Agriculture and the

Environment
Soil Composition
 Mineral particles: combination of rock fragments and other

inorganic substances.

 They are formed due to physical, chemical and biological

weathering of the parent rock.

 Organic content: mixture of living plants, animals, microorganisms

and their dead remains.

 Air: held within the pore spaces (between the mineral particles and

organic content).

 Air enters the soil by diffusion.

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  Water: held within the pore spaces (water that is available for plant

growth).

 Water enters the soil when there’s precipitation or when the soil is

irrigated.

 The proportion of these components depends on:

 Type of soil;

 Way it has been managed;

 Local climatic conditions;

 Size of the mineral particles.

Soil can be classified into three groups:

Typ
Size Texture
e
San
2.0-0.02 mm Gritty
d
0.02-0.002
Silt Silky or soapy
mm
Sticky when wet and Hard when
clay <0.002 mm
dried

Soils for Plant Growth

 Soil is the cheapest and most abundant medium in which water,

mineral nutrients, anchorage and oxygen can be supplied to a plant.

 Plants require a supply of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and a

range of other elements to construct proteins and carry out life

processes.

Element Supplied as
Nitrogen Nitrate ions (NO3-)
Phosphoru Phosphate ions
s (PO43-)

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Element Supplied as
Potassium Potassium ions (K+)
 Organic content: decomposers that produce humus (rich in

nutrients):

 Earthworms: break down vegetation; mix the soil; aerate the soil;

spread organic matter through the soil.

 Fungi: feed directly on dead matter; digest hard woody items; aid

plants to take up nutrients through their roots.

 Bacteria: work on organic matter; convert waste products to simple

chemicals; some convert nitrogen to nitrates ‫ ؞‬important in nitrogen

cycle.

 High levels of organic matter:

o Increase the water-holding capacity (like a sponge);

o Increase air spaces in the soil;

o Increase no. of decomposers, tunnels and burrows in the soil,

providing additional drainage and less compaction;

o Prevent the loss of mineral nutrients (humus holds on to

mineral nutrients).

 Soil pH:

o Depends on the type of parent rock and pH of water that flows

into the area;

o Affects the uptake of nutrients by plant roots;

o Affects the availability of nutrients;

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 o Farmers can try changing the pH of the soil either to acidify it

(using fertilisers that have an acidic effect) or make it alkaline

(adding ground limestone).

Sand Clay
Larger air spaces Poor air spaces
Drains well Poor drainage
Poor retention of
Retains humus
humus
Hard to
Easier to cultivate
cultivate
 Drainage: capacity of the soil to drain water must be medium (no

water loss; no surplus amount of water).

 Ease of cultivation: how easily the soil can be ploughed.

Agriculture Types
Subsistence Commercial
Cultivation of food to meet the
Cultivation of food with the main
needs of the farmers and their
aim of selling them for cash;
families;
Surplus is bartered for other goods Some food may be used by the
(or cash). farmers.
Examples: tea, coffee, cocoa,
Examples: wheat and rice. sugarcane, cotton, rice, wheat
and corn.

Arable Pastoral
Production of plants for Production of animals or animal-
consumption by humans. related products.
Examples: rice, wheat, maize Examples: grass/grain (to feed the
and soybeans. animals), milk, wool and eggs.
 Mixed:

o Farms that grow crops for food and rear animals.

Increasing Agricultural Yields

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  Crop rotation: the principle of growing different types of plants in

different plots each year.

 Legumes: have nitrogen-fixing bacteria in their root nodules.

 Leafy crops: vegetables that are required for their leaves (require

a lot of nitrogen left by legumes).

 Root crops: have deep root systems.

 Fallow: the land is ploughed but left barren for a period to restore

soil fertility and to avoid surplus production.

 Advantages of crop rotation:

o Diseases in the soil affecting the plant are left behind;

o Pests need to find a new site ‫ ؞‬their population is reduced;

o The soil in the new plot is likely to have the essential

nutrients;

o Crops ready to harvest at different times ‫ ؞‬less potential

waste, less labour and machinery needed.

 Fertilisers: contain minerals such as nitrogen, potassium and

phosphorus. Add on to the nutrients available in the soil.

