⌊ ⌋ when

a. b. c.

Solution

a. 2 is the largest integer . i.e. ⌊ ⌋ .

b. – 3 is the largest integer . i.e. ⌊ ⌋ .
c. 5 is the largest integer . i.e. ⌊ ⌋ .

Example

Let ( ) ⌊ ⌋. Then
a. Complete the table

( ) ⌊ ⌋
b. Sketch the graph of ( ) ⌊ ⌋
Solution
a.

( ) ⌊ ⌋ 0 1 2

b. Graph of f (x)
2.6. Trigonometric Function
Consider a right-angled triangle with angle θ and side lengths x, y and h as shown:

The trigonometric functions sine, cosine and tangent of θ are defined as:

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 ֍

֍
Reciprocal Trigonometric Functions
The reciprocal trigonometric functions secant, cosecant and cotangent are defined as:

Example

For the above right-angled triangle, find:

a. d.
b. e.
c. f.
Solution
a. c. e.
b. d. f.
The Unit Circle
We can form right-angled triangles in a unit circle (circle of radius 1). If θ is the anticlockwise
angle between the positive x-axis and the ray ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ then for all
𝑦
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑦
𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑥
𝑦
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃
𝑥

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Graphs of trigonometric functions

Fig. Graph of Fig. Graph of

Fig. Graph of Fig. Graph of

Fig. Graph of Fig. Graph of

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 Review questions

Multiple Choice questions

1. Which one of the following is not a polynomial function?

A. ( ) C. ( )
B. ( ) D. ( )
2. Which of the following is a factor of the polynomial ( ) ?
A. B. C. D.
3. What is the remainder when is divided by ?
A. 6 B. – 4 C. 4 D. 0
4. If f and g are polynomial functions of degree 4, then which of the following is
necessarily true?
A. is of degree 8 C. is of degree 12 B.
is of degree 4 D. – is of degree 4

5. If x  1 is the factor of f ( x)  ax3  2 x  b and f (x) is divided by x  1 the remainder

is 2, then the formula for ( ) will be:
A. ( ) C. ( )
B. ( ) D. ( )
6. If are the zeros of the quadratic polynomial ( ) find the
value of ( )( )
A. B. C. D.

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 Chapter 3
Geometry & Measurement
1. A polygon is said to be:
a. Convex if each interior angle is less than 180.
b. Concave if at least one of its interior angles is greater than 180.
2. The sum S of all the interior angles of an n-sided polygon is given by the formula
( )
3. The sum of all the exterior angles of an n-sided polygon is given by
4. A regular polygon is a convex polygon with all sides equal and all angles equal.
( )
a) Each interior angle of a regular n-sided polygon is

b) Each exterior angle of a regular n-sided polygon is

c) Each central angle of a regular n-sided polygon is

5. A figure has a line of symmetry, if it can be folded so that one half of the figure coincides
with the other half. A figure that has at least one line of symmetry is called a symmetrical
figure.
6. An n-sided regular polygon has n lines of symmetry.
7. A circle can be always inscribed in or circumscribed about any given regular
polygon.
8. The apothem is the distance from the centre of regular polygon to a side of the polygon.
9. Formulae for the length of a side s, apothem a, perimeter P and area A of a regular
polygon with n-sides and radius r are given by
a) . / c) . /

b) . / d) . /
10. Congruency

Two triangles are congruent, if the following corresponding parts of the triangles are
congruent.

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11. Similarity
i. Two polygons of the same number of sides are similar, if their corresponding
angles are congruent and their corresponding sides have the same ratio.
ii. Similarity of triangles
a. SSS-similarity theorem :If three sides of one triangle are proportional to the
three sides of another triangle, then the two triangles are similar.
b. SAS-similarity theorem: Two triangles are similar, if two pairs of corresponding sides of
the triangles are proportional and the included angles between the sides are congruent.
c. AA–similarity theorem: If two angles of one triangle are correspondingly congruent to
two angles of another triangle, then the two triangles are similar.
12. If the ratio of the lengths of any two corresponding sides of two similar polygons is k then
a. the ratio of their perimeters is k.
b. the ratio of their areas is
13. Heron’s formula
The area A of a triangle with sides a, b and c units long and semi-perimeter
( ) is given by √ ( )( )( )
14. If h is the height of the triangle perpendicular to base b, then the area A of the triangle is

