General MBA Program

Course Title: Organizational Behavior and

Cross-cultural Management
Course No. MBA-5121

Individual Assignment Three

Assignment on Chapter 3: Organizational

Motivation

Prepared by: Abebayehu Belete: ID. Number: ILI/MBA/15/003/19

Submitted to: Dr. Kassu Jilcha (PhD)

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

25 June, 2020

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 Assignment on Chapter 3: Organizational Motivation

Discussion Types

1. Discuss the similarities and differences between Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory
and E.R.G. theory. What insights do you gain from each theory?

Human needs are an essential and powerful force directing human behavior. Abraham H.
Maslow put into five groups of basic human needs that all healthy adults try to satisfy.
According to him those needs are basic that they motivate the behavior of people in many
different cultures (Joseph, C. (2016)). Maslow's theory presents his hierarchy of needs in a
pyramid shape, with basic needs at the bottom of the pyramid and more high-level, intangible
needs at the top. According Maslow’s theory a person can only move on to addressing the
higher-level needs when their basic needs are adequately fulfilled (MasterClass, (2020)).
Maslow categorized the five needs hierarchically as follows:
The lower needs include: Physiological needs: This need is the first of the id-driven lower
needs on Maslow's hierarchy. These most basic human survival needs include food and water,
sufficient rest, clothing and shelter, overall health, and reproduction. Maslow states that these
basic physiological needs must be addressed before humans move on to the next level of
fulfillment. Safety needs: Next among the lower-level needs is safety. Safety needs include
protection from violence and theft, emotional stability and well-being, health security, and
financial security. Love and belonging needs: These social needs are related to human
interaction and are the last of the so-called lower needs. Among these needs are friendships
and family bonds (MasterClass, (2020)).
While the highest needs include: Esteem needs: The higher needs, beginning with esteem,
are ego-driven needs. The primary elements of esteem are self-respect and self-esteem. Self-
esteem can be based on respect and acknowledgment from others, and esteem which is based
on your own self-assessment. Self-actualization needs: Self-actualization (self-fulfillment
needs) describes the fulfillment of your full potential as a person. Self-actualization needs,
which include education, skill development, the refining of talents etc., occupy the highest
spot on Maslow's pyramid (MasterClass, (2020)).

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On the other hand, the ERG theory (developed by Clayton Paul Alderfer) is an acronym for
Existence, Relatedness, and Growth. These are the three basic needs that employees will try to
satisfy. In the model, as one need is filled, this will provide motivation for the employee to
want to fulfill another need. All three needs must be satisfied simultaneously in order for an
individual to feel motivated. Let us see the three: Existence (E): Existence refers to our basic
survival needs as humans. In this category are food and water, shelter, good health, and
feeling safe. These needs can be broadly described as our basic physiological and safety
needs. If you can’t satisfy your basic survival needs then it impossible to focus on other,
higher needs. Relatedness (R): Relatedness refers to our need to relate to other people, that
is, it refers to the relationships we have. Growth (G): Growth refers to our need for personal
development, to be creative and to perform meaningful work. Growth allows us to explore
what our potential might be within our current environment (MasterClass, (2020)).

(Source: www.courses.lumenlearning.com)

The Similarities between Maslow’s Theory and the ERG Theory

Maslow’s theory and the ERG theory both seek to explain human motivation and how it
affects behavior. Both theories are rooted in the idea that there are basic needs that drive
people to do certain things and to behave in certain ways. Another similarity is that both
theories have a hierarchical framework, with primitive needs at the bottom, and more refined
needs at the top. However, while ERG Theory has much in common with Maslow’s need
theory it does differ in a few important aspects (Sampson, Q. (2018)).
The Difference between Maslow’s Theory and the ERG Theory
One of the primary differences between these two theories is that Maslow’s theory has five
ascending levels, and the ERG theory only has three levels (Sampson, Q. (2018)). The second

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difference between the two theories is, unlike in Maslow’s theory, in ERG theory needs at
multiple levels can be pursued at the same time. The third difference is, in ERG Theory, if a
higher-level need isn’t satisfied then the person may regress to seeking to satisfy lower-level
needs (Frustration-Regression principle). And finally, in Maslow’s theory needs must be
satisfied in sequence from the bottom to the top of the pyramid, one at a time. This is not the
case with ERG Theory, where different levels of needs can be satisfied at any time. For
example, an individual can feel that they are having their growth needs met whilst still feeling
unsatisfied in their relationships (EPM).

