BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Register Number : ……………………………………………….

Name : ……………………………………………….

Subject/Code : Circuits and Networks Laboratory – U23ECP101

Branch : Electronics and Communication Engineering.

Year/Semester : I/I

Certified that this is the bonafide record of Practical Work done by the above student in the Circuits and
Networks Laboratory during the academic year 2024-25.

Staff in-charge Head of the Department

Submitted for the End Semester Examination held on ………………………….

Internal Examiner External Examiner

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Expt.
No. Date Title of Experiment Page No. Marks Staff Signature
1 Study of Passive and Active components
Construction of series and parallel circuits
using resistors and verification using KVL
2 and KCL

3 Verification of Mesh and Nodal analysis

Verification of Thevenin‘s and Norton‘s
4
Theorem
5 Verification of superposition Theorem
Verification of Maximum Power Transfer
6
Theorem
7 DC response of RL, RC and RLC circuits

Determination of Z and Y parameters of a

8
two-port network

Determination of ABCD and h parameters of

9
a two-port network

Design of LPF and HPF using passive

10
components

Simulate an LPF and HPF using PSPICE

11 simulation tool and compare the results
Content Beyond the Syllabus
12 Verification of Reciprocity theorem
Determination of average value, RMS value,
13 Form factor, Peak factor of Sinusoidal and
Square wave
 U23ECP101- CIRCUITS AND NETWORKS LABORATORY

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

1. Study of Passive and active components

2. Construction of series and parallel circuits using resistors and verification using KVL and KCL
3. Verification of Mesh and Nodal analysis
4. Verification of Thevenin‘s and Norton‘s Theorem
5. Verification of superposition Theorem
6. Verification of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
7. DC response of RL, RC and RLC circuits
8. Determination of Z and Y parameters of a two-port network.
9. Determination of ABCD and h parameters of a two-port network.
10. Design of LPF and HPF using passive components
11. Simulate an LPF and HPF using PSPICE simulation tool and compare the results

Reference Books

1. Valkenberg V., ―Network Analysis‖, 3rd Ed., Prentice Hall International Edition. 2007.
2. Hayt and Kemmerly, ―Engineering Circuit Analysis,‖ McGraw Hill Education, New Delhi, 8th
Ed, 2013.
3. Kuo F. F., ―Network Analysis and Synthesis‖, 2nd Ed., Wiley India, 2008.
4. PM Chandrashekaraiah, Electric Circuit and Network Analysis‖ First edition, CBS Publishers,
2015.
5. Joseph A. Edminister, Mahmood Maqvi, ―Electric Circuits,‖ Schaum's Outline Series, 5th
edition, TMH Publishers, 2016

Web References

1. https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/circuit-construction-kit-dc-virtual-lab/latest/circuit-
construction-kit-dc-virtual-lab_en.html
2. https://www.circuitlab.com/editor/#?id=7pq5wm&from=homepage
3. http://vlabs.iitkgp.ac.in/be/#
4. http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/technical-articles/an-introduction-to-filters/
5. http://www.learnabout-electronics.org/ac_theory/filters81.php
Course Outcome

CO’S Course Outcomes

Illustrate the practical implications of the Active, Passive components, Kirchhoff‘s

CO1
current and voltage laws. (K3)
CO2 Implementation and verification of circuit theorems. (K3)
CO3 Illustrate DC analysis of RL, RC and RLC Circuits. (K3)
CO4 Demonstrate the concept of two port networks and evaluate their parameters(K3)
CO5 Compare the simulated results of LPF and HPF with experimental results(K4)

COs/POs/PSOs MAPPING

Program Outcomes (POs) Program Specific

Outcomes (PSOs)
COs PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12 PSO1 PSO2 PSO3
1 3 3 3 3 - - - - - - - - 3 2 2
2 3 3 3 3 - - - - - - - - 3 2 2
3 3 3 3 3 - - - - - - - - 3 2 2
4 3 3 3 3 - - - - - - - - 3 2 2
5 3 3 3 3 3 - - - - - - - 3 2 2
 INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS

1. Students are required to attend all labs.

2. Students will work individually in hardware laboratories and in computer laboratories.

3. While coming to the lab bring the lab manual cum observation book, record etc.

4. Take only the lab manual, calculator and a pen, pencil to the work area.

5. Before coming to the lab, prepare the pre-lab questions. Read through the lab experiment

to familiarize yourself with the components and assembly sequence.

6. Utilize 3 hours’ time properly to perform the experiment and note down the results properly.

7. If the experiment is not completed in the prescribed time, the pending work has to be done in the

leisure hour or extended hours.

8. You have to submit the completed record note according to the deadlines set up by your instructor.
Instructions to be followed in Circuits and Networks Laboratory

Do’s

 Obtain authorization from the lab In-charge prior to entering the lab working area.

 Before starting Laboratory work, follow all written and verbal instructions carefully. If you do not

understand a direction or part of a procedure, ask your concern lab In -charge before proceeding with the

activity.

 Before use, equipment datasheet must be read carefully. Set up and use the equipment as directed by

your lab In-charge. If you do not understand how to use equipment, ask lab In-charge or Technician for

help.

 Always conduct yourself in a responsible manner in the laboratory.

 A lab coat should be worn during laboratory experiments. Dress properly during a laboratory
activity.

 Long hair, dangling jewelry and loose or baggy clothing are a hazard in the laboratory.

