BEE

NOTES
 UNIT-1

MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

Magnetic Circuit

The magnetic circuit is the closed path described by the magnetic flux.

Consider an iron ring in which magnetic flux is produced. Flux is produced due to the current
flow in it. Magnetic circuit having length ‘l’ meters, Area of cross section A is shown in figure 1.1
below.

Fig: 1.1. Magnetic Circuit

Important Definitions:

1. Magnetic Field: The space or surrounding region of a magnet in which magnetic effect is
felt is called as magnetic field. Consider a bar magnet. The magnetic field of magnet is
represented by imaginary lines around it and is known as magnetic lines of forces. And
their direction always starts from north to South Pole.
Fig: 1.2. Magnetic Field
2. Magnetic Flux: The total number of magnetic lines of force in a magnetic field is called flux
and its notation is represented by Greek Letter (phi) and its unit is weber (Wb).

3. Magnetic Flux Density: It is defined as the number of lines per unit area. Its notation is B

Flux density B = /A Wb/m2

Where is the flux and A is the area of cross section and its unit is weber per square meter
or Tesla.

4. Magneto-motive Force or M.M.F: M.M.F is defined as the magnetic force, which creates
magnetic flux is a magnetic material. The unit is ampere turns (AT).

M.M.F = N I

Where, N = Number of turns in the coil

I = Current through the coil

Or M.M.F = Flux × Reluctance = ×R

5. Reluctance: Reluctance is the property of a magnetic material by virtue of which it opposes

the creation of magnetic flux in it. Its unit is ampere turns per weber (AT/Wb).

It is directly proportional to the length of the magnetic material and inversely proportional to its
area of cross section.

R = l/ µ a = l / µ o µ r a

Where, l = length of the magnetic material

a = area of cross section

µ = a constant known as the absolute permeability of the magnetic material = µ o µ r

µ o = permeability of the free space or air = 4π ×10-7 per meter (H / m)

µ r = relative permeability of the magnetic material.

6. Permeability: The ability of a material to conduct magnetic flux through it is called

permeability of that material. Permeability of a material means its conductivity for magnetic
flux. The greater the permeability of a material, the greater is its conductivity for magnetic flux
and vice versa. It is represented by Greek letter µ (mu).
 7. Absolute Permeability: Absolute permeability of a magnetic material indicates the ability of
that material to allow magnetic flux to be created in that material. Absolute permeability of air
of vacuum is represented by µ 0 and its value is 4π ×10-7 H/m.

It can also be defined as the flux induced in the magnetic material per unit magnetizing force.

µ = B/H, where, H = magnetizing force

8. Relative Permeability: It is the ratio of the permeability of material (µ) to the permeability
of air or vacuum (µo) is called Relative permeability of that material.

Relative permeability = permeability of material/ permeability of air

µr = µ / µo

9. Magnetic Field Strength or Magnetic Field Intensity of Magnetizing Force: The

Magnetic Field Intensity: at a point in a magnetic field in the force acting on a unit N- pole
placed at that point. It is notated by the letter H. Its unit is Newton/ weber.

H = Ampere turns/ Length = NI/l AT/m

10. Magnetic Susceptibility: The ratio between the intensity of magnetism produced in a
substance to the magnetism force producers in it is called the magnetic susceptibility of the
substance.

Magnetic Susceptibility = Intensity of Magnetisation [I]/ Magnetism Force [H]

11. Permeance: It is the reciprocal of reluctance.

Permeance: It is also defined as the property of the magnetic circuit due to which it allows
flow of the flux through it.
Permeance = 1/Reluctance
It is measured in weber per amperes (Wb/A).

Analogy between electric and magnetic circuits

Electric Circuits Magnetic Circuits

1. Path traced by the Path traced by the flux is

current is called as electric called as magnetic circuit
circuit
2. E.M.F drives current M.M.F produces magnetic
through an electric circuit. flux in a magnetic material.