2. Discuss the satisfaction–progression and frustration–regression principles from

E.R.G. theory. Give examples of the functioning of each principle.

The satisfaction-progression and frustration-regression principles are among the three

different relationships categories in Alderfer's ERG theory. As we have seen above the ERG
model is similar to Maslow’s theory in that the needs in both are in a hierarchical form and
there is the assumption that people move up the hierarchy one step at a time. However,
according to ERG theory movement up the hierarchy is more complex, reflecting a
satisfaction-progression component as well as a frustration-regression component. So, what
do two principles mean? The satisfaction-progression principle argues that, after satisfying
one level of needs, the individual progresses to the next higher level of needs. This concept
agrees with Maslow’s argument. While, the frustration-regression principle argues that a
person who becomes frustrated by unsuccessful attempts to satisfy a higher level of needs will
eventually regress back to the previous level (Thakur, Thakur, Burton, & Srivastava, (1997)).

Satisfaction-progression is moving up to higher-level needs based on satisfied needs. Unlike

Maslow theory, in which individuals move up the need hierarchy as a result of satisfying
lower order needs, in Alderfer's ERG theory, the progression upward from relatedness
satisfaction to growth desires does not presume the satisfaction of a person's existence needs.
Accordingly one need level will dominate a person’s motivation more than others. As
existence needs are satisfied, for example, related needs become more important (Stephen, W.
(2020). In the satisfaction-progression one need must be satisfied before an individual can
progress to needs at a higher level, for example, from security needs to belongingness.

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Whereas, in frustration-regression if a higher level need remains unfulfilled, a person may
regress to lower level needs that appear easier to satisfy. Frustration-regression suggests that
an already satisfied need can become active when a higher need cannot be satisfied. Thus, if a
person is continually frustrated in his/her attempts to satisfy growth, relatedness needs can
resurface as key motivators (YOURCOACH). For example, if existence and relatedness needs
have been satisfied, but growth need fulfillment has been blocked, the individual will become
frustrated and relatedness needs will again emerge as the dominant source of motivation
(Stephen, W. (2020). For example, a worker previously motivated by salary (existence needs)
is awarded a pay increment to satisfy this needs. Then he attempts to establish more
friendship to satisfy relatedness needs. If for one reason or other the employee finds that it is
impossible to become better friends with co-workers, he may eventually experience
frustration-regression i.e. become frustrated and regresses to being motivated to earn even
more money.

3. Discuss the different ways of expressing the need for power as described in
McClelland’s achievement motivation theory. Which of the two types of power do
you respond to best? Why?

The need for power theory is one of the three McClelland’s Theory of motivational needs
which are Power, Achievement, and Affiliation. According to him a person's motivation and
effectiveness in certain job functions are influenced by these three needs. The need for power
person is 'authority motivated'. This driver produces a need to be influential, effective and to
make an impact. There is a strong need to lead and for their ideas to prevail. There is also
motivation and need towards increasing personal status and prestige. These people (motivated
by need for power) are strong leaders and can be best suited to leading positions. According to
this theory a person's need for power can be one of two types i.e. personal or institutional
power motivator groups. Thus, let us see the different ways of expressing the need for power
which are either personal or institutional.
McClelland distinguished between two different ways of expressing the need for power. One
form of expression uses personal dominance, physical aggression, and exploitation. People
who have learned to express the need for power in this way view situations from a win-lose

