coatings

Article
Properties of Superhydrophobic and Acid–Alkali-Resistant
Polyester Fabric Produced Using Plasma Processing
Bing Zhao 1 , Liyun Xu 1,2 , Panpan Lin 3 , Hua Zhang 4 , Xiangyu He 1 , Tao Ji 1,2 and Yu Zhang 5, *

1 School of Textile and Clothing, Nantong University, Nantong 226019, China; [email protected] (B.Z.);
[email protected] (L.X.); [email protected] (T.J.)
2 National & Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Technical Fiber Composites for Safety and Protection,
Nantong University, Nantong 226019, China
3 School of Engineering, Xinglin College, Nantong University, Qidong 226236, China
4 Jiangsu Sidefu Textile Co., Ltd., Nantong 226003, China
5 Department of Applied Physics, College of Science, Donghua University, Shanghai 201620, China
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +86-186-2135-6916

Abstract: During the processes of production, storage, transportation and use of hazardous chemicals,
acid–alkali corrosive liquid spatter and leakage would cause serious casualties. In order to protect the
lives and health of staff, the surface of fabrics should be treated to obtain hydrophobicity and acid–
alkali resistance. In this paper, polyester fabric was used as the base cloth, and polydimethylsiloxane
(PDMS) and polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) micro-powder were used as the functional materials to
fabricate waterproof and breathable fabric with good acid–alkali resistance using a method of plasma
pretreatment-impregnation- and plasma-induced crosslinking. The effects of PDMS, PTFE powder
and plasma-induced crosslinking on the surface and physical and chemical properties of fabric were
investigated. It was found that the use of PDMS and PTFE powder had little effect on the mechanical
and wearing comfort properties. However, it could significantly improve the acid–alkali resistance,
as the liquid repellent rate of the treated fabric surface was higher than 80%, and the penetration
index was lower than 2%.

Keywords: polydimethylsiloxane; polytetrafluoroethylene micro-powder; plasma; acid–alkali

Citation: Zhao, B.; Xu, L.; Lin, P.;
resistance; waterproof and breathable
Zhang, H.; He, X.; Ji, T.; Zhang, Y.
Properties of Superhydrophobic and
Acid–Alkali-Resistant Polyester
Fabric Produced Using Plasma
1. Introduction
Processing. Coatings 2023, 13, 2007.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ Strong acids and strong alkalis have strong corrosive effects on fabrics. During their
coatings13122007 production, storage and use within applications such as chemical engineering, electro-
plating, batteries and military, accidents involving personnel injury or even death often
Academic Editor: Alessandro Patelli
occurred due to splashing or leakage of acid or alkaline liquids. In order to protect the
Received: 22 October 2023 lives and health of workers, it is necessary to modify the surface of fabrics to prevent direct
Revised: 15 November 2023 contact between fibers and acidic or alkaline substances.
Accepted: 17 November 2023 Treating a fabric surface with waterproofing can effectively prevent the adhesion of
Published: 26 November 2023 acidic and alkaline liquids, thus preventing harm to the human body caused by acidic
and alkaline chemicals like sulfuric acid (H2 SO4 ) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) [1,2].
Xia Y et al. [3] fabricated a superhydrophobic PET fabric through a plasma pretreatment-
dipping-heat crosslinking method; PDMS was used as a low-surface-energy monomer and
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
water-borne polyurethane (WPU) as a dispersing aid. The coated PET fabric exhibited excel-
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
lent waterproof properties and mechanical stability. Xue L. et al. [4] made a CA-Fe-SH-PET
distributed under the terms and
superhydrophobic fabric by treating PET fabric with caffeic acid (CA), Fe2+ intermediate
conditions of the Creative Commons
and n-octadecyl mercaptan (SH) using a UV radiation method. For non-volatile acids
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// and alkalis, such as H2 SO4 and NaOH, liquid droplets could not penetrate small gaps in
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ the fabric; however, for highly volatile acids like hydrochloric acid (HCl) and nitric acid
4.0/). (HNO3 ), molecules evaporated into the air and were small enough to pass through the

Coatings 2023, 13, 2007. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings13122007 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/coatings