E.M.F = current × M.M.F = flux × reluctance =

resistance = I ×R ф ×R

3. Current density = J = Flux density = B = ф /a

I/a

4. Resistance = Reluctance = R = l / µ a
R =ρ l / a = l / σ a

5. Here KCL and KVL Kirchoff‟s MMF law and flux

applicable to the electric law is applicable to the
circuit magnetic circuit

Magnetic field due to electric current

When a current flows through a wire a magnetic field is produced. In figure 1.3(a) shows a
straight conductor through which a steady current is flowing from left to right. The magnetic
field lines will be in the form of concentric circles around the wire. The direction of this field
is given by as we know from the Right hand thumb rule. “Stretch the thumb of your right
hand along the current, the curl(natural bend) of fingers gives the direction of the magnetic
field”.

When the conductor is placed perpendicular to the paper. The conductor is represented by a
small circle and the direction of current is then shown by putting a dot (.) or a cross (×)
represents a current entering the paper (fig.1.3 c). In the fig1.3 b, the thumb is stretched
upward and hence the magnetic field is anticlockwise. In fig.1.3 c, the thumb is stretched
downward and the magnetic field is clockwise.

Fig: 1.3. Magnetic field due to electric current in a conductor

Magnetic field due to a Coil

The direction of magnetic field produced at the centre of a current carrying coil is also given by
Right hand thumb rule. But here the role of current and magnetic field is exchanged: “ If you
bend the fingers of the right hand pointing in the direction of current flow, the thumb points in
the direction of magnetic field lines.”

Fig: 1.4. Direction of magnetic field due to current in a coil.

From the above fig1.4 (a), the current flow is clockwise, hence the magnetic field points
downward. In even looking at fig.1.4 (b), the current flow in anticlockwise direction and the
magnetic field points upwards. A coil thus acts like small flat magnet.

Magnetic field due to a Solenoid

Solenoid is a wire which is wound closely in the form of a helix which is shown in fig.1.5.
Here the wire is coated with an insulating material so that the adjacent turns are electrically
insulated from each other. The length of the solenoid is large compared to its radius. The
magnetic field flux produced by each turn tends to link up and the net field pattern is very similar
to that of a bar magnet. By applying right hand thumb rule, we find that the left end of this
solenoid is N-pole and right end is S-pole. The solenoids produce strong magnetic field for such
applications as relays, transformers and circuit breakers.
Fig: 1.5. Magnetic field due to a coils of many turns.
Force on a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field

Consider a small conductor of length dl perpendicular to the magnetic field B which is shown in
fig.1.6 (a). If it carries a current I, it experiences a force given by

dF = I dl × B ………………… 1

This is the magnetic analog of the electric force experienced by a charge q placed in an electric
field E, given F = q E. And hence we noticed that the force is proportional to I, dl and B and is
perpendicular to both dl and B.

From the fig1.6(a) the angle between the length vector dl and the field B is 90 degree. Hence
the expression of equation 1 reduces to dF = I dl B.

For a conductor of length l, carrying current I placed perpendicularly in the magnetic field of
strength B, the force on the conductor is

F=BIl …………………..2

If the current carrying conductor placed at angle ș to the magnetic field (fig1.6(c)), its effective
length is LsinӨ, and hence the force experienced by the conductor will be

F = I l BsinӨ ………………………………….3

And if the conductor is placed along the field B, the angle Ө = 0, and the force on the conductor
to reduces to zero.

And one of the best rule in finding the direction of force on a current carrying conductor placed
in a magnetic field is Fleming’s left hand rule. Statement of the rule is “ Stretch the first finger
and the thumb of your left hand is mutually perpendicular directions, the first finger points in the
direction of magnetic field and the central finger to the direction of current, the thumb then
points in the direction of force on the conductor.

Fig:1..6. Force on a current carrying conductor

Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction:

Faraday’s First Law:

Whenever the flux linking with a coil, a circuit changes an emf will be induced in the coil.

Faraday’s Second Law:

The magnitude of the induced emf in a coil is directly proportional to the rate of change of flux
linking with the coil.

Consider a coil having N turns and the flux which is linking the coil changes from initial value
i.e 1 Wb and changes to the final value to 2 Wb for the time t secs.