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perspective. They must win and the other party must lose. McClelland did not feel such power
behavior resulted in the type of leadership required by organizations.
The second form of expression focuses on persuasion and interpersonal influence. The person
tries to arouse confidence in those he wants to influence. If, for example, a person who
expresses a need for power in this way is the head of a group, he will clarify the group’s goals
and persuade members to reach those goals. His influence efforts will emphasize the ability of
group members to reach goals, and he will try to develop in those members a belief in their
competence. Of the two types of power, McClelland felt the second one characterized
effective leader in organizations (Joseph, C. (2016)).
Therefore, looking at the two sources of motivational need for power, the best type of power I
would respond to is the institutional power. The main reason is the motivation they emanate
from. When we see those who need personal power want to direct others, and this need often
is perceived as undesirable. Managers motivated by personal power are not good institution
builders because they are not disciplined. Their subordinates are loyal to them as individuals
rather than to the institution they serve. There is disorganization when a personal-power
manager leaves, and the strong group spirit that the manager has personally inspired, deflates.
The subordinates do not know what to do on their own (Arun K. & Meenakshi N. (2010)).
On the other hand, managers motivation by institutional power care about institutional power
and use it to stimulate their employees to be more productive. They are able to create an
effective work climate. Subordinates feel that they have more responsibility; they are able to
create high morale because they produce a great sense of organizational clarity and team
spirit. If an institutional manager leaves, he can be readily replaced by another person because
the employee have been formed to be loyal to the institution rather than to an individual (Arun
K. & Meenakshi N. (2010)).

4. Which parts of Herzberg’s motivator–hygiene theory made useful contributions to

understanding motivation in organizations?

Herzberg’s Motivation Theory model, or Two Factor Theory, argues that there are two factors
that an organization can adjust to influence motivation in the workplace. These factors are:
Motivators: Intrinsic job elements which can encourage employees to satisfaction and work
harder. Hygiene factors: Extrinsic elements of the work environment that won’t encourage

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employees to work harder but they will cause them to become unmotivated if they are not
present (EPM).
Examples of motivating and hygiene factors are shown as follows: i) Motivating factors
include: Achievement: A job must give an employee a sense of achievement. Recognition:
A job must provide an employee with praise and recognition of their successes. The work
itself: The job itself must be interesting, varied, and provide enough of a challenge to keep
employees motivated. Responsibility: Employees should “own” their work. Advancement:
Promotion opportunities should exist for the employee. Growth: The job should give
employees the opportunity to learn new skills. ii) Hygiene factors include: Company
policies: These should be fair and clear to every employee. Supervision: Supervision must be
fair and appropriate. The employee should be given as much autonomy as is reasonable.
Relationships: There should be no tolerance for bullying or cliques. Work conditions:
Equipment and the working environment should be safe, fit for purpose, and hygienic.
Salary: The pay structure should be fair and reasonable. Status: The organization should
maintain the status of all employees within the organization. Performing meaningful work can
provide a sense of status. Security: It is important that employees feel that their job is secure
and they are not under the constant threat of being laid-off (EPM).
Herzberg's theory has made major contributions to the knowledge of work motivation,
especially in the field of researching motivation factors. The theory claims that job
satisfaction and dissatisfaction are caused by basically different factors that occur in the
workplace. His observations on satisfaction and dissatisfaction differed form commonly held
views. The traditional view saw a single continuum with satisfaction at one end and
dissatisfaction at the other. However, he suggested two distinct continua, one for satisfaction
and one for dissatisfaction. In other worlds, different aspects of an employee’s experiences
contributed separately to satisfaction and dissatisfaction (Joseph, C. (2016)).
This was the parts of Herzberg’s motivator–hygiene theory that made useful contributions to
understanding motivation in organizations. This is so, according to Herzberg’s theory,
managers first must improve the hygienic conditions of work before trying to increase
motivation. Negative hygienic conditions distract employees from experiencing the
motivators. After the work context is improved, the manager can try to provide the motivators
by redesigning jobs using a process Herzberg called job enrichment. By adding more

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responsibility and autonomy to the job, the manager creates the opportunity for an employee
to experience the motivators (Joseph, C. (2016)).
Therefore, we can conclude that: Herzberg’s Motivation Theory model provides two factors
that affect motivation in the workplace. Which are: Hygiene factors will cause an employee to
work less if not present. Motivating factors will encourage an employee to work harder if
present. To use the theory within your team, start by getting any hygiene issues resolved.
Once you have done this, you can boost motivation by putting in place as many motivating
factors as practical.

5. What is the relationship between monetary rewards and different needs? How
should managers view money as a motivator for people with different needs?