Type Advantages Disadvantages

Organic Uses natural resources Unpleasant to handle
Supplies organic matter Harder to transport
Variable in
composition
Inorganic Meet a particular need Cost of manufacture
Easier to store Transportation costs
quick Deficiency problems are dealt Easily leach out in
acting with swiftly heavy rain
slow No need to reapply Little immediate

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 Type Advantages Disadvantages
acting impact
 Irrigation: supplying water to the crops.

 Large percentage of a plant is made up of water;

 Essential for cell activity;

 Used in photosynthesis;

 Mineral nutrient uptake requires water in the soil;

 The water must be free from pollution and low in salt.

 Common water application methods:

o Overhead Sprinklers

Advantages Disadvantages
Easy to setup Large droplets may cap the soil
Can cover a large area from Small droplets may be blown away by
one sprinkler wind
No need to attach pipes to Water lands on leaves and soil, which
each plant evaporates quickly
 Clay Pot Irrigation System

Advantages Disadvantages
Only suitable for permanent
Simple technology;
plants;
Easy to check the amount of
Large labour cost.
water;
High efficiency.
 Trickle Drip System

Advantages Disadvantages
Water placed directly at the base Expensive to install; complex to
of the plant; maintain.
Automated and controlled via
Grit can block tubes;
computer;

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 Advantages Disadvantages
Inflexible; cannot be moved
Water is used very efficiently.
easily.
 Flood Irrigation

Advantages Disadvantages
Inefficient use of
Inexpensive;
water;
Can cover large areas Damages soil
quickly. structure.
 Pest: an animal that attacks or feeds upon a crop plant.

 Pesticide: used to control pests.

 Weed control: weed-killing chemicals are known as herbicides.

 They must be controlled because they:

o Compete with crops for light, water and nutrients;

o Reduce the quality of a seed or grain crop;

o Might be poisonous;

o Make cultivation difficult;

o Can block drainage systems with excessive growth;

o Can be a source of pests and diseases;

o Can look untidy (impact on tourism areas).

o Advantages of herbicides:

o Easier to manage;

 Alternatives may be less effective;

o Cheaper;

o Results are more predictable;

o Less labour needed;

o Effect is more rapid.

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  Alternatives to herbicides are cultural controls:

o Hand weeding and hoeing;

o Weed barriers;

o Flame guns.

 A crop disease is caused by fungi, bacteria or viruses

(pathogens).

o The most common are fungal diseases and are controlled by

fungicides.

 Insect control: insect-controlling chemicals are called insecticides.

 Alternative to insecticides:

biological control: find natural

predators
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Not as instant as chemical
No chemical residues;
control;
Pests may breed faster than
No impact of sprays;
the predator;
Predator may feed on an
No need of reapplication;
unintended plant.
The predators will die naturally when
the pests are controlled.
 Mechanisation:

o Larger area can be cultivated;

o Reduces labour cost;

o Ploughing can be done even when soil is heavy

o Additional attachments can be done to apply fertilisers and

pesticides.

 Selective breeding:

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 o Choose parents that exhibit the desired characteristics of the

species;

o Raise the offspring from these parents;

o Select the best offspring that shows the desired

characteristics;

o Repeat the process.

o Examples: beef cattle, dairy cattle, wheat and rice.

o Drawbacks: slow process; less success rate.

 Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO): the DNA of one

organism is inserted into another.

Advantages Disadvantages
Disease and pest- Unknown impact of the new characteristics
resistance may increase on human health
Nutritional value may
Products are not natural
increase
Crops can be grown in Genes might get into wild plants if they
inhospitable areas interbreed with GMOs reducing biodiversity
Herbicide resistance
Reduction in the gene pool
may increase
Crops with longer
storage lives
 Controlled environments:

 Greenhouse: used to manage the environment for plant growth.

Growth
How to increase How to Decrease
factor
Operate heating system
temperature Open roof ventilators.
(e.g. insulation).
Shading material in
light Supplementary lighting.
the roof.
humidity Misting units. Open roof ventilators.

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 Growth
How to increase How to Decrease
factor
Shading material and
day length Supplementary lighting.
curtains.
Drainage material
water Sprinkler or irrigation.
underneath.

