Language Development

and
Critical evaluation of Literature

Ms. Phoebe Shek

CBS5020 Week 2
Language
What is language?
To talk about “language”......

Syntax Comprehension Expression Phonology Listening

Written
Verbal language Reading Morphology Speaking
language

Writing Semantics Pragmatics Words …....

From speech therapy to linguistics……

Form
• Phonology
• Morphology
• Syntax

Use Content
• Pragmatics • Semantics
Form: Phonology形式： 語音
• The speech sounds语音
• Different language - different speech sounds不同语言 - 不同语音
final –m in Cantonese vs Mandarin?粤语和普通话的词尾 -m 有什
么区别？
• Combination of speech sounds – governed by phonotactic rules of
each language语音组合 - 受每种语言的音位规则支配
• Smallest unit: phoneme最小单位：音素

• Cantonese
• (Initial consonant) – vowel/diphthong – (final consonant)(首辅音) - 元音/双
元音 - (尾辅音)
• Tones声调
• 粵語審音配詞庫: https://humanum.arts.cuhk.edu.hk/Lexis/lexi-can/
Form: Morphology形式：形态学
• The structure of words 单词的结构
• Smallest unit: morpheme 最小单位：词素
• Free morpheme: can stand alone as a word
apple, juice, go, like, etc.
• 自由词素：可以单独组成单词
apple、juice、go、like 等
• Bound morpheme: need to combine with others to become a word
-ing, dis-, -s, -ful, etc.
-粘着词素：需要与其他词素组合才能组成单词
-ing、dis-、-s、-ful 等
• Morphological rules – how to make new words形态规则 – 如何造新词
Form: Syntax形式：语法
• How words are arranged in sentence单词在句子中的排列方
式
• The sequence has an implied meaning 顺序具有隐含意义

Subject Verb Object

Subject Object Verb

Object Subject Verb

Content: Semantics内容：语义
• The meaning of words, sentences, paragraphs单词、句子、段落的含
义
• One word à different meanings
“apple”
• One word à different meanings à in different contexts “I would like an
apple instead.”
• “我想要一个苹果。”
Use: Pragmatics用途：语用学
• How the language forms and contents are used语言形式和内容的使用方式
• Driving force behind language – does it meet our intention(s)?语言背后的驱动力——它是否符
合我们的意图？
• Very socially and culturally dependent – rules高度依赖社会和文化——规则
• Explicit vs subtlety明确与含蓄
“I want to eat!”

[CRY]/[FROWN] Hunger “Shall we have dinner?”

“This restaurant looks nice.

And it is still opening.”
Comprehension and Expression理解与表达
FORM形式 Comprehension Receptive Production Expressive
language理解接受性语言
language生产表达语言
Verbal language口头语言 Listening听 Speaking说
Written language写作 Reading读 Writing写

Comprehension Expression
Language development
Typical language development典型的语言发展
• Typical vs. normal典型与正常
• Normal = without problems正常 = 没有问
题
• Typical = like most others of the same age
and group典型 = 与同龄和同组的其他大多
数人一样
• Cultural and language dependent文化
和语言依赖
• Different goals at different ages不同年龄段的目标不同

Prelinguistic Preschool School-age

developmen developmen development学
t语言前发展 t学龄前发展 龄发展
(Owens, et al., 1995)
Prelinguistic development: Before the first words
语言发展前期：说出第一个单词之前
• Before we learn language, the Use使用

are some non-linguistic • Reciprocal gaze相互凝视

behaviours that we used to • Joint attention共同关注
• Turn taking轮流
communicate and will set the • Regulating others规范他人
basis for language learning在我 Content内容
们学习语言之前，我们有一些非语言行为，这
些行为是我们用来交流的，它们将为语言学习 • Object permenance• 客体永久性
奠定基础 • Object relations 客体关系

• It is not a clear must that all Form 形式

these behaviours shall be • Imitation of body movments模仿身体动作

• Vocalization发声
established before language所 • Approximations (babbling)模仿（牙牙学语）
有这些行为不一定都必须在语言之前建立

(Lahey, 1988)
Preschool language development: When they started to
talk…学龄前语言发展：当他们开始说话时……

Use Content Form

• Words are not just • Vocabulary growth • Growth of utterance length:

used for naming - and word mean length of utterance
combinations • Speech sound
• Requesting, development:
commenting, • Fast mapping: infer not all speech sounds are
inquiring, rejecting, meaning from developed at the same time
etc. context • 话语长度的增长：话语的平
• 词汇量增长和词语组 均长度
• 词语不仅仅用于命名
合 • 语音发展：
- • 并非所有语音都是同时发展
• 请求、评论、询问、 快速映射：根据上下 的
拒绝等。 文推断含义

(Paul & Norbury, 2012)

School-age development

Oral language
• Listening
• Speaking

Written language
• Reading
• Writing

(Paul & Norbury, 2012)