 Observe good housekeeping practices. Replace the materials in proper place after work to keep the lab

area tidy.

Don’ts

 Students are not allowed to touch any equipment, in the laboratory area until you are instructed by Lab

In- charge or Technician.

 Do not wander around the room, distract other students, startle other students, or interfere with the

laboratory experiments of others.

 Do not eat food, drink beverages or chew gum in the laboratory.

 Always disconnect a plug by pulling on the connector’s body and not by cable.

 Electrical equipment and connections should not be handled with wet hands.
Ex.No.1
STUDY OF PASSIVE AND ACTIVE COMPONENTS
Date:

AIM:

To study passive and active components, identify the value of resistors, understand how to make
connections on a breadboard, and learn how to test components using multimeter.

THEORY:
Electronic components are categorized as active or passive device depending on the functions, they
are able to perform.
Active components
 Active components are semiconductor devices that consist of semiconductor materials.
 They supply electric power to the circuit or power gain in the circuit.
 Common electronic devices are diodes and transistors, which perform “active” operations like
amplifying, rectifying, or converting supplied current (signal).
 Semiconductors are substances like silicon or germanium that have a resistance rate
somewhere between a conductor (iron, copper, gold, silver, etc.) and an insulator (rubber, ceramic,
etc.).

Integrated Circuits
An integrated circuit (IC) commonly called a chip is made out of a semiconductor material called silicon, in
which small electronic components called transistors are formed within the silicon and then wired together
with interconnects layered on top of the silicon surface. Miniaturization is just one of the advantages of
integrated circuits.
Applications
Integrated circuits are used in a wide range of electronic devices
 Computer systems.
 Radars for navigation and tracking.
 Logic devices.
 Video processors.
 Memory devices.
 audio and radio communication,
 medical electronics and instrumental control etc.

Transistor
 A transistor is a miniature semiconductor that regulates or controls current or voltage flow in addition
amplifying and generating these electrical signals and acting as a switch/gate for them.
 Typically, transistors consist of three layers, or terminals, of a semiconductor material, each of which
can carry a current.
Classification:

Symbols:
Transistor - BC107 Pin out

Types of transistor package:

Diode
 A diode is a semiconductor device that essentially acts as a one-way switch for current.
 It allows current to flow easily in one direction, but severely restricts current from flowing in the
opposite direction.
 Diodes are used in rectifier circuits to convert AC to DC.
 Diodes are also used to protect circuits and electronics from reversing currents and to regulate
voltage in a circuit.
Symbol:

1N4007 Diode
Types of Diodes
:

Testing:
A simple way to test whether a component is active or not is to measure the difference between its input and
output signals. If there is a decline in power, the component is passive. If the signal is amplified, it is active.

PASSIVE COMPONENTS:
 Passive components are required electronic devices that perform “passive” operations like consuming,
storing, or releasing electric power.
 They can only absorb electrical energy and dissipate it in the form of heat or store it in a magnetic or
electric field.
 They cannot provide electric power or power amplification in an electric circuit. Common passive
components include resistors, capacitors, and coils.

Resistor:
 A passive electrical component with two terminals that are used for either limiting or regulating the
flow of electric current in electrical circuits.
 The main purpose of resistor is to reduce the current flow and to lower the voltage in any particular
portion of the circuit.
 The SI unit of resistor is Ohm.
Sysmbol:

Types of Resistors

There are two ways to find the resistance value of a resistor.

First Method:

 The color bands on the body of the resistor tell how much resistance it has. There are 5-band resistors
and 4-band resistors. Form both 5-band and 4-band resistors, the last band indicate tolerance.
 The first two or three bands determine the significant digits based on the resistor accuracy. High
accuracy resistors use three bands while standard accuracy resistors use two bands.
 The next band is the multiplier of the significant digits. The last band is the tolerance. The tolerance
is a percentage that determines the expected range of resistance values based on the market

Identification of values:
RESISTOR COLOUR CODE GUIDE
5 Band colour code resistor and 4 – Band resistors

Color 1stdigit 2nddigit 3rdDigit Multiplier Tolerance

Black 0 0 0 100

Brown 1 1 1 101 1%(F)

Red 2 2 2 102 2%(G)
Orange 3 3 3 103

Yellow 4 4 4 104

Green 5 5 5 105 0.5%(D)

Blue 6 6 6 106 0.25%(C)
Violet 7 7 7 107 0.10%(B)
Gray 8 8 8 108 0.05%
White 9 9 9 109

Gold 10-1 5%(J)

Silver 10-2 10% (k)

Second Method:

Another way to identify the value of a resistor is to use a multimeter to measure its resistance. The multimeter
passes a known amount of current to through its leads. The meter then measures the voltage drop across the
resistor being tested and calculates the resistance using Ohm‘s Law.
TABULATION:

Value of Resistor
Difference in
Color Coding Manual Multimeter measurement
Brown, Black, Orange

Green, Blue , Brown

Violet, black, yellow

Inductor:
An inductor, also called a coil, choke, or reactor, is a passive two-terminal electrical component that stores
energy in a magnetic field when electric current flows through it. An inductor typically consists of an
insulated wire wound into a coil.