Impact of Agriculture
 Overuse of herbicides and insecticides:

o Regular use of one insecticide can cause resistance within the

pest population. Solution: use a range of different pesticides.

o Unintended environmental damage: beneficial insects like

bees are also affected and food web is disturbed.

o Spray drift: herbicides stay longer in the soil and may affect

the next crop.

 Heavy rainfall can cause leaching of the chemicals into nearby

lakes.

 Overuse of fertilisers:

 Addition of extra mineral nutrients is waste of money and resources

if the soil has reached its maximum level;

 Heavy rain can dissolve the nutrients and cause leaching;

 Excess water containing dissolved fertilisers drain into nearby lakes

and rivers, leading to eutrophication;

 Nitrates from fertilisers if consumed can cause diseases such as

blue-baby syndrome;

 Large quantities can affect the pH of the soil and in turn, the

availability of minerals;

 Too much of trace elements can be toxic to the plant.

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 Too much fertiliser dehydrates the plant (scorching);

 Imbalance of nutrient makes the plant produce lots of foliage, but

no flower.

 Solution: strict limits on where, when and how the fertilisers must

be applied; can replace with organic fertilisers.

 Mismanagement of irrigation causing salinization and water

logging:

 Damage to soil structure ‫ ؞‬soil is compacted;

 Death of plant roots as waterlogged soils prevent plant roots from

getting enough oxygen;

 Loss of nutrients as they are dissolved and washed away with water;

 High levels of run off ‫ ؞‬soil erosion.

 Soil capping: surface of the soil becomes hard.

 Salinization: salt content of the soil can increase.

 Irrigation water soaks into the soil to a great depth;

 Salts dissolve in the water at a great depth;

 Water evaporates from the field;

 Water and salts are drawn up to the surface;

 Salt remains at the surface and kills plant roots.

 Prevents soil cultivation as it’s difficult to cultivate soil with a high-

water content.

 Overproduction and waste:

 Waste from overproduction: the unsold proportion of the crop.

 Waste of storage space: may take longer to sell a crop; some

crops need special conditions.

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  Waste of transportation: to sell a crop, a farmer may need to

travel longer distances.

 Waste of quality products: low quality means less demand.

 Waste of labour: not an efficient use of time and labour if too

much is produced.

 Exhaustion of mineral ion content:

o The farmers use the soil over and over again with little to no

rest which leaves the soil depleted of nutrients and minerals.

o Solution: crop rotation, mixed cropping and leaving the land

fallow.

 Soil erosion:

o Overcultivation: soils that are cultivated regularly lose soil

structure and are more vulnerable to erosion as they break

down to smaller particles.

 Cash crops replacing food crops:

o Most commercial farmers prefer to grow crops that generate

more cash. This causes a decline in the staple food available.

Causes and Impacts of Soil Erosion

 Causes of soil erosion:

o Removal of natural vegetation: no more roots to bind the

soil together or slow down the torrents of water, so flash

flooding and rainwater run-off pick the soil and carry it away.

o Overcultivation: ploughing breaks the soil into smaller and

lighter particles. These are more easily carried away by wind.

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 o Overgrazing: livestock reduces the vegetation to nearly

ground level, sometimes leaving no roots to hold the soil.

o Animals trample down the plants and their hoofs compact the

ground.

 Wind erosion: deforestation (due to need for space, excessive

grazing, increase in development of arable crops) increases the

chance of soil getting eroded by wind.

 Water erosion: heavy rainfall carries the particles away.

o Excess run-off water that can’t be absorbed by soil transports

the soil from that area;

o Soil compaction reduces infiltration;

o Gully erosion (volume of water erodes local soil further) forms

deeper and deeper crevices.

 Impacts of soil erosion:

o Topsoil is removed: the most productive layer is absent

(subsoil lacks in nutrients ad air spaces).

o Organisms living in the topsoil lose their habitat: impact

on the entire ecosystem.

o Silting up of water courses: flooding occurs as water

bodies can’t hold excess water (space taken up by silt).

o Silt deposits can form lagoons: providing breeding

grounds for mosquitoes.

o Silt affects the quality and availability of water for drinking.

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 o Aquatic organisms are buried under the silty layer:

preventing light from reaching the underwater plants (low

oxygen levels in ecosystem no photosynthesis).

o Desertification: the process by which fertile land becomes

desert.

