Physical Sensors and

Measurements
Chapter 3
Introduction to Physical Sensors

• Physical sensors are devices

that detect and respond to
physical stimuli, such as
temperature, pressure, light,
and motion.
• They convert these stimuli into
measurable signals, which can
be processed and analyzed.

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Types Physical Sensors

Resistive Inductive Capacitive Piezoelectric

Sensors Sensors Sensors Sensors

Electromagnetic Photoelectric Thermoelectric

Sensors Sensors Sensors

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Resistive Sensor

anchor points

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Principles of Resistive Sensors

External Stimulus
Physical changes like displacement, temperature, or pressure affect
the sensor.

Resistance Change
The sensor's electrical resistance changes in response to the stimulus.
stimulus.

Signal Conversion
The resistance change is converted into a measurable voltage or
voltage or current signal.
Types of Resistive Sensors
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)
Measure temperature using metal conductors with predictable resistance changes.

Strain Gauges
Detect deformation in materials, crucial for structural and biomechanical analysis.

Pressure Sensors
Use flexible diaphragms to measure pressure in various applications.

Potentiometers
Track position or displacement through variable resistance, used in controls and robotics.

Piezoresistive
Piezoresistive sensors measure force, pressure, or acceleration by detecting resistance
changes in a material under mechanical stress
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)

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Strain Gauges

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Resistance Strain Sensors

• A primary kind of resistance sensor

• the resistance strain sensor is capable
of converting strain into a resistance
variation.
• It is a basic phenomenon that
deformations of elastic elements bring
about
• resistance change of strain sensitive
materials under functions of tested
physical parameters

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Resistance Strain Sensors

• The strain gauge is an example of a

passive transducer that uses electric
resistance variation in wires to sense
the strain produced by a force on wires.
• It is a very versatile detector and
transducer for measuring weight,
pressure, mechanical force, or
displacement.

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working principle of resistance strain gauge
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑙
𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 = 𝜀𝜀𝑡𝑡 , = 𝜀𝜀𝑎𝑎
𝑅𝑅 = 𝐷𝐷 𝑙𝑙
𝐴𝐴 Solid mechanics 𝜀𝜀𝑡𝑡 = −𝜇𝜇𝜀𝜀𝑎𝑎
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝜌𝜌 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Taking log = + − Substituting then We get
𝑅𝑅 𝜌𝜌 𝑙𝑙 𝐴𝐴
𝜋𝜋𝐷𝐷2
𝐴𝐴 = taking log and
4
differentiate Strain gauge factor (sensitivity) K
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
⇒ = 2 ∆𝑅𝑅/𝑅𝑅 ∆𝜌𝜌/𝜌𝜌
𝐴𝐴 𝐷𝐷
𝐾𝐾 = = 1 + 2𝜇𝜇 +
𝜀𝜀𝑎𝑎 𝜀𝜀𝑎𝑎
∆𝑅𝑅 ∆𝜌𝜌
= 1 + 2𝜇𝜇 𝜀𝜀𝑎𝑎 +
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𝑅𝑅 𝜌𝜌
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working principle of resistance strain gauge
• strain effect means resistance value changes with
mechanical deformation of elastic elements.
∆𝑅𝑅 ∆𝜌𝜌
= 1 + 2𝜇𝜇 𝜀𝜀𝑎𝑎 +
𝑅𝑅 𝜌𝜌
• µ is Poisson ratio
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿
• Strain is 𝜀𝜀 = , stress is 𝜎𝜎 = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 , E is the modulus of
𝑙𝑙
Elasticity (Young’s modulus)

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Pressure Sensors

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Potentiometers

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Potentiometer

A potentiometer is a type of resistive sensor used to measure displacement, position, or

angle. It works by adjusting resistance based on the position of a wiper along a resistive
track, making it ideal for applications that require precise feedback on linear or rotary
movement. Here’s a closer look at its working principle and applications:
Working Principle
1. Basic Structure: A potentiometer consists of a resistive element (track), a sliding
contact (wiper), and three terminals—two at either end of the resistive element and
one connected to the wiper.
2. Movement and Resistance Change: As the wiper moves along the resistive track, the
resistance between the wiper and each end terminal changes proportionally to its
position. For example, in a linear potentiometer, this movement is straight, while in a
rotary potentiometer, the wiper rotates along a circular track.
3. Signal Output: By applying a voltage across the two end terminals, the output voltage
from the wiper terminal varies with its position. This output voltage is directly
proportional to the wiper’s position along the track, providing a continuous, analog
signal that corresponds to the displacement.