Coatings 2023, 13, 2007 2 of 9

gaps between fibers and fabrics. Hasanzadeh M. et al. [5] used tetraethoxysilane (TEOS)
and silica nanoparticles to enhance fabric surface roughness, using PDMS and aminopropy-
ltriethoxysilane (APTES) as low-surface-energy materials to treat the polyester/viscose
fabric surface by using an immersion technique. The WCA of the treated fabric surface
was about 151◦ , with very low SAs. Mohammadshahi S et al. [6] manufactured a series of
superhydrophobic surfaces by spraying hydrophobic nanoparticles onto sandpaper with
micrometer-sized abrasive particles. They discovered that spraying nanomaterial on a
micrometer-scale rough surface could create micro–nano hierarchical rough structures,
which imparted water-repellent properties to the material surface. Therefore, domestic
and foreign experts have utilized multi-component composite coating materials to modify
fabric surfaces, aiming to improve a fabric’s overall acid–alkali resistance. Pan GG et al. [7]
utilized PDMS and copper stearate (CuSA2 ) as raw materials, employing in situ growth
and impregnation methods to create a superhydrophobic (with a water contact angle WCA
of approximately 158◦ ) cotton fabric. This modified fabric exhibited excellent chemical
stability against strong acid solution: after treatment for 48 h with HCl solution, WCA
remained at 156◦ . However, treatment for 48 h with NaOH solution damaged the superhy-
drophobic structure and introduced some hydrophilic hydroxyls on the surface of fibers.
Wu Y et al. [8] treated cotton fabric with a UV-curable water-based coating, nano-silver,
and stearic acid, providing the fabric with good acid–alkali resistance, water repellency,
and antibacterial properties. Chen XP et al. [9] achieved a superhydrophobic PET fabric
using a dip-coating method with reacted natural polyphenols, ferrous sulfate heptahydrate
and hexadecyltrimethoxysilane. Their results demonstrated that, after coating treatment,
PET fabrics obtained good resistance to acids and alkalis; after immersion in solutions at
varying pH levels (1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11 and 13) for 24 h, the WCA and WSA of treated PET fabrics
remained above 150◦ and below 10◦ , respectively. Wang H B et al. [10] pointed out that, as
a nanomaterial to increase surface roughness, the superhydrophobic film formed by PTFE
micro-powder was better than SiO2 nanoparticles, with a denser structure and improved
hydrophobicity and acid–alkali resistance. Moreover, PTFE micro-powder has the advan-
tages of good chemical stability, low surface tension, low surface friction coefficient, good
sliding properties, and excellent heat and cold resistance, which can give the material a
good anti-ice function [11–13]. Huang J et al. [14] fabricated a solid surface with impressive
superhydrophobic, self-cleaning and anti-icing functions by performing three steps: first,
they mixed and cured PTFE, polymer and curing agent, and then they ground them into
powder, which was sprayed on solid surfaces using a powder spraying process, followed
by heating and melting curing. Often, the superhydrophobic and acid–alkali resistance was
obtained at the expense of the comfort of fabrics, but as a textile and clothing material, the
breathability and wearing comfort of the fabric are equally important. Plasma technology
is often used for coating modification of a material surface, and this can not only produce a
polymer-crosslinking film but can also introduce a nanoscale structure to provide specific
functions without changing the overall properties of base materials [15,16].
Based on the research mentioned above, this study utilized low-surface-energy poly-
dimethylsiloxane (PDMS) and polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) micro-powder with different
particle sizes as raw materials. Using an impregnation-plasma-induced crosslinking pro-
cess, a micro–nano hierarchical rough structure with low surface energy was constructed
on the surface of PET fabric, imparting the fabric with water-repellent and acid–alkali
resistance properties without changing the wearing comfort and mechanical properties
of PET fabrics. This study also analyzed the surface morphology, chemical composition,
mechanical properties and wearing comfort of the treated PET fabric.