Monetary rewards motivate employees to perform at their best and strive to achieve both
company and individual goals. Company owners and managers should make sure that rewards
are achievable and that product quality is not sacrificed. Also, when creating a rewards
program for employees, remember that the reward is a bonus and that rewards alone do not
guarantee loyalty or quality work (Maureen, M.).
Organizations have the obligation to provide their employees with a work environment free
from discrimination, harassment and unsafe conditions, but they also are responsible for
meeting their employees' needs in other areas. Those areas include job satisfaction, employee
recognition, financial needs and job stability. An organization need only employ common
sense to determine what employees need and how to meet those needs.
Monetary reward is important to employees for several reasons. Money is likely to be more
important to people who do yet meet their monetary needs. The monetary needs of some
people are very urgent. Money is an urgent means of achieving a minimum standard of living.
The majority of the employees in the world earn the minimum wage, which is not enough to
meet their basic needs. In this case, we could say that money is the primary motivator for the
majority of employees. Money is important because of the goods and services that it will
purchase. This is the economic value of money. For some people, the money will always be of
utmost importance, while for others it may never be. Money is often more than the monetary
value. It also has social value. It is a social medium of exchange. It can also mean status or
power. That is, it has a status value (IEDUNOTE).

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However, in spite of money certainly being an important motivator for employees; it is
controversial to say that money is the primary motivator. This is so because employees’
different needs vary from culture to culture, place to place etc.
According to some theories, non-financial rewards can be more efficient than cash and create
a high impact on employee motivation. There are many non-financial incentives such as
employee satisfaction, morale, motivation interpersonal relationships, effective supervision,
and group dynamics that might increase productivity.
We find the importance of money as a reward and motivational factor in all three theories, of
Maslow’s pyramid, McGregor’s Theory X and Herzberg’s theory. They show that money is a
biological need; it is something every person needs to sustain modern life. It is at the base of
Maslow’s pyramid, it is in McGregor’s Theory X which focuses around Maslow’s base of the
pyramid and it is a hygiene factor in Herzberg’s theory. All of these theories show that money
is a short term motivator. If you do not have money, which causes you to go hungry, you will
be motivated to take any job to fill that basic need. Once that need is met it no longer
motivates you to grow in your career, it doesn’t drive you to go above and beyond the bar set
for your current position (Erin, R. (2003)).
As a long term motivator money loses its power over time and cannot be considered one.
Because once the basic needs of an individual are met they move to other factors to motivate
themselves: respect, relationships, advancement, and satisfaction. I agree with all three of our
theorists that money is a necessity and if it is not present people may become dissatisfied with
their jobs, but at the same time it will not motivate the individual to take the next steps in their
current career. You cannot just pay them more in order to get the most out of them. You need
to bring other factors to the workplace in order to motivate your employees to give you their
all (Erin, R. (2003)). Thus, managers should view money as one of the major and basic
motivator factor for people with different needs. This entails, managers should not only focus
on monetary rewards in order to boost employees’ motivation and increase performance so
that they can positively contributed towards the organizational success and effectiveness.
They need to keep the balance between the monetary need and other needs of employees’
which are known as non-financial incentives such as employee satisfaction, morale,
motivation interpersonal relationships, effective supervision etc. (both intrinsic and extrinsic
factors). Maintaining the equilibrium is really crucial for the integral organizational growth.

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 6. Review the discussion of ethical issues and the need theories of motivation. Discuss
those issues with the goal of taking a strong position on them.