Symbol:

Inductance box:

Inductor types:
Inductor values:

Color 1stBand 2ndBand Multiplier Tolerance

Black 0 0 1 ±20%
Brown 1 1 10 Military±1%
Red 2 2 100 Military±2%

Orange 3 3 1000 Military±3%

Yellow 4 4 10000 Military±4%
Green 5 5
Blue 6 6
Violet 7 7
Gray 8 8
White 9 9
None Military±20%
Gold 0.1/Mil.Dec.Pt Both±5%
Silver 0.01 Both±10%

Capacitor

A capacitor is an electrical component or a device that stores electrical energy by accumulating electric
charges on opposite surfaces which are separated by an insulating layer and the capability to store these
charges at a given potential refers to capacitance.

Capacitor symbols:
Types of capacitors:

Capacitor values:

Letter B C D F G J K M Z
C<10pF±pF% 0.1 0.25 0.5 1 2
Tolerance
C>10pF±pF% 0.5 1 2 5 10 20 +80-20
 Bread Board

A breadboard is used to design various electronic circuits in less time without soldering. The breadboards are
designed with a plastic material, and available in different sizes, shapes, and colors. Breadboards have many
tiny sockets (called 'holes') arranged on a 0.1" grid. The leads of most components can be pushed straight into
the holes. ICs are inserted across the central gap with their notch or dot to the left.

Wire links can be made with single-core plastic-coated wire of 0.6mm diameter (the standard size), this is
known as 1/0.6mm wire. The top and bottom rows are linked horizontally all the way across as shown by the
green lines on the diagram.

Half Bread board - Internal Structure:

Full bread board(Top View):

 Internal connections in bread board

ASSEMBLING ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS ON BREADBOARD

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

CIRCUIT CONNECTION IN BREADBOARD:

 Procedure:
1. Insert the LED into the Breadboard: Start by bending the longer lead of the LED. Plug the longer lead
(anode) of the LED into the top rail of the breadboard and the other lead into a hole in the main part of
the breadboard.
2. Insert the Resistor into the Breadboard: Bend the leads of the resistor, plug one of the resistors leads into
a hole directly below the cathode lead of the LED and the other lead into a hole below the middle
channel of the breadboard. This connects the LED cathode to one of the resistors leads. It does not matter
which way around the resistor is plugged into the breadboard.
3. Insert the Wire Link into the Breadboard: Insert a wire connector into a hole directly below the resistor
lead and into the bottom rail of the breadboard.
4. Insert the Battery Clip into the Breadboard: Plug the red (positive) wire of the battery clip into the top
rail of the breadboard. Plug the black (negative) wire of the battery clip into the bottom rail of the
breadboard.
5. Plug the Battery into the Battery Clip: Finally plug the battery into the battery clip to power up the circuit
and switch the LED on. Make sure to connect the battery clip to the battery the right way around.

RESULT:
The study of passive and active components, identification of resistor values, making connections on a
breadboard and testing components using multimeters have been done.

INFERENCE FROM THE RESULT:

Ex.No.2
CONSTRUCTION OF SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS USING
RESISTORS AND VERIFICATION USING KVL AND KCL
Date:

AIM:
To construct Series and Parallel Circuits using Resistors and verify Using KVL and KCL

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl. No. Apparatus Name Type / Range Quantity

1. Regulated Power Supply Single / (0 – 30 )V 1

2. Ammeter (0-10) mA 3

3. Ammeter (0-30) mA 1

4. Voltmeter (0-10) V 3

5. Voltmeter (0-30)V 1

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Sl. No. Components Name Type / Range Quantity

1. Resistors Carbon composition/1K 1

Carbon composition/2K 2
2. Breadboard - 1

3. Connecting Wires 1/18 swg As required

STATEMENT:
Kirchhoff’s Voltage law: This law states that the algebraic sum of the voltage taken around a closed loop is
equal to zero.
Kirchhoff’s Current law: This law states that the sum of the currents entering into any node is equal to the
sum of the currents leaving that node.
Formula Used:

(i) Ohm’s Law

𝑉
𝐼=
𝑅

(ii) To find Equivalent Resistance

If resistances are connected in series,

𝑅𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + ⋯ + 𝑅𝑛

If resistances are connected in parallel,

1 1 1 1
= + + ⋯.+
𝑅𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝑛

(iii) Current Division rule:

To fine branch currents,

𝐼𝑅2
𝐼1 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

𝐼𝑅1
𝐼2 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

(iv) Voltage division rule:

V1 is the Voltage across R1,

𝑉 ∗ 𝑅1
𝑉1 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
V2 is the Voltage across R2,
𝑉 ∗ 𝑅2
𝑉2 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
 KIRCHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Take VT= 10V, R1= 2K, R2= 1K, R3=2K

Calculation:

PRACTICAL CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

TABULATION:

Practical Value Theoretical Value

Vs
S.No (Volts) V1 V2 V3 VT V1 V2 V3 VT
(Volts) (Volts) (Volts) (Volts) (Volts) (Volts) (Volts) (Volts)
1

5
 KIRCHOFF’S CURRENT LAW
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Calculation:

PRACTICAL CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

TABULATION:

Practical Value Theoretical Value

S.No Vs (Volts) I1
(mA) I2 (mA) I3 (mA) IT (mA) I1 (mA) I2 (mA) I3 (mA) IT (mA)

1
2

5
PROCEDURE:
Kirchhoff ‘s Voltage law:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. The Voltage across each branch is measured using voltmeter or multimeter.
3. Verify KVL for each and every branch in the given network.
4. Repeat the same procedure for different values of voltage.