2. Experimental Procedure
The knitted polyester fabric (PET, 100%, 120 g/m2 ) was purchased from Miandu
Textile Co., Ltd. (Nantong, China) and used as samples. Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS,
201-10) was supplied by Jiashan Jiangnan Textile Materials Co., Ltd. (Jiashan, China) as the
Coatings 2023, 13, 2007 3 of 9

monomer. Tetrafluoroethylene micro-powder (PTFE, 200 nm and 1 µm) was purchased from
Shanghai Maclin Biochemical Technology Co., Ltd. (Shanghai, China). Standard soapflake
was purchased from China Textile Institute of Science and Technology (Beijing, China)
and detergent 209 was supplied by Wangnilai Co., Ltd. (Guangzhou, China). Ethanol
(AR, ≥99.7%), hydrochloric acid (HCl, AR, 30%,), nitric acid (HNO3 , AR, 40%), sulfuric
acid (H2 SO4 , AR, 80%) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH, AR, 30%) were purchased from
Changzhou Hongsheng Fine Detail Co., Ltd. (Changzhou, China), and argon gas was
supplied by Canghai industry Gas Co., Ltd. (Shanghai, China).
Before the experiments, all PET fabrics were washed in an ultrasonic bath in a detergent
209 solution at a concentration of 2 g/L (diluted with deionized water). Washing conditions
were as follows: an bath ratio of 50:1, a temperature of 40 ◦ C and a wash time of 40 min.
The PET fabrics were then washed repeatedly with deionized water and dried in an oven at
a temperature of 70 ◦ C for 2 h to remove any possible dust or chemical residues that could
affect the surface treatment [17].
In order to increase the interface bonding performance between the coating and the
fabric fibers, the scoured PET fabric was pretreated with atmospheric pressure plasma
(CTP-2000A, Nanjing Suman Plasma Technology Co., Ltd., Nanjing, China) to increase the
surface roughness.
The functional monomer dispersion was prepared by mixing PDMS (concentration
20 g/L) together with PTFE micro-powder with a particle size of 200 nm or 1 µm (concen-
tration 1.2 g/L) suspended in ethanol within an ultrasonic bath for 30 min.
The pretreated PET samples were dipped into the functional monomer dispersion in
an ultrasonic bath at an bath ratio of 40:1 for 5 min. Subsequently, the samples were dried
in an oven at 70 ◦ C for 30 min to evaporate the ethanol. The dipped PET samples were then
modified using the CCP plasma equipment, and the processing of plasma treatment for
superhydrophobic fabrics was the same as in our previous article [18]. The PDMS-modified
PET fabric was referred to as PDMS-g-PET fabric, PTFE micro-powder with a particle
size of 200 nm or 1 µm, and the PDMS-modified PET fabrics were referred to as PTFE
(200 nm)@PDMS-g-PET fabric or PTFE (1 µm)@PDMS-g-PET, respectively.
Surface morphology was characterized using a scanning electron microscope (Gemini
SEM 300, ZEISS, Oberkochen, Germany). The surface chemical compositions of samples
were analyzed using a Fourier transform infrared spectrometer (NicoletTM IS50 FTIR,
Thermo, Donaueschingen, Germany). The water repellency of the control and treated PET
fabrics was evaluated for WCA and waterproof level. The WCA was tested at room tem-
perature and ambient humidity using an OCA15EC (Dataphysics, Filderstadt, Germany)
with the volume of droplets set as 5 µL, whereas the waterproof level was tested using
a fabric waterproof tester (CSI-232, Shanghai Chengsi intelligent Technology Co., Ltd.,
Shanghai, China) according to GB/T 4745-2012. The waterproof level was divided into
5 levels and determined by the proportion of the surface wet area to the measured area,
and the higher the proportion of wet area, the lower the waterproof level. The acid–alkali
resistance was tested using CSI-W031B (Shanghai Cheng Si Intelligent Technology Co., Ltd.,
Shanghai, China) according to GB/T 24540-2009. The wearing comfort of the fabric was de-
termined by the measured water vapor transmission (YG601H, Ningbo Textile Instrument
Factory, Ningbo, China) according to GB/T 12704.2-2009, and air permeability was tested
(YG(B)461E, Wenzhou Baien Instrument Co., Ltd., Wenzhou, China) according to GB/T
5453-1997 [19]. The mechanical strength of the samples was determined on a WDW-10
multi-function electronic fabric strength machine (according to GB/T3923.1-2013 [20]) and
a YG065 fabric strength tester (according to GB/T 19976-2005). All the samples were condi-
tioned for 48 h in atmospheric conditions of 20 ± 2 ◦ C temperature and 65 ± 2% relative
humidity before tests were performed.
Coatings 2023, 13, 2007 4 of 9