Therefore, E.M.F induced = Change in flux linkages/ Time Volts

e=N 2 N 1 / t volts

The above equation can be re-written as

e = N( 2 1 )/ t volts

The equation or expression written in differential form ie

e = d(N )/dt volts

e = -N d /dt volts

and the notation for the above expression i.e., e = emf induced in the circuit (volts)

N = Number of turns of the coil

d = Change in flux

dt = Change in time

and even in the above expression „-‟ sign indicates that the induced emf sets current in such a
direction that the magnetic effect produced by it opposes the very cause producing it.

Lenz’s Law

Statement: The direction of the induced emf is such that it opposes the cause due to which it is

producing. Mathematically it is expressed as, e = N dф /dt.

Fleming’s Left Hand Rule:

This rule is used to find out the direction of the force on the conductor. When the thumb, fore
finger and the middle finger of the left hand are held perpendicular to each other in such a way
that the fore finger is in the direction of the field, the middle finger in the direction of the current,
then the thumb will point to the direction of motion (unknown). This rule is represented in
fig: 1.7. This rule is used in the D C Motors.

Fig: 1.7(a). Fleming’s Left hand rule. [Ref: DSI ppt]

Fleming’s Right Hand Rule: When the thumb, forefinger and middle finger of the right
hand are held mutually perpendicular to each other in such a way that, the thumb is in the
direction of the motion of the conductor, the fore finger in the direction of magnetic field, then
the middle finger shows the direction of the induced emf (unknown). This rule is represented in
figure 1.7 b.

This rule is used in the D C Generators.

 Fig:1.7(b). Fleming’ right rule. [Ref:DSI ppt]

Methods of producing induced emf:

There are two methods of producing induced emf

1. Dynamically induced emf

2. Statically induced emf

Dynamically induced emf: When a conductor is moved in a magnetic field or vice versa the
flux linking the coil changes and an emf will be induced. This emf is called dynamically induced
emf.

Consider the magnetic field with constant flux density B Tesla, represented by the magnetic
lines of flux as shown in fig.1.8 (a). Consider a conductor of length ‘l ‘ and area of cross section
‘ a ‘.
 Fig:1.8(a) Dynamically induced emf.

The induced emf may be produced in the coil by the following three methods.

1. When the conductor is placed parallel to the direction of magnetic field

2. When the conductor is placed perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field

3. When the conductor moves in the direction of making an angle ș, with the direction of
magnetic lines of flux

1.When the conductor moves with the velocity v in the direction I, which is parallel to the lines
of flux and hence it does not cut any flux. And hence no emf is induced.

2.When the conductor moves with the velocity v in the direction II, which is perpendicular to the
lines of flux and hence it cuts the maximum flux. And hence emf is induced is also maximum.
To find an expression for the maximum induced emf, let us consider the conductor moves
through a small distance dx in dt seconds. Then the flux cut by the conductor is given by

d = B × l dx

The rate at which the flux is cut, is given by,

d /dt = B × l dx /dt = B l v
According to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction, the above equation is nothing but the
emf induced in the conductor is maximum

Therefore e= B l v = E m volts

3.When the conductor moves in the direction III, of making an angle ș, with the direction of
magnetic lines of flux with the velocity v, the component of velocity perpendicular to the
direction of flux is vsinӨ, as shown in fig1.8 (b). Hence, the emf induced in the conductor is
B l v sinӨ

Therefore e = B l v sinӨ = Em sinӨ volts

Fig:1.8(b) Changing angle ϴ

The component of velocity vcosӨ, which is in the direction of the lines of flux, does not
contribute anything for the emf induced. The direction of the dynamically induced emf is given
by Fleming’s Right Hand Rule.

Statically induced emf: When an ac voltage is applied to a coil, an alternating current flows
through the coil, and the flux linking with the coil changes with respect to time. Hence an emf is
induced in the coil. This emf is called statically induced emf.

Or

It can also be defined as when a conductor is stationary and the magnetic field is moving or
changing , the emf induced is called statically induced emf.

Statically induced emf may be:

 a) Self-induced emf

b) Mutually induced emf

Self-induced emf: When a current flowing through a coil changes, the flux linking with the coil
also changes, which results in an emf and is called self-induced emf.

Mathematically,

e di /dt or e = L di / dt.

Where L is called co-efficient of self-induction or self-inductance.

L = e / (di / dt).