The discussion of ethical issues surrounding the need theories of motivation begins with a set
of broad ethical issues created by our knowledge of human motivation. A general question
involving motivation centers on the ethics of directly affecting the behavior of employees
without their informed consent. Managers could consider the ethics of their actions to affect
employee motivation from the views of the different ethical theories. A utilitarian analysis
would ask about the total effects of the manager’s efforts and whether they produce a
widespread net positive benefit for the organization. An analysis of rights and justice would
question employees’ rights to know in advance that their managers will try to shape their
behavior with knowledge of human motivation. A manager working from ethical egoism
would say it is right for him to have the effect because it meets his interests in his work unit’s
performance and his career. Among the main issues raised are whether organizations are
ethically obliged to create work experiences and environments that let people satisfy their
needs or not? Such arguments were issues in the past but they continue to be so now too.
Existing studies do not clearly point to higher performance and satisfaction from work designs
that align with people’s needs. The ethical answer depends on the philosophy of each
organization and its managers. The evidence testified for cultural differences in people’s
needs raises the ethical question of whether managers must consider such differences in
designing work experiences in multinational operations. The main question arises here is,
should they take cultural differences into account and manage those operations according to
the needs of people in the host culture, or should they manage the operations as if they were in
their home culture? Both utilitarian and rights-based analyses answer yes to the firs question
and no to the second. According to utilitarian view, If people’s needs affect their motivation
and job performance, then managing a multinational operation congruent with local people’s
needs could lead to high performance. While a rights-based view suggests people simply have
the right of congruence with their needs in their word experiences (Joseph, C. 2016).
Let us see the two ethical theories: Utilitarianism: the proper course of action is the one that
maximizes the overall “happiness.” It is the “happiness principle.” Utilitarianism asks a
person to examine the effects of his actions to decide whether these actions are morally
correct under utilitarian guidelines. An action is morally right if its total net benefits exceeds

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the total net benefit for any other action. Utilitarianism has been accused of looking only at
the results of actions, and disregarding the desires or intentions that motivate them. Intentions
seem somehow important: it seems undesirable to call an action intended to cause harm but
that inadvertently causes good "overall good" (SLIDESHARE).
Right/Relativism: here right and wrong are determined by what my society believes Moral
relativism may be descriptive, meta-ethical, or normative. Meta-ethical position: the truth or
falsity of moral judgments is not objective, “It’s moral to me, because I believe it is.” An
actions morally right if its total net benefits exceeds the total net benefit for any other action.
A right is a person’s just claim or entitlement. The right can focus on what that person does or
on the action of other people toward him. Thus, both have their own limitation since they do
not present an objective solution to the ethical issues and the need theories of motivation
(SLIDESHARE).
Business owners are responsible for promoting ethical behavior within their organizations.
Motivating moral behavior can be difficult, but with a thoughtful combination of discipline
and rewards, companies can encourage their employees to adopt attitudes and behaviors that
result in a positive workplace and happy customers. Ethical Policy: Instituting a code of
ethics is an important first step. This code is your company’s statement of its values
concerning ethics and social responsibility. Reward Good Behavior: Once ethical behavior
is defined clearly, use rewards to motivate compliance. An effective approach is factoring in
ethical behavior when evaluating employees for promotions, raises and bonuses.
Punishment: Failing to curb unethical behavior allows offenders to prosper. Other employees
then might emulate the bad behavior to reap similar rewards. To motivate ethical behavior, a
manager always must punish infractions, which decreases employees’ motivation to engage in
unethical behavior. Teamwork: Rewards and punishment can breed compliance, but truly
ethical behavior depends on an inner desire to do the right thing. A business owner can
promote moral behavior by fostering a culture that values teamwork and employee welfare.
For example, helping employees progress in their careers nurtures a positive attitude, as does
encouraging your employees to improve rather than berating them for failures. As a result,
people in the organization are more optimistic, which makes them more likely to behave
ethically (Stan, M. 2020).

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 7. What is your experience with the connection between job performance and
outcomes? Were positive outcomes used more often than negative outcomes?