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Surface Morphology and Chemical Composition
The surface morphology and chemical components of PET fabrics before and after
treatment were tested, and the results are shown in Figure 1. It was found that after treat-
ment, the surface morphology of the PET fiber was significantly changed (Figure 1a): PET
fiber had a smooth surface, whereas plasma-pretreated PET fiber had a relatively uniform
grooved surface, which was beneficial to the uniform distribution of PDMS and PTFE micro-
powder on the fiber surface. The surfaces of PDMS-g-PET, PTFE(200 nm)@PDMS-g-PET
and PTFE(1 µm)@PDMS-g-PET fiber showed relatively uniform micro-fold films. However,
the surface roughness of PTFE (<1 µm) @PDMS-g-PET fabric was greater than that of PTFE
(200 nm) @PDMS-g-PET fabric, and the uniformity was slightly decreased. The existence
of micro-fold structure and the increase in roughness were the main structural factors
for the formation of superhydrophobic properties of fabric surfaces. Combined with the
chemical components of the fabric surface (Figure 1b), the curve of plasma-pretreated PET
fabrics was almost identical to that of the untreated PET fabric, which means that plasma
pretreatment changed the surface morphology without changing the surface chemical
composition. However, the enhancement of Si–CH3 (C–CH3) peaks at 780 cm−1 , 1250 cm−1 ,
1410 cm−1 and 2970 cm−1 [21], and C–O–C (Si–O–Si) peaks in the 1200–1000 cm−1 region
was attributed to the crosslinking of PDMS on the surface of PET fabrics [22]. The infrared
absorption peak frequency of functional groups of PTFE was mainly in the 1400–400 cm−1
region, the infrared absorption peak in 1300–1100 cm−1 region was mainly attributed to F–
C–F stretching vibration mode (vcr), and the infrared absorption peak in the 700–400 cm−1
region was mainly attributed to F–C–F bending vibration mode (8CF1). It was also demon-
strated that PTFE was successfully attached to the PET fiber surface. The increase in CH3
and F–C–F functional groups on the surface of PET fabrics was the main chemical factor
promoting the formation of superhydrophobic properties on the surface [23,24].

Figure 1. (a) Surface morphology and (b) chemical composition of different PET fabrics.
Coatings 2023, 13, 2007 5 of 9

3.2. Water Repellency and Acid–Alkali Resistance

The water repellency and acid–alkali resistance of PET fabrics were tested, and the
results are shown in Table 1 and Figure 2. As shown in Table 1, the WCA and waterproofing
level of PET, PDMS-g-PET, PTFE (200 nm)@PDMS-g-PET and PTFE(1 µm)@PDMS-g-PET
fabrics were 121◦ , 150◦ , 152◦ and 153◦ , and level 2, level 5, level 5 and level 5, respectively.
This indicates that, after plasma treatment, PET fabrics showed great water repellency.
The acid–alkali resistance of PET fabrics was determined by penetration index and liquid
rejection efficiency together, and it was found that the acid–alkali resistance of PDMS-g-
PET, PTFE(200 nm)@PDMS-g-PET and PTFE(1 µm)@PDMS-g-PET fabrics were improved
to different degrees, and the detailed results are listed in Figure 2. This was due to the
presence of PDMS and PTFE on the surface of PET fabric after plasma treatment, which
could effectively reduce the surface energy of the fabric and construct a multistage rough
structure, which greatly increased the surface roughness of PET fabrics. According to
the explanation of Cassie–Baxter theory, which held that when the liquid droplet formed
compound contact with the micro–nano rough structure on the surface of the solid phase,
liquid phase and gas phase, there was a large amount of air trapped in the solid phase
microstructure, which made it difficult for the liquid droplet to penetrate into the micro–
nano composite structure, so that the droplet rolled down after contact with the fabric,
rather than infiltrating into the fabric [25], thus improving the waterproof and acid–alkali
resistance of the fabric. Moreover, the nitration reaction occurs between PET fibers and
HNO3 and gives hydrophilicity to PET fabric [26], which seriously reduces the acid–alkali
resistance. Additionally, the acid–alkali resistance of PTFE(200 nm)@PDMS-g-PET and
PTFE(1 µm)@PDMS-g-PET fabrics were better than that of PET-g-PDMS fabric, which was
due to the existence of fluorinated groups in PTFE micro-powder.