Co-efficient of Self Inductance (L) or Self Inductance:

The self-inductance of a coil is its property by virtue of which, it always opposes any change in
the value of the current flowing through it.

The self-inductance of a coil may also be defined as its property by virtue of which an emf is
induced in it, whenever an alternating current flows through it.

The self-inductance of a coil may also be defined as the number of weber turns produced per
ampere in the coil

L = N /I = N N I/I R = N2/l/ 0 ra

2
L= 0 r aN / l Henry.

l is the length of the electromagnet.

Mutually Induced EMF:

Consider two coils A and B placed close to each other and an alternating voltage is applied and
the flux produced by one (A) coil is linked with the another (B) coil and due to change in this
flux produced by first coil there is an induced emf in the second coil it is called mutually induced
emf. and the emf induced in the first coil and the flux is produced is called self-induced emf

Consider two coils of turns N1 and N2, placed close to each other as shown in fig.1.2.9 (a)
 Fig:1.9( a) Mutually induced emf

e1 = -N1 d 1/dt volts ………………………………1

This is known as the self-induced emf in the coil 1.

Due to flux of coil 1 also links the coil 2. The flux 12 which links both the coil 1 and coil 2,
which is called mutual flux between the two coils. The flux 11 links only coil1. Hence the flux
1 is the sum of the two fluxes

1 = 11 + 12 ………………………………..2

The mutual flux 12 linking coil 2, induces an emf e12 in that coil. This emf is called as mutually
induced emf and is given by

e12 = -N2 d 12 / dt ……………………3

The equation for e12 may also be written as

e12 = - M12 di1 / dt ……………………4

= emf induced in coil 2, due to the current flowing in coil 1

M12 is known as the mutual inductance between coil 1 and coil 2. The equation for the mutual
inductance M12 may be written as

M12 = N2 d 12 / di1 ……………………………….5

Similarly, when coil 2 is supplied with alternating current i2, producing a total flux 2 is shown
in fig.1.9( b)

Fig:1.9( b) Mutually induced emf.

2 = 22 + 21 ……………………………….6

Where , 2 = total flux produced in coil 2.

22 = flux that links only coil2

21 = flux that links both coil2 and coil1.

The self-induced emf in coil 2 is given by

e2 = -N2 d 2/dt volts ………………………7

The mutually induced emf in coil1 is given by

e21 = -N1 d 21 / dt = - M21 di2 / dt .................................................. 8

M21 = N1 d 21 / di2

M21 is the mutual inductance between coil 2 and coil 1.

As the coupling between the two coils is bilateral, which means that, the coupled circuit has the
same characteristics in both directions,

M12 = M21 = M ………………………...9

Hence, the mutual inductance between any two coils, placed close to each other, is defined as the
ability of one coil to induce an emf in the other coil, when an alternating current flows through
one of the coils.

M = N2 d 12 / di1 = N1 d 21 / di2 ……………………………………………10

Co-Efficient of Coupling (K):

The Co-Efficient of coupling is the ratio of the mutual flux to the total flux.

K12 = 12 / 1 and K21 = 21 / 2 …….11

As the coupling is bilateral K12 = K21 = K ……..12

12 = K 1 21 = K 2 ………….13

From the equation 9 ie M12 = M21 = M

M2 = M12 . M21 = N2 d 12 / di1 × N1 d 21 / di2

N1 N2 d(K 1)/di1 × d(K 2)/di2 = K2 N1 d 1/ di1 × N2 d 2 / di2

= K2 L1 L2

M = K L1L2 or K = M / L1L2 …...14

Energy Stored in a Inductor Field

Consider a pure inductive coil i.e an ideal inductor of having inductance L henry.

When the current flowing through a coil increases from zero to maximum value, the increase is
opposed by the self-induced emf. and energy is needed to overcome this opposition is stored in
the magnetic field of the coil.

Let i be the instantaneous value of the current

‘e’ be the induced emf due to current ‘i’ flowing in the coil

= L di/dt
Where is the inductance of the coil in henry.