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Piezoresistive

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Piezoresistive Sensors
• The piezoresistive effect describes the changing electrical resistance
of a material due to applied mechanical stress
• It only causes a change in resistance and does not produce an electric
potential.

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Direct vs. Indirect Measurement Techniques
Techniques
• Direct Measurement • Indirect Measurement
Sensors directly measure parameters of interest, such as S enso rs m easure seco nd ary p aram eters to d ed uce
as blood vessel diameter. This provides immediate, accurate o nes. Fo r exam p le, d iap hrag m m ovem ent ind icates
accurate data for analysis. vo lum e. This ap p ro ach is useful when d irect
im p ractical.

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Direct vs. Indirect Measurement Techniques
• Direct Measurement • Ind irect M easurem ent
Sensors directly measure parameters of interest, such as S enso rs m easure seco nd ary p aram eters to d ed uce
as blood vessel diameter. This provides immediate, accurate o nes. Fo r exam p le, d iap hrag m m ovem ent ind icates
accurate data for analysis. vo lum e. This ap p ro ach is useful when d irect
im p ractical.

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Displacement Measurements

Many biomedical parameters rely on measurements of size, shape, and position

of organs, tissue, etc. require displacement sensors

(direct) diameter of blood vessel

Examples (indirect) movement of a microphone diaphragm to quantify liquid movement
through the heart

Resistive Sensors (Potentiometers & Strain gauges)

Inductive Sensors
Primary Transducer Types Capacitive Sensors
Piezoelectric Sensors

Wheatstone Bridge
Secondary Transducers Amplifiers

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Displacement Measurement in
Biomedical Applications
1 Sensor Placement
Resistive sensors are strategically placed on or near organs and tissues.

2 Data Collection
Sensors measure changes in size, shape, or position over time.

3 Analysis
Collected data is analyzed to assess organ function and overall health.

4 Medical Decision
Results inform diagnoses and treatment plans for cardiovascular and other
other conditions.
Biomedical Applications of
Resistive Sensors
Sensor Type Application Function
RTDs Patient Monitoring Measure Core Body
Body Temperature
Strain Gauges Orthopedics Analyze Stress On
Bones And Implants
Pressure Sensors Blood Pressure Measure Arterial
Monitoring Pressure
Potentiometers Robotic Surgery Provide Positional
Feedback For
Precision
Piezoresistive Disposable Catheters Monitor Blood
Pressure
Continuously
Invasive Blood Pressure Measurement
Catheter Insertion Pressure Detection
A catheter with a resistive sensor is inserted into an artery. The sensor detects pressure changes in the blood vessel.

Strain Measurement Data Conversion

Specific gauge pairs in the sensor measure strain caused by pressure. Strain measurements are converted into accurate blood pressure
pressure readings.
Biomedical Applications

invasive blood pressure measurement

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invasive blood pressure measurement

• invasive blood pressure measurement

• With increasing pressure, the strain on gauge pair
B and C is increased, while that on gauge pair A
and D is decreased.
• Initially before any pressure R1 = R4 and R3 = R2
 R3   R4 
Va = Vi   Vb = Vi  
 R2 + R3   R1 + R4 
 R3 R4 
Vo = Va − Vb = Vi  − 
 R2 + R3 R1 + R4  R1 = A, R2 = B, R3 = D, R4 = C
 R ( R − R2 ) + R3 ( R1 − R4 ) 
Vo = Vi  4 3 
 ( R2 + R3 )( R1 + R4 ) 
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Bladder Volume Measurement in
in Urinary Dysfunction
1 Non-Invasive Technique
Resistive sensors are incorporated into external measurement devices for patient
patient comfort.

2 Real-Time Monitoring
Sensors provide continuous data on bladder volume changes over time.

3 Treatment Guidance
Accurate volume measurements help clinicians manage urinary conditions effectively.
effectively.

4 Patient Empowerment
Data from sensors can help patients self-manage their condition.
Bladder volume measurement in patients
with urinary dysfunction
• Bladder volume measurement in patients with urinary
dysfunction

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Measurement
• Extremely small strain can cause Resistance Change
• Resistance change have to be converted into Voltage or Current

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Full bridge configuration
• all bridge elements are variable
(sensors)
• increasing & decreasing elements
arranged to maximize sensitivity
• Example: unbounded strain gauge
• B and C operate together
• A and D operate together
• Ry and Rx used to balance the bridge
• output ΔVo
• Ri voltmeter internal resistance

• Temperature Compensation
• When all R’s from same material
• TCR of all elements cancel
• change in temperature  no change in output voltage
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