 Oral language at school-age学龄口语
• Academic talk 学术演讲
• The “hidden” curriculum“隐藏”课程
• Decontextualized language脱离语境的语言
• Not all the words are about things that can be “seen” or “feel”并非所有的词语都是
关于可以“看到”或“感觉到”的事物
• Metalinguistic skills: to use language to talk about language元语言技能：使用语言谈论
语言
• Different types of words, sentences and paragraphs不同类型的单词、句子和段落
• Metacognitive skills: to think about thinking元认知技能：思考思考
• Executive functions – planning, execution, etc.执行功能 - 计划、执行等
• Self-regulation – monitor, impulse control自我调节 - 监控、冲动控制

(Paul & Norbury, 2012)

Class activity
• Each group will look at the milestones in one of the age groups: 0-12m,
13m-24m, 3y.o., 4y.o., 5-6y.o.
• Please look at the developmental milestones
• Heep Hong (1995)
• Paul et al. (2012)
• Please discuss on:
• The major development in form, content or use for that age group.
• Any similarities and differences between the two milestone documents?
• How far these data can be applicable? In what situations do you think it is
applicable?
• In other languages? Mandarin? Korean? Italian?
• In other English-speaking or Cantonese-speaking communities?
• Any limitations?
• Submit your group’s work on Blackboard and we will review together.
Critical review of literature
What is a “good” article?
“Critical”批判的
• expressing or involving an analysis of the merits and faults of a
work of literature, music, or art. (Oxford Dictionary)表达或涉及对文
学、音乐或艺术作品的优点和缺点的分析。（牛津词典）

• To determine the credibility and reliability of research确定研究的可

信度和可靠性

Read the Evaluate Evaluate

article the journal the article
Evaluating a journal评估期刊
• Peer review process• 同行评审流程
• Impact factor 影响因子
• Citation metrics 引用指标
• Indexing and inclusion in databases 索引和数据库收录
• Editorial board and affiliation 编辑委员会和附属机构
Types of articles – Level of evidence文章类型 – 证据级别
• Different types of studies have
different strengths and
weaknesses不同类型的研究有不
同的优点和缺点
à they answer different types of
research questions回答不同类型
的研究问题
• Bottom of the pyramid =/= not
useful金字塔底部=/=无用
à they might provide insights on
rare encounters它们或许能为罕
见的遭遇提供见解
à they might provide insights on
new directions of research它们
或许能为新的研究方向提供见解 (UNE Library)
Components of an article文章的组成部分
• Title
• 标题
• Abstract · 摘要
· 关键词
• Keywords · 介绍
• Introduction · 方法
· 结果
• Methods · 讨论
· 结论
• Results · 参考文献
• Discussion
• Conclusion
• References
Title, Abstract and Keywords标题、摘要和关键词

• Provides a general idea of the study, including

• Aim
• Methods
• Results
• Conclusion•‘
提供研究的总体思路，包括
• · 目的
• · 方法
• · 结果
• · 结论
Introduction / Background

Literature Research Research

review gap question
• What has • Why this study
been done needs to be
previously conducted?为
?之前做过 什么需要进行
什么？ 这项研究？
Research question(s)
• Hypothesis假设
• Testability: Is it testable?可测试性：是否可测试？
• Objectivity: Is it about observable and measurable facts?客观
性：是否与可观察和可测量的事实有关？
• Clarity and relevance: Is it clearly stated? Is it specific
enough?清晰度和相关性：是否表述清楚？是否足够具体？
• Clear identifiable variables清晰可识别的变量
• Clinical significance of the study研究的临床意义
• Why testing/examining this is important?
· 为什么测试/检查这一点很重要？
 Variables变量
• Independent variables自变量 Confounding variable
• Variables that influence the 混杂变量
dependent variable影响因变量的变
量
• Dependent variable(s)因变量
• Variable that depend on the Independen
independent variables依赖于自变 t variable自 Dependen
量的变量 变量
• Condition A t variable
因变量
• Confounding variables混杂变量 • Condition B
• Closely related to the independent
and dependent variables与自变量
和因变量密切相关
• It can influence both variables
“the hidden hand”
它可以影响两个变量
• “隐藏的手”
What do you think about these hypotheses?
1. Mothers love their children more than fathers do.
2. Children living in families with lower socio-economic support
are more prone to learning difficulties in school.
3. Children with communication disorders will face school
bullying.
4. 母亲比父亲更爱孩子。
5. 生活在社会经济支持较低的家庭的孩子更容易在学校遇到学
习困难。
6. 有沟通障碍的孩子会面临校园欺凌。
Methods
• Ethical approval: for studies involving human
subjects伦理批准：针对涉及人类受试者的研究
• Sampling采样
• Instruments仪器
• Data collection procedures 数据收集程序
• Data analysis数据分析
Method: Validity and Reliability方法：有效性和可靠性

• Validity: How well it hits the target?有效性：它达到目标的程度如

何？
• How well does the method measures what it intends to measure?该方法测量
其预期测量内容的程度如何？
• Reliability: How far it can be replicable? 可靠性：它可以复制到多
远？
• How consistent is this method to be yield the same results? 该方法的一致性
如何，可以产生相同的结果？