Work done in time dt to overcome this opposition is

dw = ei dt

= (Ldi/dt)idt

= Lidi

Total work done

dw = Li x di

W = (1/2)LI2 joules

Energy stored = (½)LI 2 Joules ___________1

And Inductance from Geometrical Viewpoint: Combining Faraday‟s law of electromagnetic

induction equation

e= N dφ/dt = L di/dt or L = N dφ/dt ………….2

The rate of change of flux with current is constant and the above equation can be written as

L = N φ/I ………….3

And also from the equation of flux and reluctance,

Φ = NI/R ............................................................from definition of flux

R = l/µ A ............................................from definition of reluctance

And equation -2 becomes,

L = N2 µ A/l ………………4

The above equation shows that the inductance depends on the physical dimensions of the coil
and the magnetic properties of the core material.
By putting equation 4 in 1,
Energy stored = ½(N2 µ A/l )I2 = ½ (NI/l) µA(l/l)NI = ½ H (Al) µ (NI/l)
Energy stored / Al = ½ µ H2
Energy stored / volume = ½ µ H2 (as volume = area X length)
Energy stored / volume = ½(µ H) H = ½ BH = ½ (1/ µ) B2

Problems:
1. A Wire of length 1m moves at right angles to its length at 60 meter per sec in a
uniform magnetic field of density 1 Wb/m2. Calculate the emf induced in the
conductor, when the direction of motion is (a) Perpendicular to the field (b) Parallel to
the field and (c) Inclined at 30degree to the direction of the field.
Solution:

(a) When the conductor moves perpendicular to the direction of the field, emf induced is
maximum. E = Blv volts = 1×1×60 = 60 volts

(b) When the conductor moves parallel to the lines of flux, emf induced is 0.

(c) e=BlvsinӨ = 60 × sin 30 = 30 volts

2. A coil consists of 600 turns and a current of 10A in the coil gives rise to a magnetic flux
of 1 milli-weber. Calculate i) Self-inductance ii) The emf induced and iii) the energy stored
when the current is reversed in 0.01 second.

Solution:

N = 600, I = 10A , = 1mWb

I) L = N / I = 600 × 1 ×10 -3/10 = 0.06

II) Current is reversed in 0.01 sec i.e. I2 = -10A, I1 = 10A

III) e = -LdI/dt = -L I2-I1/∆t = -0.006[-10-10]/0.01 120v

IV) E = ½ LI2 = ½ × 0.06 × (10)2 =3J

3. Two coils having 1,000 turns and 1,600 turns respectively are placed close to each other
such that, 60% of the flux produced by one coil links the other. If a current of 10A, flowing
in the first coil, produces a flux of 0.5 mWb, find the inductance of the second coil.

Solution:

L1 =N1 1 / I1 = 1000 × 0.5 × 10-3/10 =0.05H, k = 60% =0.6

M = N2 12 /I1 = 1600 × (0.5 × 10-3× 0.6)/10 = 0.048H

K = M/ L1L2 or
L2 = M2/ K2 × 1/L1 = 0.0482/0.62 × 1/0.05 = 0.128
 UNIT-2

SINGLE PHASE AC CIRCUITS.

Generation of Alternating Voltages and Currents:

Alternating voltage may be generated:

1 .By rotating coil in a magnetic field.

2.By rotating a magnetic field within a stationary coil.

3.In each case, the value of the alternating voltage generated depends upon the number of turns
in the coil, the strength of the magnetic field and the speed at which the coil or magnetic field
rotates.

.
4.Fig:2.1.1. Generation of sinusoidal voltage.[Ref:DSI ppt]

Consider rectangular coil of N turns rotating in the anticlockwise direction, with an angular
velocity of ω radians per second in a uniform magnetic field as shown in figure. Time
is measured from the instant of coincidence of the plane of the coil with the x-axis. At this
instant maximum flux, ø max, links with the coil. As the coil rotates, the flux linking with it
changes and hence e.m.f is induced in it. Let the coil turn through an angle in time
"t"seconds, and let it assume the position as shown in figure.
When the coil is rotated, the maximum flux is acting vertically downwards. This flux can be
resolved into two components, each perpendicular to the other, namely:

1. Component max sin t, is parallel to the plane of the coil. This component does not induce
e.m.f. as it is parallel to the plane of the coil.
2. Component max cos t, is perpendicular to the plane of coil. This component induces
e.m.f. in the coil.
0
Flux linkages of coil at the instant (at ) = No of turns * flux= N max cos t

