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Unit-5 Notes (C.o.a)

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135 views4 pages

Unit-5 Notes (C.o.a)

Uploaded by

Sita Verma
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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MAHARISHI UNIVERSITY OF

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

DIGITAL NOTES
[Department of Computer Application]

Subject : C.O.A
Name
Subject : BCA-302
Code
Course : BCA
Branch :
Semester : 3RD
Prepared by :

SESSION 2024-25
Assembly Language and Programming
1. Assembly Language
• Definition: Assembly language is a low-level programming language that is closely
related to machine language. It uses symbolic representations of a computer's machine
code instructions, making it easier to program than binary code.
• Characteristics:
o Machine-Dependent: Each assembly language is specific to a particular
computer architecture (e.g., x86, ARM).
o Mnemonic Codes: Uses mnemonics to represent instructions (e.g., MOV, ADD,
SUB).
o Direct Control: Provides direct control over hardware and memory, allowing for
efficient programming.
• Structure: An assembly language program consists of instructions, which can be
classified as data, directives, and executable instructions.

2. Assembler
• Definition: An assembler is a program that converts assembly language code into
machine code that the CPU can execute.
• Types of Assemblers:
o One-Pass Assembler: Scans the source code once to generate machine code.
This type may require forward references to be handled specially.
o Two-Pass Assembler: Scans the source code twice; the first pass collects labels
and symbols, while the second pass generates the machine code using this
information.
• Functions of an Assembler:
o Translation: Converts assembly language instructions to machine code.
o Symbol Resolution: Maps symbolic labels to memory addresses.
o Error Detection: Identifies syntax errors in the assembly code.
3. Assembly Level Instructions
• Types of Instructions:
o Data Movement Instructions: Transfer data between registers and memory
(e.g., MOV, PUSH, POP).
o Arithmetic Instructions: Perform arithmetic operations (e.g., ADD, SUB, MUL,
DIV).
o Logical Instructions: Perform bitwise operations (e.g., AND, OR, XOR, NOT).
o Control Flow Instructions: Alter the flow of execution (e.g., JMP, CALL, RET,
NOP).
Example Instructions:
• MOV: Moves data from one location to another.
o Syntax: MOV destination, source
• ADD: Adds two operands.
o Syntax: ADD destination, source
• JMP: Jumps to a specified address unconditionally.
o Syntax: JMP label
4. Macros
• Definition: A macro is a sequence of instructions that can be defined once and used
multiple times within an assembly program.
• Purpose of Macros:
o Code Reusability: Enables the reuse of code blocks, reducing redundancy.
o Abstraction: Simplifies complex operations by encapsulating them in a single
instruction.
• Macro Definitions:
o A macro is defined using a specific syntax, usually starting with a keyword like
MACRO and ending with ENDM.
Example:
assembly
Copy code
SUM MACRO a, b
MOV AX, a
ADD AX, b
ENDM
• Usage:
o To use a macro, simply call its name with the required parameters:
assembly
Copy code
SUM 5, 10
5. Use of Macros in I/O Instructions
• I/O Operations: Macros can simplify the coding of I/O operations by abstracting the
repetitive code needed for setting up device control registers or handling interrupts.
• Example:
assembly
Copy code
PRINT MACRO msg
MOV DX, OFFSET msg
MOV AH, 09h
INT 21h
ENDM
• Invocation:
assembly
Copy code
PRINT "Hello, World!"
6. Program Loops
• Definition: A loop is a programming structure that repeats a block of code multiple times
until a certain condition is met.
• Types of Loops:
o Unconditional Loops: Continue indefinitely until externally interrupted (e.g.,
JMP).
o Conditional Loops: Execute based on a condition (e.g., LOOP, JZ, JNZ).
Example of a Loop:
assembly
Copy code
MOV CX, 10 ; Set loop counter to 10
START_LOOP:
; Code to execute
DEC CX ; Decrement counter
JNZ START_LOOP ; Repeat until CX is zero
7. Arithmetic and Logic Subroutines
• Subroutine Definition: A subroutine is a block of code that performs a specific task and
can be called from multiple points in a program.
• Purpose: Facilitates code organization, reuse, and modularity.
• Call and Return:
o Use CALL to invoke a subroutine and RET to return to the calling code.
Example of a Subroutine:
assembly
Copy code
SUM_SUBROUTINE PROC
ADD AX, BX
RET
SUM_SUBROUTINE ENDP

; Calling the subroutine


CALL SUM_SUBROUTINE
8. Input/Output Programming
• I/O Operations: In assembly language, interacting with hardware for input/output
typically involves using specific instructions or invoking system calls.
• Accessing I/O Ports: Direct access to hardware I/O ports may involve using IN and
OUT instructions.
Example of Input/Output:
assembly
Copy code
; Reading a byte from port 60h (keyboard)
IN AL, 60h

; Sending a byte to port 3F8h (COM1)


OUT 3F8h, AL
• Using Interrupts for I/O: Many systems use interrupts for I/O operations, allowing the
CPU to perform other tasks while waiting for I/O operations to complete.
o Example: Using DOS interrupt INT 21h for file handling or printing to the screen.
9. Conclusion
Assembly language programming allows for low-level control over hardware, making it essential
for performance-critical applications. Understanding the assembler's role, instruction types, the
use of macros, and the implementation of loops and subroutines is crucial for effective
programming. Input/output operations are fundamental for interacting with the external
environment, and mastering these concepts enhances a programmer's ability to work closely
with computer architecture.

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