LC1: ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION transformers, motors and generators.

● discovered by Michael Faraday in 1831,

and James Clerk Maxwell mathematically SO HOW DOES THIS WORK?
described it as Faraday’s law of induction.
When the magnet shown is moved “towards” the
● a current produced because of voltage coil, the pointer or needle of the Galvanometer,
production (electromotive force) due to a which is basically a very sensitive centre zero’ed
changing magnetic field. moving-coil ammeter, will deflect away from its
centre position in one direction only. When the
● This either happens when a conductor is magnet stops moving and is held stationary with
placed in a moving magnetic field (when regards to the coil the needle of the
using an AC power source) or when a galvanometer returns back to zero as there is no
conductor is constantly moving in a physical movement of the magnetic field.
stationary magnetic field

● Michael Faraday arranged a conducting

wire attached to a device to measure the
voltage across the circuit. When a bar
magnet is moved through the coiling, the
voltage detector measures the voltage in
the circuit.

FARADAY’S LAW OF INDUCTION

states that that a voltage (EMF) is induced in a

circuit whenever relative motion exists between
a conductor and a magnetic field and that the
magnitude of this voltage is proportional to the
rate of change of the flux
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE VOLTAGE
PRODUCTION 3 DIFFERENT FACTORS TO DETERMINE HOW
MUCH VOLTAGE (EMF) CAN BE INDUCED
INTO THE COIL USING JUST MAGNETISM.
1. Number of Coils: The induced voltage is
directly proportional to the number of 1. Increasing the number of turns of wire in
turns/coils of the wire. Greater the the coil – By increasing the amount of
number of turns, greater is voltage individual conductors cutting through the
produced magnetic field, the amount of induced
emf produced will be the sum of all the
2. Changing Magnetic Field: Changing individual loops of the coil, so if there are
20 turns in the coil there will be 20 times
magnetic field affects the induced voltage.
more induced emf than in one piece of
This can be done by either moving the
wire.
magnetic field around the conductor or
2. Increasing the speed of the relative motion
moving the conductor in the magnetic
between the coil and the magnet – If the
field.
same coil of wire passed through the
same magnetic field but its speed or
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
velocity is increased, the wire will cut the
● uses the relationship between electricity
lines of flux at mka faster rate so more
(current) and magnetism (magnet)
induced emf would be produced.
whereby an electric current flowing
through a single wire will produce a
3. Increasing the strength of the magnetic
magnetic field around it.
field – If the same coil of wire is moved at
the same speed through a stronger
● the basic principle of operation of
 magnetic field, there will be more emf
produced because there are more lines of
force to cut.
LC2: BIOT-SAVART LAW

● allows us to determine the magnetic field

at some position in space that is due to an
electric current. More precisely, the Biot-
Savart law allows us to calculate the
infinitesimal magnetic field, dB, that is
produced by a small section of wire, dl,
carrying current, such that dl co-linear
with the wire and points in the direction MOTIONS OF A CHARGED PARTICLE IN A
of the electric current: MAGNETIC FIELD

Electric charge will experience a magnetic force

provided two conditions are attained:

1. The charge must be in motion because no

magnetic force will act on a charge at rest.

B - magnetic field 2. The velocity of the charge in motion must

𝜇0 -permeability−7of free space (a constant)

have a component perpendicular to the
direction of the magnetic field. (velocity is
= 4 π × 10 T ∙ m/ A
perpendicular to the magnetic field)
𝐼 - current

𝑑𝑙 - infinitesimal length element of the current- ◈ For a moving negative charge, the direction
carrying conductor of magnetic field force is opposite that
𝑟 - the vector pointing from the current element
which is predicted for a moving positive
to the point where the magnetic field is being charge.
calculated,

AMPERE’S LAW ◈ So what can be done to determine the

direction of the magnetic force on a
According to Ampere’s law, magnetic fields are negative charge is assume that it is positive
related to the electric current produced in them.
The law specifies the magnetic field that is MAGNETIC FIELD defined as:
associated with a given current or vice-versa,
provided that the electric field doesn’t change
with time.

Ampere's law states that “The magnetic field

created by an electric current is proportional to
the size of that electric current with a constant of 𝐵 - magnetic field
proportionality equal to the permeability of free
F - force experienced by a charged particle
space.”
moving
q - charge of the particle.
v - velocity
θ - angle between the velocity vector and the

magnetic field vector.

SI UNIT: T (tesla)
 - downward
unit breakdown:

T=
N ∙s
C∙m = N
A∙m
example:
1. A proton moving towards east enters a
uniform magnetic field directed
DOWNWARDS. Find the direction of the
force acting on it. (due to north)

2. An electron moving vertically upwards is

deflected towards south by a uniform
magnetic field. Find the direction of the
magnetic field. (due to east)

Sample problem:
1. In a particle accelerator, a proton has a
speed of 5.0x10^6 m/s. It encounters a
magnetic field whose magnitude is 0.40 T q v b sin 0 t
and whose direction makes an angle of 60 F=
t
with the proton’s velocity. Find the
=I or =I
q c
magnitude and direction of the magnetic
t s
force on the proton.
vt=L

Sample problem:
1. An electric power line carries a current of
1200 A in a location where the magnetic
field of the Earth is 4x10^-5 T. The line
makes an angle of 60 degrees with respect
to the field. Determine the magnetic force
on a 100-m length of the wire.