Before we see the connection between job performance and outcomes, let use define both
terms and see how they are related to each other. Job performance is a work performance that
being shown by people in terms of expected quantity and quality of their jobs. Job
performance is important to the extent that how the employees perform daily in a business
will have an impact on that business's success or failure. Employee performance involves
factors such as quality, quantity and effectiveness of work as well as the behaviors the
employees show in the workplace.
According to expectancy theory a person beliefs that a particular act will lead to a particular
outcome. It is a subjective probability that a person’s action will lead to some outcome. If the
person believes the outcome is certain to happen, the expectancy is 1. If the person believes
the action will not lead to that outcome, the expectance is 0. Expectancy can have any value
between 0 and 1. An expectancy of 0.50 means that a person believes there is a 50-50 chance
that an act will be followed by a given outcome.
The first expectancy concept is a person’s belief that effort leads to a desired or required
performance level. Effort is the extent to which a person tries to perform as desired. Because
many factors affect whether a person can perform as desired, expectancy theory formulates
this uncertainty as the effort-performance expectancy (E P). For example, a person works
hard and meets an important deadline (Joseph, C. 2016).
A second expectancy concept describes a person’s belief that performance will be followed by
some outcome. The performance-outcome expectancy (P O) (also called instrumentality)
describes the perceived connection between a person’s performance and any outcomes for
that performance. Those outcomes can include a pay increase, promotion, quality award, or a
supervisor’s praise. Continuing the deadline example, the person receives a bonus for meeting
the deadline (Joseph, C. 2016).
The third concept in expectancy theory is valence. Valence (V) is the preference people have
among outcomes. Outcomes an individual wants to receive have positive valence. Outcomes a
person wants to avoid have negative valence. If the person is indifferent to an outcome, the
valence is 0. Valences have a range of positive and negative values expressing the degree of
attraction or avoidance a person associates with the outcome (Joseph, C. 2016).

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Based on this theory, in most cases my experience with the connection between job
performance and outcomes is related the first concept which is my belief that if I put lots of
effort it will lead me to a desired or required performance level. And in most cases it was
often positive outcomes. As far as I put enough effort and work hard I normally perform well
and meet the anticipated outcome which entails from my performance.
Expectancy theory states that people perceive a connection between effort and a desired or
required performance level. People also perceive a link between that performance level and an
outcome. Lastly, people have different preference for different outcomes (Joseph, C. 2016).
Confirming to this theory, I normally move toward positively valent outcomes and avoid
negatively valent outcomes.

8. Have you experienced blockages between your effort and performance? Were they
individual or organizational blockages? What form did the blockages take? What
did you or your manager or supervisor do about the blockages?

The connection between effort and performance is not always direct or free of obstacles. Both
individual and organizational blockages can cause a person to perceive low effort-
performance expectancy. The individual blockages derive from a person’s perceived skills
and abilities, real skills and abilities, and task experience, as well as from the difficulty of the
task itself. Here is the person has the skill and experience, he will perceive a high effort-
performance expectancy and motivation to do the job will also be high. If it is not, he will
perceive low effort-performance expectancy and his motivation will be low too. On the other
hand, organizational blockages include the lack of resource to do a task, inadequate training to
do a job, high conflict levels within the organization, and organizational design. If the person
does not get enough resources, such as tools and equipment needed to do the job or has not
adequately trained the person, the person will perceive a low expectancy between effort and
performance. This and many other reasons could cause low effort-performance expectancy
(Joseph, C. 2016).
In my experience, yes, I have faced both personal and organizational blockages. Some were
due to lack of skills while others due to the scarcity of resources. Both in their own way
caused low effort-performance expectancy. They were real blockages toward my personal and
organizational achievements. However, in most cases I was lucky enough that I was trusted

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by my superiors and supported. They supported me to tackle both individual and
organizational blockages by endowing me with training possibilities and providing necessary
resources to fulfill the duties entrusted to me. Prior positive experiences and achievements
have helped me to win the favor of my organization so far.