Kirchhoff ‘s Current law:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. The Current through each branch is measured using ammeter or multimeter.
3. Verify KCL for each and every node in the given network.
4. Repeat the same procedure for different values of voltage.

RESULT:
Thus, the Kirchhoff ‘s Voltage law and Kirchhoff ‘s Current law are verified by both practical and theoretical
values.

Sl. No. Theoretical Value Practical Value

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (VT)
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (IT)

INFERENCE FROM THE RESULT:

PRACTISING EXERCISE:

1. What is the current in the circuit shown in Fig. Determine the voltage across each resistor

2. Determine current in the circuit

3. Determine the voltage across the 20 ohm resistor of the network shown in Fig.
Ex.No.3
VERIFICATION OF MESH AND NODAL ANALYSIS
Date:

AIM:
To experimentally verify the given electrical circuit problems using Mesh and Nodal Analysis.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:

Sl.
Apparatus Name Type / Range Quantity
No.
1. Regulated Power Supply Single / (0 – 30) V 1
2. Ammeter (0 -50) mA 3
3. Voltmeter (0 -30) V 2

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Sl.
Components Name Type / Range Quantity
No.
1. Resistors Carbon composition/1.5k 1
2. Resistors Carbon composition/2.2k 1
3. Resistors Carbon composition/4.7k 1
4. Resistors Carbon composition/1.5k 1
5. Resistors Carbon composition/3.3k 1
6. Breadboard - 1
7. Connecting Wires 1/18 swg As required

THEORY:

Mesh analysis:
Multi-source DC circuits may be analysed using a mesh current technique. The process involves identifying
a minimum number of small loops such that every component exists in at least one loop. Kirchhoff ‘s Voltage
Law is then applied to each loop. The loop currents are referred to as mesh currents as each current inter locks
or meshes with the surrounding loop currents. As a result there will be a set of simultaneous equations created,
an unknown mesh current for each loop. Once the mesh currents are determined, various branch currents and
branch voltages may be derived.
Nodal analysis:
In electric circuits analysis, nodal analysis, node-voltage analysis, or the branch current method is a method
of determining the voltage (potential difference) between "nodes" (points where elements or branches
connect) in an electrical circuit in terms of the branch currents.

PROCEDURE – Mesh Analysis:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram
2. Switch ON the supply of RPS.
3. Apply the voltage (say V1 = 12V and V2 = 8 V).

4. Note down the ammeter readings I1, I2 and I3.

5. Gradually increase the supply voltage in steps and follow the above procedure.
6. Verify the practical results obtained with theoretical results.

PROCEDURE – Nodal Analysis:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram.
2. Switch ON the supply to RPS.
3. Apply the voltage (say V1 = 12V and V2 = 10 V)

4. Note down the voltmeter readings VA and VB.

5. Gradually increase the supply voltage in steps and follow the above procedure.
6. Verify the practical results obtained with theoretical results.
 MESH ANALYSIS
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Model Calculation:

PRACTICAL CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

TABULATION:

Sl. Theoretical Value Practical Value

No.
V1 V2 I1 (mA) I2 (mA) I3 (mA) V1 V2 I1 (mA) I2 (mA) I3 (mA)
(Volts) (Volts) (Volts) (Volts)

3
 NODAL ANALYSIS

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Model Calculation:

PRACTICAL CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

TABULATION:

Sl. No. Theoretical Value Practical Value

V1 V2 VA VB V1 V2 VA VB
(Volts) (Volts) (Volts) (Volts) (Volts) (Volts) (Volts) (Volts)

2
3
RESULT:
Thus, the Mesh analysis and Nodal Analysis were verified for the given network by
experimentally.

INFERENCE FROM THE RESULT:

PRACTISING EXERCISE:
1. Use nodal analysis to compute the voltage in the circuit

2. Using mesh analysis, determine the current through the 1 W resistor in the circuit shown in Fig

3. Determine the current l 2 in the circuit shown in Fig

4. Determine the voltage at each node of the circuit shown in Fig

 Ex.No.4
VERIFICATION OF THEVENIN’S AND NORTON’S THEOREM
Date:

AIM:
To Experimentally verify the given electric circuit by using Thevenin‘s and Norton‘s
theorem.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:

Sl. No. Apparatus Name Type / Range Quantity

1. Regulated Power Supply Single / (0 – 30 )V 1

2. Ammeter (0-30) mA, MC 1

3. Voltmeter (0-30) V, MC 1

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Sl. No. Components Name Type / Range Quantity

1. Resistors Carbon composition/ 330 1

2. Resistors Carbon composition/ 470 1

3. Resistors Carbon composition/ 1.5K 1

4. Resistors Carbon composition/ 560 1

5. Breadboard Normal Type 1

6.. Connecting Wires 1/18 swg As required

STATEMENT:
THEVENIN’S THEOREM

Any linear bilateral, active two terminal network can be replaced by a equivalent voltage source (V TH).
Thevenin ‘s voltage or VOC in series with looking pack resistance (Thevenins Resistance) RTH.

The electric current through the load resistor will be,

NORTON'S THEOREM

Any linear, bilateral, active two terminal network can be replaced by an equivalent current source (IN) in
parallel with Norton‘s resistance (RN)

Norton’s equivalent circuit and the load current will be.

PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are given as per circuit diagram.