15. If the angle between the sides a and b is θ, then the area A of the triangle is
16. A circle is symmetrical about every diameter.
17. A diameter perpendicular to a chord bisects the chord.
18. The perpendicular bisector of a chord passes through the centre of the circle.
19. In the same circle, equal chords are equidistant from the centre.
20. A tangent is perpendicular to the radius drawn at the point of contact.
21. Line segments that are tangents to a circle from an outside point are equal.
22. Angle properties of a circle
a. The measure of an angle at the centre of a circle is twice the measure of an
angle at the circumference subtended by the same arc.
b. Every angle at the circumference subtended by the diameter of a circle is a right
angle.
c. Inscribed angles in the same segment of a circle are equal.
23. The length of an arc that subtends an angle θ at the centre of a circle with radius r is
.

24. The area A of a sector with central angle and radius r is given by .
25. The area A of a segment associated with a central angle θ and radius r is
given by .

26. The perimeter P of a segment is given by

27. If is the lateral surface area of a prism, is the total surface area of the prism, is
base area of the prism and Vis the volume of the prism, then
a. , where P is the perimeter of the base and h the altitude or height
of the prism.
b.
c.

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As we know, there are different types of polygons. Therefore, the number of interior angles
and the respective sum of angles is given below in the table.

Exterior angles

Solved examples

Q.1: If each interior angle is equal to 144°, then how many sides does a regular polygon
have?

Solution:

Given: Each interior angle = 144°

We know that,

Interior angle + Exterior angle = 180°

Exterior angle = 180°-144°

Therefore, the exterior angle is 36°

The formula to find the number of sides of a regular polygon is as follows:

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Number of Sides of a Regular Polygon = 360° / Magnitude of each exterior angle

Therefore, the number of sides = 360° / 36° = 10 sides

Hence, the polygon has 10 sides.

Q.2: What is the value of the interior angle of a regular octagon?

Solution: A regular octagon has eight sides and eight angles.

n=8

Since, we know that, the sum of interior angles of octagon, is;

Sum = (8-2) x 180° = 6 x 180° = 1080°

A regular octagon has all its interior angles equal in measure.

Therefore, measure of each interior angle = 1080°/8 = 135°.

Q.3: What is the sum of interior angles of a 10-sided polygon?

Answer: Given,

Number of sides, n = 10

Sum of interior angles = (10 – 2) x 180° = 8 x 180° = 1440°.

Q.4: What is the measure of each angle of a regular decagon?

A decagon has 10 sides and 10 angles.

Sum of interior angles = (10 – 2) x 180°
= 8 × 180°
= 1440°
A regular decagon has all its interior angles equal in measure. Therefore,
Each interior angle of decagon = 1440°/10 = 144°

Review Questions
1. Find the perimeter and area of a segment of a circle of radius 8 cm, cut off by a chord that
subtends a central angle of:
a. 1200 b. radians
2. Calculate the volume and total surface area of a right circular cylinder of height 1m and
radius 70 cm.
3. A 40 m deep well with radius m is dug and the earth taken out is evenly
spread to form a platform of dimensions 28 m by 22 m. Find the height of the
platform.

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4. A glass cylinder with a radius of 7 cm has water up to a height of 9 cm. A metal cube of
cm edge is immersed in it completely. Calculate the height by which the water rises in
the cylinder.
5. An agriculture field is rectangular, with dimensions 100 m by 42 m. A 20 m deep well of
diameter 14 m is dug in a corner of the field and the earth taken out is spread evenly over
the remaining part of the field. Find the increase in the level of the field.
6. The areas of two similar triangles are 144 cm2 and 81 cm2. If one side of the first triangle
is 6 cm, what is the length of the corresponding side of the second?
7. A chord of a circle of radius 6 cm is 8 cm long. Find the distance of the chord from the
centre.
8. Two chords, AB and CD, of a circle intersect at right angles at a point inside the circle. If
m(∠BAC) = 350, find m(∠ABD).
3 2
9. If ABCD is a parallelogram with area 64 sq. units, AE = AB, AF = AD, then the area
4 3
the shaded region is equal to:
A. 24 B. 48 C. 16 D. 56