9. Review the various inequity reactions described earlier. How have you reacted to
inequity in the past?

Equity theory attempts to explain the behavioral dynamics of human exchanges relationships.
At the heart of the theory is analysis of the balance between inputs, which consist of what
employees, put into their jobs, and outputs, which are the things employees, get from their
jobs. Whereas, when we come to the opposite i.e. inequity theory, according to this theory
inequities can arise from the fact that an employee puts a lot of effort into his work with
minimal positive feedback or recognition. Inequities typically come about as a result of
perceived or actual unfair treatment relative to other employees within the organization, and
can include such things as internal and external pay discrepancies, unfair decision-making and
poor career development opportunities. Perceived or actual inequities can run the gamut from
small personality conflicts to illegal business practices (Nicole L.).
People assess the ratio between their relevant outcomes and their relevant inputs. Each person
compares this ratio to the perceived ratio of another person or group of people. It can also be
compared to similar ratios in the past or to some absolute standard of fairness. Inequity exists
for person if either negative inequity (underpayment) or positive inequity (overpayment)
conditions result from the comparison. The perception of inequity creates an internal state of
psychological tension (Joseph, C. 2016).
People who experience inequity could response in the following manner: Change inputs:
people can change their inputs in different directions depending on whether the perceived
inequity is positive or negative. Under negative inequity a person might reduce effort,
productivity or quality of work while under the positive inequity the person might increase
those inputs. Change outcomes: a person might try to improve outcomes by asking for a pay
increase or more statue symbols, such as a larger office. Cognitively distort own inputs and
outcomes: people can change their perceptions of their inputs or outcomes. If they feel
overpaid, they might begin to see more responsibility and duties in their job. If they feel

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underpaid, they might reduce the perceived importance of the job by suggesting to themselves
that it is just another job. Withdrawal: a person might withdraw from the situation that
produced the feeling of inequity (permanent or temporary withdrawal). Acting on other: the
person might take action against the comparison person (on the overpaid). Cognitively
distort inputs and outcomes of other: people can change their perceptions of the inputs or
outcomes of the comparison other. A person who feels overpaid might assign more
importance to the task of the other party than in the past. Change reference groups or the
comparison person: a person who feels underpaid compared to someone else in the
organization might shift to a different comparison person (Joseph, C. 2016).
Fortunately my organization has good communication and clear guidelines which are the keys
to preventing perceived and actual inequities. For instance, the clear policies on pay raises and
promotions have been eliminating discourse related to pay and career development. In
addition, my organization has been working on avoiding the perception of favoritism and
following company policy in the handling of all employee issues which has effectively
reduced the number of complaints and concerns surrounding inequity in the workplace.
Personally, as part of the management I strongly believe in equity treatment and whenever
issues aroused regarding to the inequity, I insistently work on the amendment.

10. To whom have you compared yourself in the past when making equity comparisons?
Under what circumstances have you changed your comparison other?

Personally, I compared myself to the other management members. As a result I think I have
experienced cognitively distort own inputs and outcomes. There was a time I felt that I was
overpaid comparing to the other management members. And when I felt overpaid, I began
justifying it was due to my extra trainings and experiences and started to see more
responsibility and duties in my job. The difference was as a result of being a new employee to
my organization. The other members have been working for many years prior to me. When
the organization insisted that I should join, I had to make a proper negotiation regarding to
work autonomy and payment. After joining the organization I realized that I was overpaid that
the other management members doing more or less similar work to me. As a result I began to
see more responsibility and duties in my job. However I never changed my comparison other.

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 11. Discuss goal-setting theory and its several steps for setting goals. Would you expect
such activities to have a positive effect on your work performance?

Goal-setting theory refers to the effects of setting goals on subsequent performance.

Researcher Edwin Locke and his colleagues found that individuals who set specific, difficult
goals performed better than those who set general, easy goals. Locke proposed five basic
principles of goal-setting: clarity, challenge, commitment, feedback, and task complexity.
Goals that are specific, challenging, reachable, and accepted by a person lead to higher
performance than goals that are fuzzy, unchallenging not reachable, or not accepted. Goal
specificity includes what needs to be done, how much needs to be done, and the performance
period. High performance is partly the result of clear expectations about what to do and when.
People told to do their best do not perform as well as those who have specific task goals to
reach. Goal setting affects behavior through the psychological processes of directing attention,
stimulating effort, persisting in the effort, and finding ways to do the task well. People need
feedback about their performance and rewards while they are performing. Goal setting
without feedback is not effective in improving performance (Joseph, C. 2016).
Goal-setting theory requires the steps to set goals including: i) specify the employee’s tasks,
duties, and responsibilities. ii) Specify how the employee’s performance will be assessed. iii)
Specify the goal or target to reach. If employee performance can be quantified, then a specific
amount of output can be stated. If not, then the goal or target should be specified clearly. iv)
Specify the time span of employee performance. v) Set priorities among goals. vi) Specify
goal difficulty and goal priority. vii) Review goals for coordination and cooperation with
others (Joseph, C. 2016).
The goal-setting steps can produce goals that are specific about the task and the time to finish
the task. The theory does not view goals as static. Goals often are based on the past and some
predictions about the future. As circumstances change, goals might need to change. Thus, the
main important element is the ability to change goals as circumstances surrounding employee
performance changes (Joseph, C. 2016).
Yes, I expect such activities to have a positive effect on my work performance, because
setting a goal is a great way to encourage achievement and stay motivated. However, many of
us set goals that are ineffective at pushing us to do our best. Goals are the first step towards
planning for the future, and play a fundamental role in the development of skills in various