Table 1. Water repellency of different PET fabrics.

PTFE(200 nm)@ PTFE(1 µm)@

Project PET Fabric PDMS-g-PET Fabric
PDMS-g-PET Fabric PDMS-g-PET Fabric
WCA 121◦ 150◦ 152◦ 153◦

Spray Test

Waterproofing Level Level 2 Level 5 Level 5 Level 5

Figure 2. (a) Penetration index and (b) liquid rejection efficiency of different PET fabrics.
Coatings 2023, 13, 2007 6 of 9

3.3. Mechanical Properties

In order to clarify the influences of the addition of PDMS and PTFE and of plasma
treatment on the mechanical properties of PET fabrics, the tensile and bursting proper-
ties of different PET fabrics were tested, and the results are shown in Table 2. As we
can see, compared to the PET fabric, for tensile breaking strength, the performance of
PET-g-PDMS and PTFE(200 nm)@PDMS-g-PET fabric increased by 1.5% and 3.8%, re-
spectively, whereas the performance of PTFE(1 µm)@PDMS-g-PET fabric decreased by
9.3%. For tensile elongation at break, the performance of PET-g-PDMS increased by 2.0%,
whereas the performance of PTFE(200 nm)@PDMS-g-PET and PTFE(1 µm)@PDMS-g-PET
fabric decreased by 7.6% and 10.5%, respectively. For bursting strength, whereas the
performance of PTFE(200 nm)@PDMS-g-PET fabric increased by 2.4%, respectively, the
properties of PDMS-g-PET and PTFE(1 µm)@PDMS-g-PET fabrics decreased by 5.1% and
3.6%, respectively.

Table 2. Mechanical properties of different PET fabrics.

Tensile Breaking Strength (N) Tensile Elongation at Break (%) Bursting Strength (N)
PET fabric 507.1 48.4 1180
PET-g-PDMS fabric 514.8 49.4 1119.5
PTFE(200 nm)@PDMS-g-PET fabric 526.4 44.7 1208.7
PTFE(1 µm)@PDMS-g-PET fabric 460.0 43.3 1137.3

Combined with the surface morphology and chemical composition test results in
Figure 1, the change in PET fabric mechanical properties might be due to the presence
of a superhydrophobic coating, composed of PDMS cross-linked film and PTFE micro-
powder. The existence of a PDMS uniform film could increase the lubrication of fiber and
yarn, reducing friction, so that PET-g-PDMS fabric under tensile force caused the yarn to
slip inward, reducing the friction loss between fiber and yarn and improving the tensile
breaking strength and tensile breaking elongation. However, when the yarn is subjected
to the bursting force, the yarn slips to both sides, which eventually leads to the decline of
the bursting strength of the fabric. The addition of PTFE micro-powder could increase the
friction between fiber and yarn to a certain extent, which caused PTFE(200 nm)@PDMS-
g-PET and PTFE(1 µm)@PDMS-g-PET fabric to have higher bursting strengths than that
of PDMS-g-PET fabric. When the particle size decreased to 200 nm, PTFE@PDMS film
had better uniformity, and PTFE particles were in full contact with the fabric and PDMS
films causing smaller friction losses between fiber and yarn under the action of mechanical
external force. When the particle size was 1 µm, the uniformity of PTFE@PDMS film
became worse, which resulted in large pores between PTFE, PET fabric and PDMS film, and
caused larger friction loss between fiber and yarn under the action of a mechanical external
force [27]. Therefore, the tensile and bursting properties of PTFE(1 µm)@PDMS-g-PET
fabric were decreased, whereas the tensile breaking strength of PTFE(200 nm)@PDMS-g-
PET fabric was slightly decreased, and the tensile breaking strength and bursting strength
of the fabric were increased.