• Subjective vs Objective主观与客观
• Qualitative vs Quantitative定性与定量
• Trained vs Untrained受过训练与未受过训练
• Blind vs Not blind 盲目与非盲目
Sampling
• Inclusion and exclusion criteria: are they clear?纳入和排除标准：是否
明确？
• Are the recruited participants appropriate to address the research
question?招募的参与者是否适合解决研究问题？
• How were they recruited?他们是如何招募的？
• Sampling size à representativeness?样本量——代表性？

• Hypothesis: The richer the family, the more languages can a child in
Hong Kong speaks.假设：家庭越富裕，香港儿童能说的语言就越多。
• Sampling: 100 primary 3 students in an International School样本：
国际学校 100 名三年级小学生
Data analysis
• Descriptive and inferential statistics
• Appropriate statistical tests?
• Statistically significant?
• • 描述性和推论性统计
• · 适当的统计检验？
• · 统计上显著吗？
Results – clarity
• Presentation of results
• Organization?
• Does it report all the details needed to evaluate the validity and reliability
of the research?
• Does it match with the methodology used in the previous part?
• • 结果展示
• · 组织？
• · 它是否报告了评估研究有效性和可靠性所需的所有细节？
• · 它是否与上一部分使用的方法相匹配？
 Discussion Can cause
Study more
Can cause

• Interpretation解释
• Correlation =/= Causation相关性 =/= ?????
因果关系 More tired Better results
• Correlation: events that happen
together à implies possible
associations相关性：同时发生的
事件 —— 暗示可能存在关联 ?????
• Alternatives?替代方案？
Study more Use blue pen
• Coincidence?巧合？
• Illustration:
https://www.youtube.com/watc
h?v=U-_f8RQIIiw Can cause Can cause??
• Other possible explanations?其他可能
的解释？
Better results
• How good is the reasoning?Over-
claimed? Under-claimed?推理有多
好？过度宣称？低估？
Discussion
• Limitations 局限性
• Aware of the limitations of the current study? 意识到当前研究的局限性？
• The limits of the current study to make implications当前研究的局限性是否
具有启示意义
• Future research directions 未来研究方向
• Unanswered questions未解答的问题
• Areas for further investigation 有待进一步研究的领域
• Potential improvements潜在的改进
Conclusion
• Major findings
• The research question: is it answered?
• • 主要发现
• · 研究问题：有答案吗？
References
• Publication types
• Sources date
• Relevancy of
resources
• • 出版物类型
• · 来源日期
• · 资源相关性
Other observations其他观察
• Authors: who are they?作者：他们是谁？
• Experts in the field?领域专家？
• Area of interest/background?兴趣领域/背景？
• Other related research?其他相关研究？
• Year of publication出版年份
• Is it already outdated? How “out” is outdated for the given topic?是否已经过
时？对于给定主题，过时到什么程度才算过时？
• Sponsors/financial declarations赞助商/财务声明
• Commercially available device/service – funded by that company selling that
product?市售设备/服务 – 由销售该产品的公司资助？
Using artificial intelligence (AI)
• The library tools图书馆工具
• Scite
• Fast
Strengths
• Simplify things
• Good for适合
• Brainstorming头脑风暴
• Generating ideas产生想法
• Fact check?事实核查？
• Not good for不适合
• Writing assignments Weaknesses • Unclear methodology in
sourcing information信息
• Relying solely on AI 来源方法不明确
• 写作业
• 完全依赖人工智能
Evaluating other sources – the C.R.A.P. test评估
其他来源——C.R.A.P. 测试
C - Currency现在 R - Reliability可靠性 A - Authority权威 P - Purpose目的

• How recent? • What kind of • Who are the • Fact vs Opinion?

• How is it related to information is authors? What are • Biased? Any
your interested included? their intended
topic? • Does the content backgrounds? advocacies behind?
• • 最近多久？ include the • Any conflicts of • • 事实与观点？
• · 它与您感兴趣 references/sources interest? • · 有偏见？背后是
的话题有何关联？ for data or • • 作者是谁？他们 否有任何有意的倡
quotations?• 包含 的背景是什么？ 导？
哪些信息？ • · 是否存在利益冲
• · 内容是否包含数 突？
据或引文的参考/来
源？

(Charles Sturt University, 2024)

Reading review (600-800 words)
• Length: 600-800 words, please do not exceed the
limit
• Format: Times New Roman, Size 12, 1.5 spacing
• Which reading(s) have you
• Citation format: APA 7th Referencing. Plagiarism is selected?
strictly prohibited and will be subjected to severe • Brief summary of the
penalties at PolyU.
• Use of generative AI: Use of generative AI (e.g.
selected readings
ChatGPT) for proofreading and brainstorming is • Are you convinced?
allowed. This assignment is to evaluate your skills to
review an article, and hence use of AI for writing in • What insights did you gain
this assignment is strictly prohibited. from this reading?
• Please submit your work through Blackboard.
Please DO NOT email us your homework. • What remaining problems
do you have about the
• Deadline of submission: reading?
26th Novemeber 2024, 23:59