2. Set a particular value in RPS and note down the ammeter readings in the original circuit.

To find VTH

Remove the load resistance and measure the open circuit voltage using voltmeter (VTH).

To find RTH

1. To find the Thevenin's resistance, remove the RPS and short circuit it and find the RTH
using multimeter.

2. Give the connections for equivalent circuit and set VTH and RTH and note the

corresponding ammeter reading.

3. Verify Thevenin's theorem.

To Draw the Thevenin equivalent circuit

Draw the Thevenin's equivalent circuit by connecting Thevenin's voltage source (VTH) in series with

Thevenin's resistance (RN). The load resistor re-attaches between the two open points of the equivalent

circuit.

To Find IN:

1. Remove the load resistance and short circuit the terminals.

2. For the same RPS voltage note down the ammeter readings.

To Find RN:

Remove RPS and short circuit the terminal and remove the load and note down the resistance across the

two terminals.

Equivalent Circuit:

1. Set IN and RN and note down the ammeter readings.

2. Verify Norton's theorem.

Problem Statement: Find the current through 560 Ω resistor. Obtain the Thevenin‘s and Nortons
equivalent circuit practically and find the current

Thevenin’s Theorem

CIRCIT DIAGRAM

Model calculation:

TO FIND VTH:
TABLUATION

S.No VS (Volts) Practical Value Theoretical value

Vth(Volts) Vth(Volts)

TO FIND RTH:

TABLUATION

Practical Value Theoretical Value

S.no Rth(Ω) Rth(Ω)

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT:

TABLUATION

S.no Vth (V) Practical Rth ( Ω) Practical IL (mA)

Practical
Norton’s Theorem:

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

TO FIND IN:
TABLUATION

Practical Value Theoretical Value

S.No VS(Volts) IN (or) ISC (mA) IN (or) ISC (mA)

Model calculation:

TO FIND RN:

TABLUATION
S.no Practical Value Theoretical Value

Rth (or) RN (Ω) Rth (or) RN (Ω)

TO DRAW THE NORTON EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT:

TABLUATION

Practical Values Theoretical value

S.no IN (mA) IL (mA) IN (mA) IL (mA)

RESULT:

Thus, the Thevenin‘s and Norton‘s theorem was verified practically and theoretically.

INFERENCE FROM THE RESULT:

PRACTICING PROBLEMS
1. Determine the Thevenin’s and Norton’s equivalent circuit across ‘AB’ for the given circuit

2. For the circuit shown in Fig. using Thevenin's and Norton’s theorem, the current in the 10-ohm
resistor.
 Ex.No.5
VERIFICATION OF SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
Date:

AIM:

To verify the superposition theorem by theoretical calculations and experimentally for the given
circuit.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:

Sl. No. Apparatus Name Type / Range Quantity

1. Regulated Power Supply Dual Power Supply / (0 – 30 )V 1

2. Ammeter (0-10) mA, MC 1

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Sl. No. Components Name Type / Range Quantity

Carbon composition / As per
1. Resistors 2
the design
Carbon composition/As per the
2. Resistors 1
design
3. Breadboard - 1

4. Connecting Wires 1/18 swg As required

STATEMENT:

The Superposition theorem states that the voltage across (or current through) an element in a linear circuit
with multiple sources is the algebraic sum of the voltages across (or currents through) that element due
to each independent source acting alone [i.e. with all other sources replaced by their internal impedance].
PROBLEM STATEMENT:
Find the current through R3 using superposition principle for the circuit shown.

Theoretical Analysis:
Step 1: V1 acting alone. Replace V2 by a short circuit.

Find the total resistance & current in the above circuit.

Step 2: V2 acting alone. Replace V1 by a short circuit.

Find the total resistance & current in the above circuit.

PRACTICAL CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

 BOTH V1 AND V2 ARE ACTING

Current through R3 (mA)

Voltage V1 (V) Voltage V2 (V)
Theoretical Practical

Step 1: V1 acting alone. Replace V2 by a short circuit.

Current through R3 (mA)

Voltage V1
Theoretical Practical
Step 1: V1 acting alone. Replace V2 by a short circuit.

Current through R3 (mA)

Voltage V2
Theoretical Practical

PROCEDURE:

1. Give the connections as per the diagram.

2. Set a particular voltage value using RPS1 and RPS2 & note down the ammeter reading
3. Connect the circuit as shown in step 1 and replace V2 by a short circuit and note down the ammeter
reading
4. Connect the circuit as shown in step 2 and replace V1 by a short circuit and note down the ammeter
reading
5. Verify superposition theorem
RESULT:
Thus, the Superposition theorem has been verified theoretically and practically.

Theoretical Value Practical value

Current flowing R3, V1 source
is acting alone
Current flowing R3, V2 source
is acting alone
Total Current through R3

INFERENCE FROM THE RESULT:

PRACTICE QUESTIONS:
1. Find the voltage current across 5 Ω using Superposition theorem.

