UNIIT4

### Features of UDP:

1. Connectionless: No need for a connection before sending data; each packet is sent independently.
2. Unreliable: No guarantee that data will be delivered or arrive in order.
3. Faster: No connection setup or error correction, making it quicker than TCP.
4. No Flow Control: UDP doesn't manage data flow, which can lead to packet loss in congested networks.
5. Lightweight: Smaller header (8 bytes), making it more efficient.
6. Supports Broadcasting/Multicasting: Can send data to multiple devices at once.
7. No Acknowledgment: No confirmation of packet receipt, making it simpler but less reliable.
8. Used for Real-Time Apps: Ideal for applications like video calls, gaming, or DNS queries where speed matters
more than perfect delivery.

### Advantages of UDP over TCP:

1. Faster: No connection or error-checking delays, making it ideal for low-latency applications like gaming.
2. Lower Overhead: Smaller header size, more efficient for limited bandwidth.
3. No Congestion Control: UDP isn't slowed down by congestion control, unlike TCP.
4. Better for Streaming: Allows uninterrupted data flow, even if some packets are lost.
5. Supports Broadcasting/Multicasting: Can send data to many devices at once.
6. No Connection Setup: Faster transmission because no connection needs to be established.

### Channels in ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network):

ISDN consists of three main types of channels: **B-channel**, **D-channel**, and **H-channel**.
Each serves a specific purpose and has a different data rate.

1. **B-Channel (Bearer Channel)**:

- **Data Rate**: Typically 64 kbps, but can be combined to provide higher speeds.
- **Purpose**: Used for carrying user data such as voice, data, and low-data-rate information. Two B-channels
can be combined to provide a total of 128 kbps for higher data rates.
- **Used for**: Voice calls, data transmission, and other low to moderate data applications.

2. **D-Channel (Data Channel)**:

- **Data Rate**: Typically 16 to 64 kbps.
- **Purpose**: Primarily used for signaling and control purposes, rather than carrying user data. It handles
functions like call setup, call teardown, signaling, and other control functions.
- **Used for**: Carrying control signals for call establishment, ringing, call interruption, etc. It does not carry user
data.

3. **H-Channel (Hybrid Channel)**:

- **Data Rate**: Typically 1536 kbps or 1920 kbps.
- **Purpose**: Supports higher-speed data, such as video conferencing, high-speed data transmission, and
multimedia services.
- **Used for**: Video transmission, video conferencing, and high-speed data/audio communications.
### Where Are These Channels Used?
- **B-Channel**: Used in everyday voice calls, Internet browsing, and data transmission where lower speeds are
sufficient.
- **D-Channel**: Used for managing and controlling the network, specifically for call setup, signaling, and other
administrative tasks.
- **H-Channel**: Used in high-demand applications requiring high bandwidth, like video conferencing, high-speed
data transfer, and multimedia services.

### Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) - Short Note

DHCP is a protocol that automatically assigns IP addresses to clients (like laptops or mobile devices) that move
across networks. It eliminates the need for manual IP configuration by dynamically updating configuration files. A
**DHCP server** maintains an address pool and allocates addresses when requested.

### IP Address Assignment Modes:

1. **Automatic**: Assigns an IP address permanently.
2. **Dynamic**: Assigns an IP address for a limited time (lease).
3. **Manual**: The address is manually configured.

### DHCP Message Types:

- **DHCPDISCOVER**: Client broadcast to find servers.
- **DHCPOFFER**: Server offers an IP address and configuration.
- **DHCPREQUEST**: Client accepts the offer or requests lease extension.
- **DHCPDECLINE**: Client reports an error with the offer.
- **DHCPACK**: Server acknowledges the client’s request.
- **DHCPNACK**: Server rejects the request due to an invalid or expired address.
- **DHCPRELEASE**: Client releases the IP address.
- **DHCPINFORM**: Client requests additional configuration without needing a new IP address.

DHCP uses a message format with a **312-octet options field** and a **flag field** to indicate broadcast
responses.
### Telnet - Short Note

**Telnet** is a general-purpose client-server application that allows users to access remote hosts running different
applications over the Internet. Instead of creating separate client-server programs for each application, Telnet
provides a flexible solution to connect to any remote service.

### Key Features of Telnet:

- **General-purpose**: A single client-server program used to access various remote applications.
- **Minimal Resources**: Telnet is popular due to its low resource usage and flexibility.
- **Emulates Terminals**: The Telnet client can mimic the behavior of many well-known terminals.

### Network Virtual Terminal (NVT):

- Telnet uses an internal representation called **Network Virtual Terminal (NVT)** for communication between the
client and server. This standardizes the interaction between different types of terminals by mapping local terminal
characteristics to NVT capabilities.
- **Keystrokes** from the user are sent to the Telnet client, which converts them into NVT's universal character
set, then transmitted to the remote server. The reverse process happens at the server end.

### NVT Character Set:

- NVT uses **8-bit data format**, with a basic character set based on **ASCII (7-bit code)**.
### HTTP - Hypertext Transfer Protocol

HTTP is the protocol used for transferring documents on the World Wide Web between clients (like web
browsers) and servers. It works through a simple three-step process:

1. The client (browser) opens a TCP connection and sends a request for a document.
2. The server responds with the requested document.
3. The server closes the connection.

### HTTP Request Messages:

- **Client to Server**: HTTP request messages are sent from the client to the server. The message contains a
request line (method, URL, and HTTP version) followed by headers and possibly a body (data).
- **Methods**:
- **GET**: Retrieves the resource at the specified URL. The body contains the requested data.
- **HEAD**: Similar to GET but only retrieves the headers, without the body. Useful for checking resource
information.
- **POST**: Sends data to the server to be processed (e.g., submitting a form). The body contains data sent to
the server.
- **PUT**: Uploads a resource to the server or updates an existing resource at the specified URL.
- **DELETE**: Requests the server to delete the resource at the specified URL.
- **TRACE**: Allows the client to see how the message is processed at the server (used for diagnostics).
- **COPY**: Requests the server to copy the resource from the specified URL to another location.
- **MOVE**: Requests the server to move the resource to a new location.

HTTP Response Messages

The response of the server to a request from the client consists of three parts-status line, other fields, and body .
The status line has three elements. HTTP version, status code, and reason phrase. The status code is three-digit
integer that indicates the response to the request.
### Electronic Mail (E-mail)

E-mail is one of the oldest and most popular network services, and it relies on the **Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
(SMTP)** for message transfer. Initially, SMTP only supported text-based messages, but with the rise of
multimedia content, e-mail now supports attachments like images, videos, and other data types.

### Key Components and Processes in E-mail:

1. **Message User Agent (MUA)**:
- The process that allows users to read, write, and send e-mails. It fetches incoming messages from a mailbox
using protocols like **POP3** or **IMAP4** and stores outgoing messages in a **spool file**.
- Outgoing messages are sent to the SMTP server for delivery.

2. **Spool File**:
- A temporary storage file where outgoing e-mails are placed before being sent. The MUA adds new e-mails to
this file.

3. **Message Transfer Agent (MTA)**:

- The process responsible for transferring e-mails from the spool file and delivering them to the recipient’s
mailbox. If the recipient is on a different machine, the MTA forwards the message to another MTA using SMTP.
- Sometimes, multiple MTAs are involved, acting as intermediaries to pass messages between servers.

4. **Mailbox**:
- A designated file on the recipient's server where delivered e-mails are stored. The recipient can read and
delete messages from their mailbox.