MAGNETIC FIELD IN CURRENT-CARRYING

WIRE

● Electric current is a collection of moving

charges in a current wire. It means that a
current-carrying wire can also
experience a magnetic force.
2. A wire of length 0.5 m carries a current of
● The direction of this force can be 20 A. In the presence of a magnetic field
determined using Fleming's left-hand rule of 0.5 T, the wire experiences a magnetic
which was proposed by John Ambrose force of 4N. What is the angle between
the wire and the magnetic field?
Fleming, an English electrical engineer,
and physicist.

Point towards you (sayo)

- Directed out the page
- upward
Away from you (labas)
- Directed into the page
 methods is called induced current. It is called
induced because the current is brought about by
a changing magnetic field.

MOTIONAL EMF

You can induce an EMF in a rod when you move

through a magnetic field.

The velocity of the metal rod is constant and is

perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field B. This
means that each charge q in the rod also moves
with a velocity and experiences a magnetic force
of magnitude.
F=qvB
HOW DO WE DETERMINE THE MAGNITUDE
OF THE MOTIONAL EMF?

emf = BvL
3. A current of 20 A flows east through a 50
cm long wire. A magnetic field of 4.0 T is so when v=0 then emf=0. The equation shows
directed into the page. What is the that a greater speed and a greater magnetic field
magnitude and direction of the magnetic
force acting on the wire? at a given length will produce greater induced
EMF.

FARADAY’S LAW

The credit for discovery of electromagnetic

induction is given both to Michael Faraday and
Joseph Henry.

MAGNETIC INDUCTION
Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction
INDUCED EMF AND INDUCED CURRENT states that “and induced EMF is generated if the
There are several ways by which we can use a flux changes for whatever reason”
magnetic field to generate an electric current:
1. There is no relative motion between the
coil of wire and the bar magnet if Faraday found out that the induced current
stationary depends on the following factors:
2. Current is created in the coil when the
magnet moves towards the coil ● the speed of the relative movement
3. Current also exists when the magnet is between the magnet and the coil
moved away from the coil but this time,
the direction of current is opposite ● the strength of the magnet
● the number of turns of the coil
Another way of generating current is by keeping
the magnet stationary while moving the coil of
wire toward the bar magnet. It does not matter
APPLICATION OF MAGNETIC INDUCTION IN
which of the two moves.
ALTERNATING CURRENTS

The current produced in the coil using these two 1. A rod of length 3m moves perpendicular
 to the magnetic field of 0.5 T. An EMF of because each wavelength of light has its
0.30 V exists between the ends of the rod. own index of refraction, with the index
How far does the rod move in 8 s? increasing with decreasing wavelength, resulting
in the dispersion of colors.

VIRTUAL IMAGE
an image that is not produced by light rays
coming from the image but is the result of your
brain’s interpretations of light rays

POLARIZATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC
WAVES

• Light exhibits interference and diffraction

phenomena. Polarization behavior of light is
best explained by considering light to be in
transverse waves.

2 TYPES OF WAVES:
MUTUAL INDUCTANCE
Transverse waves
● Is the belongings of two coils by virtue of ● Transverse waves vibrating in one plane
which each opposes any change in the that are passed through a slit orientation
value of current flowing along the other (whether it is parallel with or
by evolving an induced emf. perpendicular to the plane of vibration)
are said to be polarized.
SI UNIT: H for henry.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE VALUE OF ● A transverse wave is said to be

MUTUAL INDUCTANCE unpolarized when the vibration is present
in all planes of vibration.
● the presence of an iron in the coil
● A transverse wave can be polarized
● the size of the coils
● the number of turns in the coil Longitudinal waves
● the distance of separation between the
● Longitudinal waves on the other hand
coils cannot be polarized.

DIRECT CIRCUITS
Light is made of discrete packets of energy
● when a battery is connected to other called photons. Photons carry momentum, have
elements like a resistor, current flows no mass, and travel at the speed of light.
steadily in one direction

THE DUAL NATURE OF LIGHT Your eye detects photons that are absorbed by
the rod and cone cells in your retina, you
REFRACTION therefore can't see photons that “pass by” you,
the bending of light as it encounters the only those which have been reflected, refracted
boundary between two media when it is incident etc. into your eye by interacting with matter are
at a certain angle with the normal perceived. We know that we can't see light.

INDEX OF REFRACTION
Is the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum in to
the speed of light in a transparent material

speed of light ∈vacuum

n=
speed of light ∈ substance

PRISM
separates the colors of sunlight into a spectrum