2. Find the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor of the following circuit using superposition theorem

3. Find the voltage across 3Ω resistor using superposition theorem for the circuit shown.

4. Find the current through RL = 7.5Ω, using superposition theorem as shown in Figure.
 Ex.No.6
VERIFICATION OF MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM
Date:

AIM:
To conduct an experiment and verify the maximum power transfer theorem for the given circuit.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:

Sl. No. Apparatus Name Type / Range Quantity

1. Regulated Power Supply Single / (0 – 30) V 1

2. Ammeter (0-50) mA, MC 1

3. Voltmeter (0-30) V, MC 1

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Sl. No. Components Name Type / Range Quantity

1. Resistors Carbon composition/ 10K Ω 1

2. Resistors Carbon composition/ 22 KΩ 1

3. Variable resistor Decade / 10 kΩ 1

4. Breadboard - 1

5. Connecting Wires 1/18 swg As required

THEORY:
Theorem:
The maximum power transfer theorem states that maximum power is transferred to the load when the load
resistance is equal to the source resistance. If the load resistance is less than the source resistance, then
most of the power will be dissipated in the source. So, the amount of power dissipated in the load is
reduced. The theorem states how to choose the load resistance so as to maximize power transfer, once the
source resistance is given. This is essentially used in radio transmitter design, where the antenna or
transmission line impedance is matched to final power amplifier impedance for maximum radio
frequency power output.
PROCEDURE:

Step 1: To find Thevenin’s voltage (Vth)

1. Identify the load, which may be a resistor or a part of the circuit

2. Replace the load with an open circuit

3. Calculate the open circuited voltage (VOC) or (Vth).

Step 2: To find Thevenin’s Equivalent Resistance (Rth)

4. Short/open circuit all the voltage/current sources connected in the given circuit

5. Replace the load with an open circuit

6. Calculate the equivalent resistance of the circuit from the open circuit terminal (Rth)

Step 3: To Draw the Thevenin equivalent circuit

7. Draw the Thevenin‘s equivalent circuit by connecting Thevenin‘s voltage source (Vtn)
in series with Thevenin‘s equivalent resistance (Rth). Finally connect the load resistance
between the open circuited terminals.
PROBLEM STATEMENT:
Find the maximum power delivered to the load resistance using maximum power transfer theorem for
the circuit given.

Theoretical Analysis:
Step 1: To find Thevenin’s voltage (Vth)

Step 2: To find Thevenin’s Equivalent Resistance (Rth)

Step 3: To draw Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit

PRACTICAL CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Step 1: To find Thevenin’s voltage (Vth) practically

TABULATION

Practical Value (V) Theoretical value (V)

Thevenin’s Voltage
(Vth)

Step 2: To find Thevenin’s Equivalent Resistance (Rth) practically

TABULATION

Practical Value (V) Theoretical value (V)

Thevenin’s Equivalent
Resistance (Rth)
Step 3: To draw Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit

TABULATION:

IL (mA) P = I2RL (mW)

S.No RL Theoretical Practical Theoretical

Practical Value
value Value value
RESULT:
Thus, the maximum power transfer theorem for the given DC circuit was verified.

Theoretical value Practical value

Vth (V)
Rth (Ω)
Pmax=I2RL (W) for RL = 1 KΩ

INFERENCE FROM THE RESULT:

PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. Determine the value of resistance that may be connected across A and B so that maximum
power is transferred from the circuit to the resistance.

2. Find the value of RL for maximum power delivered to it.

3. Find the RL value for the below circuit that the power is highest as well, find the highest
power through RL using the theorem of maximum power transfer.

4. Find the value of RL for maximum power transfer to RL.

Ex.No.7
TRANSIENT RESPONSE OF RL, RC AND RLC CIRCUIT
Date:

AIM:

To find and analyze the transient response of the RL, RC and RLC circuits for a DC input.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:

Sl. No. Apparatus Name Type / Range Quantity

1. Function Generator (0-3) MHz 1

2. Oscilloscope (0-30) MHz 1

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Sl. No. Components Name Type / Range Quantity

1. Resistor Carbon composition/ 1K Ω 1

2. Capacitor Ceramic / 0.1µF 1

3. Decade Inductance Box - 1

4. Breadboard - 1

5. Connecting Wires 1/18 swg As required

THEORY

RL CIRCUIT with external DC excitation

The circuit consists of a battery whose voltage is V in series with a switch, a resistor R, and an inductor
L. The switch is closed at t = 0. When the switch is closed current tries to change in the inductor and
hence a voltage VL(t) is induced across the terminals of the Inductor in opposition to the applied voltage.
The rate of change of current decreases with time which allows current to build up to its maximum value.
V
The current i(t) for t > 0 can be found by using appropriate equations and is given by i (t )  (1  e  t / )
R
, where τ = L/R is the time constant of the circuit.
 RC CIRCUIT with external DC excitation

A series RC circuit with external DC excitation V volts connected through a switch. If the capacitor is
not charged initially i.e. its voltage is zero, then after the switch S is closed at time t=0, the capacitor
voltage builds up gradually and reaches its steady state value of V volts after a finite time. The charging
current will be maximum initially (since initially capacitor voltage is zero and voltage across a capacitor
cannot change instantaneously) and then it will gradually comedown as the capacitor voltage starts
building up. The current and the voltage during such charging periods are called Transient Current and
Transient Voltage.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

RL CIRCUIT with external DC excitation

MODEL GRAPH

TABULATION

Signal Amplitude (V) Time period (mS)

Input Signal
Inductor Voltage
Resistor Voltage
RC CIRCUIT with external DC excitation

MODEL GRAPH

TABULATION

Signal Amplitude (V) Time period (mS)

Input Signal
Capacitor Voltage
Resistor Voltage
RLC CIRCUIT with external DC excitation

TABULATION

Signal Amplitude (V) Time period (mS)

Input Signal

Capacitor Voltage

Inductor Voltage

Resistor Voltage

PROCEDURE

1. Connect as per Circuit diagram.

2. Connect the oscilloscope across the elements like resistor, capacitor and Inductor
3. Switch ON the supply.
4. Observe the wave forms.
RESULT

Thus, the transient response for RL, RC and RLC circuit has been analyzed and the result has been
verified.
INFERENECE FROM THE RESULT
Ex.No.8
DETERMINATION OF Z AND Y PARAMETERS OF A TWO-PORT
Date: NETWORK.