1. The area of the upper and the lower bases of frustum of a pyramid are 3 square units and
12 square units respectively, If the volume of the frustum is 42 cubic units, then what is
the height of the pyramid? (1993 E.C)
(A) 12 units (B) 9 units (C) 6 units (D) 15 units
2. If the edge of the cube is 1 cm long, then what is its total surface area? (1993 E.C)
(A) (B) (C) (D)

3. If the diagonals of a cube is 6 units, then which of the following is true? (1994 E.C)
(A) Total surface area of the cube is 48 square units.
(B) The volume of the cube is √ cubic units.
(C) Lateral surface area of the cube is 24 square units.
(D) None of the above.
4. A frustum of height 6 cm is formed from a right circular cone of height 12 cm and base
radius 4 cm, then the volume of the frustum is (1994 E.C)
(A) (B) (C) (D)
5. A regular square pyramid is cut by a plane parallel to the base so that the plane bisects
the altitude of the pyramid. If the slant height of the pyramid is 12 units and its lateral
edge 13 units long, then the volume of the frustum in cubic units is: (1995 E.C)
√ √
(A) (B) (C) (D)

6. If the radius of the sphere is doubled, what happens to the surface area?

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 (A) It becomes four times as long as the original surface area.
(B) It becomes eight times as long as the original surface area.
(C) It is doubled
(D) It is increased by four square units.
7. What is the lateral surface area a regular square pyramid of height 6 m if its base has
edge of length 16 m?
(A) 192 m2 (B) 512 m2 (C) 320 m2 (D) 576 m2
8. A solid is made up of a hemispherical top superimposed on a frustum of right circular
cone of radii 3 units and 15 units with slant height of 20 units as shown in the figure.
What is the volume of the solid in cubic units?
(A) (B) (C) (D)
9. A right pyramid with a rectangular base of length 8 m and width 6 m has a 13 m long
lateral edge. What is the volume of the pyramid in cubic meter?
(A) 208 (B) 192 (C) √ (D) 160
10. A water tank fork is in the shape of frustum of a right circular cone with radii of bases 8m
and 4m. If its slant height is 5m, what is the capacity (volume) of the tank cubic meter?
(A) (B) (C) (D)

11. Which of the following is true about the volume V of a cone determined by doubling both
the base radius and the height of a right circular cone while volume was ?
(A) (B) (C) (D)
12. A 9 cm high box is in the form of the frustum of a regular square pyramid. What is the
volume of the box if the areas of the bases are 4cm2 and 36cm2?
(A) 108cm3 (B) 96cm3 (C) 156cm3 (D) 120cm3
13. The slant height of a square pyramid is the distance measured from its vertex to
(A) One of the vertices of its base. (C) one of the sides of its base.
(B) Any point inside its base. (D) the center of its base.
14. A right circular cone of height r cm is made to fit with hemisphere whose radius is also r
cm as shown in the figure below. What is the volume of the composed solid in cm3?
(A) (C)

(B) (D) r

15. The volume of a pyramid that has a height of 8 in and a rectangular base of dimension 6
in by 4 in is
(A) 96 in2 (B) 64 in2 (C) 576 in2 (D) 192 in2

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16. A glass in a shape of a frustum of a right circular cone has slanted height 10 cm, and
bases of radii 3 cm and 9 cm. what is the volume of the glass?
(A) 240 cm3 (B) (C) (D)
17. The diameter of the base and the height of a circular cone are found to be a and 2b units
long respectively. What is the formula for the volume V of the cone? 2000
(A) (B) (C) (D)

18. What is the volume of the cube whose diagonal has length 4 cm and makes 300 with its
adjacent edge as shown in the figure below?
(A) √
(B)
√

(C)
(D) √
19. A hemisphere is extracted from the top of a right circular cylindrical wood of height 5
units and base radius 3 units. If the hemisphere has the same radius as the base of the
cylinder, then what is the volume of the remaining objects in cubic units?
(A) (B) (C) (D)
20. A right prism has a rectangular base of length L and width W units. If its height is h units
long, then the lateral surface area of the prism is
(A) ( ) (B) ( ) (C) ( ) (D) ( )
21. A right circular cylinder can which is open at the top has base radius of 5 cm and height
of 10 cm. what is its total surface area? 2002
(A) (B) (C) (D)
22. The height of the right circular cone is 8 cm from this cone a frustum is made with upper
and lower bases of radii 3 cm and 6 cm respectively. What is the volume of this frustum?
(A) (B) (C) (D)

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