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facets of life, from work to relationships and everything in between. They are the target at
which we aim our proverbial arrow. Understanding the importance of goals and the
techniques involved in setting achievable goals paves the way for success. As the studies
show the setting of goals has been shown to increase employee motivation and organizational
commitment. Additionally, goals affect the intensity of our actions and our emotions. Thus,
surely such activities are really important to our personal and organizational achievements.

12. Review the criticisms raised about behavior modification. Discuss those criticisms. Do
those criticisms limit the use of behavior modification in organizations?
Behaviour modification is an approach to human motivation and behavior that differs in many
ways from expectancy theory and equity theory. The theory underlying behavior modification
does not use cognitive processes to explain a person’s actions. The purpose behind behavior
modification is not to understand why or how a particular behavior started. Instead, it only
focuses on changing the behavior, and there are various different methods used to accomplish
it. This includes: Positive reinforcement is pairing a positive stimulus to a behavior. A good
example of this is when teachers reward their students for getting a good grade with stickers.
Negative reinforcement is the opposite and is the pairing of a behavior to the removal of a
negative stimulus. A child that throws a tantrum because he or she does not want to eat
vegetables and has his or her vegetables taken away would be a good example. Punishment
is designed to weaken behaviors by pairing an unpleasant stimulus to a behavior. Receiving a
detention for bad behavior is a good example of a punishment. Flooding involves exposing
people to fear-invoking objects or situations intensely and rapidly. Aversion therapy is the
paring of an unpleasant stimulus to an unwanted behavior in order to eliminate that behavior.
Extinction is the removal of all reinforcement that might be associated with a behavior
(Claudia F.).
Behaviour modification has been applied in many organisations and has actually benefitted
organisations also. Still some people criticise it on the grounds that it is unethical and
manipulative in character and so it should not be used by the managers to regulate the
behaviour of others (Khushboo, S.).
According to Khushboo the main objections raised against behaviour modification are:
- Operant conditioning techniques ignore the individuality of person and constitute a threat to
the concept of personal autonomy.

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- Behaviour modification techniques restrict freedom of choice of behaviour.
- Behaviour modification is based on the assumption that individual behaviour is a function
or is controlled by his environment and that forces internal to the individual have little effect
on operant behaviour.
- Behaviour modification is an exercise in over simplification. It cannot be considered as an
innovative and new technique of management.
- The idea of changing employees’ behaviour through reinforcement under OB Mod is in
conformity with the traditional thinking that people need to be directed to get the work done.
- External awards under OB Mod amounts to bribery as some rewards are presented when the
person shows the behaviour according to the wishes of the changing agent.
- Behaviour modification is also criticized on the ground that managers are forced to
psychoanalyse the workers and tie performance to rewards continuously.
- Behaviour modifications have been applied primarily with groups such as younger students
in schools, delinquents in institutions, patients with Behavioural disorders etc.
In spite of the criticisms levied against behaviour modification, it has been increasingly used
in business organisations. It is being utilized as a practical tool for shaping, improving and
motivating behaviour of organisational members. Behaviour modification should not be
treated as a technique to be applied indiscriminately as panacea for all organisational
Behavioural problems. Rather the management should keep in mind its shortcomings and to
apply it within the context of its limitations and shortcomings (Khushboo, S.). Thus, looking
at the extensive use of behaviour modification in organizations, I think the criticisms raised
about behavior modification do not remarkably limit the use of it in any organization. Of
course, I we have seen it above, some scholars have got their reservation in accepting it with
other any critic and their research findings testify that there is certain limitation in it.

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