AIM:
To calculate and verify 'Z' and 'Y' parameters of two-port network.

APPARATUS REQIUIRED:

Apparatus Type / Range Quantity

Ammeter (0-20) mA 2
Voltmeter (0-20)V 1
Regulated power Supply (0-30) V 1

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Sl. No. Apparatus Name Type / Range Quantity

1. Resistors Carbon composition/ 1

2. Resistors Carbon composition/ 1

4. Resistors Carbon composition/ 1

5. Breadboard Normal Type 1

6.. Connecting Wires 1/18 swg As required

THEORY:

A network is having two pairs of accessible terminals, it is called a two-port network. If voltage
and current at the input and output terminals are V1, I1 and V2, I2 respectively, there are six sets of
possible combinations generated by the four variables, describing a two – port network. Z - parameters
and Y- parameters are two among them.

Using Z- parameters the circuit can be represented by the following equations

V1 = Z11 I1 + Z12 I2

V2 = Z21 I1 + Z22 I2
Using Y- parameters the circuit can be represented by the following equations

I1 = Y11 V1 + Y12 V2
I2 = Y21 V1 + Y22 V2

PROCEDURE:

Z- parameters:
Connect the circuit as shown in diagram– 1.
For Z11 and Z21:
1. Make I2 = 0 by open circuiting the V2 and Apply V1 = 10V.
2. Note down the readings of V1, V2 and I1.
3. Calculate Z11 and Z21.
4. Verify with theoretical values.
For Z12 and Z22:
1. Make I1 = 0 by open circuiting the V1 and Apply V2 = 15V.
2. Note down the readings of V1, V2 and I2.
3. Calculate Z12 and Z22.
4. Verify with theoretical values.

PRACTICAL CIRCUIT FOR Z PARAMETER:

WHEN I1 = 0:

TABULATION

Practical Theoretic
Value al Value
V1 (V) V2 (V)
I2 (A) I2 (A)
WHEN I2 = 0:

TABULATION

Practical Value Theoretical Value

V1 (V) V2 (V)
I1 (A) I1 (A)

PROCEDURE:

Y- Parameters:

Connect the circuit as shown in diagram – 2.

For Y11 and Y21:

1. Make V2 = 0 by short circuiting it and Apply V1=10v.
2. Note down the readings of I1, I2 and V1.
3. Calculate Y11 and Y21 .
4. Verify with theoretical values.

For Y12 and Y22:

1. Make V1 = 0 by short circuiting it and Apply V2 = 15v.
2. Note down the readings of I1, I2 and V2.
3. Calculate Y12 and Y22.
4. Verify with theoretical values.
PRACTICAL CIRCUIT FOR Y PARAMETER:

WHEN V1 = 0

TABULATION

Practical Value Theoretical Value

I1 (A) I2 (A)
V2 (V) V2 (V)

WHEN V2 =0

TABULATION

Practical Value Theoretical Value

I1 (A) I2 (A) V1 (V) V1(V)
RESULT

Thus, the two- po r t network of Z and Y Parameter was determined and its output was verified.

INFERENCE FROM THE RESULT

 Ex. No: 9
DETERMINATION OF ABCD AND H PARAMETER OF A TWO -
Date: PORT NETWORK

AIM:
To calculate and verify 'ABCD' and 'H' parameters of two-port network.

APPARATUS REQIUIRED:

Sl. No. Apparatus Name Type / Range Quantity

1. Ammeter (0-20mA) 2

2. Voltmeter (0-20v) 1

3. Regulated power Supply 30 V, 2A 1

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Sl. No. Components Name Type / Range Quantity

1. Resistors Carbon composition/ 1

2. Resistors Carbon composition/ 1

4. Resistors Carbon composition/ 1

5. Breadboard Normal Type 1

6. Connecting Wires 1/18 swg As required

THEORY:
A network is having two pairs of accessible terminals, it is called a two-port network. If voltage and current
at the input and output terminals are V1 , I1 and V2 , I2 respectively, there are six sets of possible
combinations generated by the four variables, describing a two port network. Transmission- parameters
and Hybrid- parameters are two among them.
Using T- parameters the circuit can be represented by the following equations
V1 = A V2 - B I2
I1 = C V2 - D I2
Where A, B, C, D are the transmission parameters.
Using h- parameters the circuit can be represented by the following equations
V1 = h11 I1 + h12 V2 I2 = h21 I1 + h22 V2
Where - h11 , h12 , h21 , h22 are the hybrid parameters.