By Faraday‟s law of electromagnetic induction, instantaneous e.m.f. „e‟ induced in a coil at the
instant is given by

Fig:2.1.2. Generated sinusoidal waveform [Ref: DSI ppt]

=N max ( sin t )

e= N max sin t volts ----(i)

From eqn. (i) e will be maximum (Em) , when the coil has rotated through 90 (as sin 90 =

1). Thus Em = N max volts ----(ii)

Substituting the value of N max from equation (ii) in equation (i),

e = Em sin t ----(iii)

We know that = t

e = Em sin
 From the above expression the alternating e.m.f. induced in a coil is instantaneous and varies
according to the sine of the angle ( or t).

As, = 2 f, where „f‟ is the frequency of rotation of the coil. Hence equation (iii) can be written
as e = Em sin 2 ft ----(iv)

If T = time period of the alternating voltage = 1/f, then eqn. (iv) becomes e = Em sin( (2 /T) t)

The alternating quantity varies according to the sine function of the time angle t, and if e.m.f.
induced is plotted versus time, a curve is obtained which is called sinusoidal e.m.f.

Important Definitions:

1. Alternating quantity: An alternating quantity is one which acts alternately in positive

and negative directions, whose magnitude undergoes a definite series of changes in
definite intervals of time and in which the sequence of changes while negative is identical
with the sequence of changes while positive.

2. Instantaneous value: The value of an alternating quantity at any instant is called

instantaneous value.„e and i‟ represent the instantaneous values of alternating voltage and
current respectively.

3. Cycle: A set of positive and negative half cycle (emf or current) is called one cycle.

4. Time period and frequency: The time taken in seconds by an alternating quantity to
complete one cycle is known as time period and is donated by T. The number of cycles
completed per second by an alternating quantity is known as frequency and is denoted by
„f‟. in hertz. The number of cycles per second = f.

Time Period = T = Time taken for one cycle = 1 / f or f = 1 / T

In India, the standard frequency for power supply is 50 Hz and in USA it is 60Hz.

5. Amplitude: The maximum value of positive or negative alternating quantity during one
complete cycle is called amplitude or peak value or maximum value. Em and Im
represent the amplitude of alternating voltage and current respectively.
6. Concept of leading and lagging: If the two quantities (V and I) do not reach their peak
at the same time then we can say that two quantities are having phase difference. The
quantity which reaches its peak early is called leading. Quantity which reaches its peak
later is called lagging. All the loads are either resistive or inductive in nature where
current is in phase or lagging.
 7. Root-Mean-Square (R.M.S) Value: The r.m.s. or effective value, of an alternating
current is defined as that steady current which when flowing through a given resistance
for a given time produces the same amount of heat as produced by the alternating current,
when flowing through the same resistance for the same time.

Fig:2.1.3. RMS value[Ref: DSI ppt]

This is an integral method and is very useful in finding the r.m.s. or effective value of sinusoidal
waves. The equation of an alternating current varying sinusoidally is given by

i = I m sin

Consider an elementary strip of thickness d in the first half cycle of the squared wave, as shown
in figure. Let i be the mid-ordinate of this strip.

Area of the strip = i d

Area of first half-cycle of squared wave

= dș

= dș (∵ i = Im sin ș)
=

= Im2
d
2
=
 =

Irms =

Irms =

Irm =

Irms = = 0.707Im

Hence, for a sinusoidal current,

R.M.S value of current, I = 0.707* maximum value of current.

Similarly, E = 0.707 Em

Average Value:

Fig:2.1.4. Average Value. [Ref:DSI ppt]

The equation of a sinusoidally varying alternating voltage is given by e = Em sin .

Let us take an elementary strip of thickness d in first half-cycle as shown in figure. Let the mid-
ordinate of this strip be ‟e‟.

Area of the strip = e d

Area of first half- cycle= Em sin d = Em [ 1 1] = 2Em

Average value, Eav = Area of half cycle /base = 2Em/

or Eav = 0.637 Em

Similarly, for alternating current varying sinusoidally,

Iav = 0.637 Im

Average value of current = 0.637 * maximum value.