 Severe droughts lead to migration of the whole

community.

 Risk of famine and malnutrition, leading to lesser food

source.

Managing Soil Erosion

 Terracing: prevents the erosion of soil by rainwater on steep

slopes.

 In a natural slope, water runs down, increasing in speed and

volume, carrying soil in the run-off.

 In a terraced slope, water is held in the flat terraced areas,

causing less risk of run-off and more chance of infiltration.

 Often used for the cultivation of rice.

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 Contour ploughing: ploughing of land along the contour in a

parallel way.

 Ridges and troughs (furrows) run along the contour.

 Each furrow holds water and prevents large torrents of water from

from running down the slope, preventing the formation of

gulliestopsoil run-offpsoil.

 Useful for all gradients of slopes.

 Bunds: artificial banks at the edges of growing spaces to hold back

water.

 Useful for crops that require moist soils e.g. rice.

 The water is retained on the terrace.

 Increases the quantity and fertility of the soil.

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Windbreaks: a permeable barrier used to reduce the impact of wind on an

area.

 Without windbreaks, the soil is eroded away.

 Solid structures, like walls, force the wind into smaller spaces,

increasing wind speed and causing eddy currents.

 Permeable structures, like vegetation, allow some wind to pass

through, decreasing its speed and thus, the amount of wind erosion.

 Advantages: additional habitats for beneficial insects; roots of the

windbreak prevent erosion due to run-off.

Maintaining vegetation cover:

 Sowing legumes immediately after a crop has been harvested

prevents soil erosion.

 It also provides more nitrogen to the soil, increasing its fertility, for

the next major crop.

 When cultivating, the legumes can be simply ploughed.

‘No dig’ method:

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  Existing vegetation is left until the new crop is grown.

 Rather than cultivating the soil, herbicides are applied to kill the

weeds.

 Roots of the existing vegetation bind the soil until the major plant is

established.

 Risks: herbicide residues build up. If the control of the cover

vegetation is ineffective, it may compete with the main crop as a

weed.

Addition of organic matter to improve soil structure:

 Provides additional air gaps in the soil ‫ ؞‬improves soil structure;

 Increases decomposers in the soil as they feed on the matter;

 Adds nutrients to the soil after decomposition.

 It acts like a sponge, holding the extra water, and preventing soil

dehydration and soil particles erosion.

 Reduces soil erosion as the organic matter acts like a base for

smaller particles.

Planting trees:

 A row of trees acts as a windbreak;

 Tree canopy can provide shade for smaller plants that don’t thrive

for sunlight;

 Provide a natural habitat for animals, that feed on pests;

 Tree leaves fall to the ground and add to the organic matter.

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  Mixed cropping: growing more than one type of plant in the same

area.

 Resources in the soil, like nutrients, are used more efficiently.

 Intercropping: rows of a different crop are grown between the

rows of the main crop. This maximises the use of space and other

resources.

 Crop rotation: (refer to section 3.4 Increasing agricultural yields;

Crop Rotation).

Sustainable Agriculture
 Aims of sustainable agriculture:

o Meeting the needs of the population for agricultural products;

o Making efficient use of non-renewable resources;

o Supporting the natural ecosystem by following natural

processes with farming techniques;

o Sustaining the economic independence of farmers.

 Organic fertilisers:

o Are slow acting reduces the risk of eutrophication;

o Are a waste product using them saves on disposal costs

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 o Are already present on many farms minimal transport costs

o Do not require energy for their manufacture

o Also improve soil structure.

 Managed grazing:

o Prevention of overgrazing;

o Ensure sufficient grazing;

o Maintaining appropriate soil fertility by animal waste;

o Maintaining good drainage prevents compaction of the soil.

 Crop rotation: (refer to section 3.4 Increasing agricultural yields;

Crop rotation).

 Use of pest-resistant varieties of crops: reduces pesticide use.

 Use of drought-resistant varieties of crops: reduces water

usage for irrigation.

 Use of herbicide-resistant varieties of crops: reduces herbicide

use.

 Trickle drip irrigation: (Refer to section 3.4 Increasing agricultural

yields; Irrigation).

 Rainwater harvesting: the collection of rainwater, for example

from the roofs of buildings, and its storage in a tank or reservoir for

later use.

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