PROCEDURE:
ABCD parameters:
a. Connect the circuit as shown in diagram – 1.
b. Make V2 = 0 by short-circuiting it and Apply V1=10V.
c. Note down the readings of V1, I2 and I1.
d. Calculate the values of B and D.
e. Make I2 = 0 by open-circuiting V2 and Apply V1=10V
f. Note down the readings of V1, V2 and I1.
g. Calculate the values of A and C
h. Verify with theoretical values.

h parameters:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in diagram – 1.
2. Make V2 = 0 by short-circuiting it and Apply V1=10V.
3. Note down the readings of V1, I2 and I1.
4. Calculate the values of h11 and h21.
5. Make I1=0 by open-circuiting V1 and Apply V2=10V
6. Note down the readings of V1, V2 and I1.
7. Calculate the values of h12 and h22.
8. Verify with theoretical values.
 ABCD AND H PARAMETER

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

TABULATION:

ABCD parameter:

Experimenta Theoretical
Parameters V1 (V) I1 (mA) V2 (V) I2 (mA) l Value Value (unit)
(unit)
A

h parameter:

Experiment Theoretical
Parameters V1 (V) I1 (mA) V2 (V) I2 (mA) al Value Value (unit)
(unit)
h11

h12

h21

h22
PRACTICAL CIRCUIT:
WHEN I1 = 0

WHEN I2 =0

WHEN V1 =0
RESULT:

Thus, the two port network of ABCD and H parameters are calculated and verified.

INFERENCE FROM THE RESULT:

 Ex. No:10
DESIGN OF LPF AND HPF USING PASSSIVE COMPONENTS
Date:

AIM:
To design and construct low pass filter and high pass filter with the given cut off
frequency.

APPARATUS REQIUIRED:

Sl. No. Apparatus Name Type / Range Quantity

1. Regulated Power supply (0-30)V 1

3 CRO (0-30) MHz 1

4 Function generator (0-30) MHz 1

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Sl. No. Components Name Type / Range Quantity

1. Resistor Carbon composition/ 1k ohms 2

2. Capacitor 0.1µF 4

3. Breadboard Normal Type 1

4. Connecting Wires 1/18 swg As required

THEORY:
In electronics radio and communications, filters are used to select or pass desired signals and reject or
blocks undesired signals. To put in other words, there may be frequencies or signals that we want to
pass or others that we want to block. The only way of doing this is with a device which is frequency
sensitive, it must behave differently with different frequencies such a device is called filter.

LOW PASS FILTER

If pass all low frequency up to a certain frequency from that frequency and above significant
attenuation begins to occur.
HIGH PASS FILTER

If pass all high frequency down to a certain frequency from that frequency and below significant
attenuation begins to occur.

FORMULA:

LOW PASS FILTER

𝑓𝑐
1
=
2𝜋𝑅𝐶

L=

C=

HIGH PASS FILTER

L= C=

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagrams.
2. The input signal is applied to the filter and frequency is varied.
3. The change in frequency is noted and also the corresponding output voltage and phase
shift.
4. The frequency response and phase response curves are plotted.
5. The cut off frequency is compared with practical and theoretical
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR LOW PASS FILTER:

MODEL GRAPH
TABULATION:

INPUT OUTPUT
GAIN (dB)
FREQUENCY(Hz) VOLTAGE(V)

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR HIGH PASS FILTER:

MODEL GRAPH

TABULATION:

INPUT OUTPUT
GAIN (dB)
FREQUENCY(Hz) VOLTAGE(V)
RESULT

Thus, the low pass and high pass circuits have been designed and constructed for a given cut off
frequency. The theoretical and practical cut off frequencies was compared.

INFERENCE FROM THE RESULT:

 Ex. No.11 Verification of Reciprocity Theorem
Date:

AIM:

To simulate and experimentally verify the given electrical circuit using Reciprocity theorem

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:

Sl. No. Apparatus Name Type / Range Quantity

1. Regulated Power Supply Single / (0 – 30 )V 1

2. Ammeter (0-25) mA, MC 3

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Sl. No. Apparatus Name Type / Range Quantity

1. Resistors Carbon composition/ 330 Ω 1

2. Resistors Carbon composition/ 470 Ω 1
3. Resistors Carbon composition/ 560 Ω 1
4. Resistors Carbon composition/ 2.2 KΩ 2
5. Breadboard 1
6. Connecting Wires 1/18 swg As required

STATEMENT:

In any linear bilateral, active network contains resistance and energy sources, the ratio of a voltage
introduced in one mesh to the current I in any second mesh is the same as the ratio obtained, if the position
of V and I are interchanged other voltages sources being removed.

Procedures:

1. Connection are given as per the circuit diagram

2. Note down the ammeter readingVoltage
3. Interchange the position of ammeter and voltage source.
4. Note down the ammeter reading
5. Compare this value with the value obtained in step 2
 RECIPROCITY THEOREM

Problem statement: Verify the reciprocity theorem for the given circuit.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PRACTICAL:

TABULATION:

Practically Theoretically
Sl. No. Vs (Volts)
I1 (mA) I2 (mA) I3 (mA) I1 (mA) I2 (mA) I3 (mA)
Practical (When Voltage source is shifted):

TABULATION:

Practically Theoretically
Sl. No. Vs (Volts)
I1 (mA) I2 (mA) I3 (mA) I1 (mA) I2 (mA) I3 (mA)

MODEL CALCULATION:
PRACTISING EXERCISE:

1. Verify the reciprocity theorem for the network shown

2. Verify the reciprocity theorem for the network shown

RESULT:

Thus Reciprocity theorem was verified for the given network by both simulation and
experimentally.

Theoritical Practical Simulation

Current (I3) flowing

through RL
Current (I3) flowing
when source is changed