3.4. Wearing Comfort

As a very important property for clothing textiles, the wearing comfort of waterproof
fabrics is often ignored. Both the air permeability and the moisture permeability of fabrics
can affect their wearing comfort [28]. Therefore, we tested the air permeability and moisture
permeability of different PET fabrics. As shown in Table 3 compared to PET fabrics, the
rise in air permeability (13.21%, 12.11% and 3.21%) of PET-g-PDMS, PTFE(200 nm)@PDMS-
g-PET and PTFE(1 µm)@PDMS-g-PET fabric might be caused by the etching of plasma
increasing the porosity of fabric, and the use of PTFE micro-powder would partially reduce
Coatings 2023, 13, 2007 7 of 9

the porosity of PET fabric and lead to the reduction of air permeability. Therefore, the air
permeability of PTFE(200 nm)@PDMS-g-PET and PTFE(1 µm)@PDMS-g-PET fabrics was
lower than that of PET-g-PDMS fabric. Conversely, water vapor is transferred in the fabric
in three ways: through the diffusion of micropores in the fabric; the moisture absorption
of the fiber itself and the escape on the side of the fabric with low water pressure; and
the diffusion and volatilization after a large number of water vapor molecules produce
condensation. So, the decline of water vapor transmission (−4.21%, −11.77% and −10.49%)
of PET-g-PDMS, PTFE(200 nm)@PDMS-g-PET and PTFE(1 µm)@PDMS-g-PET fabrics was
due to the reduction in pore size and porosity of PET fabrics after coating treatment, and
the existence of hydrophobic PDMS and PTFE@PDMS film affected the absorption of water
vapor by the PET fibers and also the transportation to the low vapor pressure side of
capillary water through capillary action between pores. In summary, it could be seen that
plasma treatment had little impact on the wearing comfort of PET fabrics.

Table 3. Wearing comfort of different PET fabrics.

Air Penetrability (mm/s) Moisture Permeability (g/(m2 ·h)

PET fabric 1027.21 48.41
PET-g-PDMS fabric 1162.94 46.37
PTFE(200 nm)@PDMS-g-PET fabric 1151.64 42.71
PTFE(1 µm)@PDMS-g-PET fabric 1060.18 43.33

4. Conclusions
In this paper, a waterproof and breathable fabric with good acid–alkali resistance
was fabricated using a method of plasma pretreatment-impregnation and plasma-induced
crosslinking, and the relationships between PTFE micro-powder size, surface morphology
and the properties of PET fabrics were also investigated. It was observed that the use
of PDMS and PTFE micro-powder could effectively improve the waterproof grade and
acid–alkali resistance of PET fabric. PTFE(200 nm)@PDMS-g-PET fabric had the best
comprehensive performance. It had a waterproof grade of level 5, the liquid repellent
rate was higher than 80%, the penetration index was lower than 2%, and the tensile
breaking strength and bursting strength were increased by 3.8% and 2.4%, respectively.
The permeability and moisture permeability of the fabric could still be maintained at
1151.64 mm/s and 42.71 g/(m2 ·h). The surface morphology and chemical composition
tests proved that PTFE(200 nm)@PDMS formed a relatively uniform film on the surface of
the fabric. The addition of PTFE micro-powder with a 200 nm particle size could increase
the roughness and acid–alkali resistance of PET fabric to a certain extent, in addition to
having little impact on the wearing comfort and mechanical properties of PET fabric.

Author Contributions: B.Z. and H.Z. contributed to the project management; P.L., X.H. and L.X.
contributed to the experiment and characterization of fabrics; T.J., L.X. and Y.Z. contributed to the
choice of materials. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Innovative Training Program (Jiangsu) (No. 202313993019Y),
the Innovative Training Program for College Students (No. 202310304038Z) and the Jiangsu Province
Social Development Project—Surface Project (No. SBE2022741233).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: No new data were created.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank Tao Ji of the School of Textile and Clothing at
Nantong University for his valuable comments and guidance throughout this study.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Coatings 2023, 13, 2007 8 of 9

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