Form Factor and Crest or Peak or Amplitude Factor (Kf):

1. Form factor: The ratio of effective value (r.m.s value) to average value of an alternating
quantity (voltage or current) is called form factor.

Kf =RMS value/Average Value

Kf = 0.707Im/0.637Im

Kf =1.11

2. Crest or peak or amplitude factor (Ka): It is defined as the ratio of the maximum value
to the r.m.s. value of an alternating quantity. Crest factor is important in the testing of
dielectric strength of insulating materials, this is because the breakdown of insulating
materials depends upon the maximum value of voltage.

Kp =Im/0.707Im

Kp =1.414

(i)AC Circuit Containing Pure Resistance: When an alternating voltage is applied to circuit
containing pure resistance, alternating current will be flowing through the circuit.
 Fig:2.1.5. Pure Resistance circuit.[Ref: DSI ppt]

Fig:2.1.6. Current and voltage waveform[Ref: DSI ppt]

Consider an ac circuit with pure resistance „R‟ as shown in figure.

Let the applied voltage v = Vm sin --------- (1)

Due to this applied voltage, current I will flow through the circuit.

By ohm's law v = iR

Substituting the value of 'v' from equation (1) we get,

 Vm sin 𝜃 = iR;

i= Vm sin 𝜃 /R--------------(2)

Current I is maximum when sin 𝜃 = 1,

i.e., Im= Vm /R --------- (3)

Substituting (3) in (2) we get

i = Im sin𝜃 ------------- -(4)

From Equation (1) and (4), it shows that I and V are in phase.

Power:

Instantaneous power is given by P = Vm sin Im sin i.e., VmIm sin2

Thus instantaneous power consists of a constant part and a fluctuating part

of frequency doubles that of voltage.

The average value of over a complete cycle is zero.

or P = VI watts.

where, V = rms value of applied voltage and

I = rms value of current.

Power Curve:

Fig:2.1.7. Power waveform of R circuit[Ref: DSI ppt]

ii) AC Circuit Containing Pure Inductance:

Fig:2.1.8(a) Pure inductance circuit Fig:2.1.8(b) Phasor diagram

Fig:2.1.8(c) Current & voltage waveform [Ref:DSI ppt]

From the figure it is clear that current lags behind the applied voltage by /2
Inductive Reactance: =2 fL, is known as inductive reactance in ohms and is denoted by
XL where L is in henry, f is in hertz.

Consider a purely inductive coil, back emf is produced due to the self-inductance of the coil.
This back emf opposes the change in the current at every instant. Because of the absence of
resistance, the applied voltage is equal to self-induced emf.

Let the applied voltage be v = Vm sin t, and the self-inductance of the coil = L Henry.

Self-induced e.m.f. in the coil, = -L

Since applied voltage at every instant is equal and opposite to the self-induced e.m.f., i.e. V= -eL

=-

or di = dt

Integrating both sides, we get

i= dt

or i= (-cos )+ A

Where A is a constant of integration which is found to be zero from initial conditions.

So, i= cos

Or i= sin

Current (I) will be maximum when sin = 1, hence, the value of maximum current,
Im= , and instantaneous current may be expressed as i = Im sin
 Fig:2.1.9 Power waveform[Ref:DSI ppt]

Instantaneous power,

The average value of power for complete cycle is zero. Hence, power absorbed in a pure
inductive circuit is zero.

Power Curve: The power curve for a pure inductive circuit is shown in figure. This indicates
that power absorbed in the circuit is zero (positive power = negative power). Power is positive
when both voltage and current are positive or negative if any one (v or i) is negative then power
becomes negative.
(iii) AC Circuit Containing Pure Capacitance:

Fig:2.1.10 Pure capacitance circuit with phasor diagram[Ref: DSI ppt]

Fig:2.1.11. Pure capacitance circuit. [Ref:DSI ppt]

When an alternating voltage is applied across the plates of a capacitor, the capacitor is charged
in one direction and then in the opposite direction as the voltage reverses.

Let alternating voltage represented by = 'V' volts be applied across a capacitor of capacitance C
Farad.
Instantaneous charge, q = c = CVm sin

Capacitor current is equal to the rate of change of charge, or

i= (CVm sin )= CVm cos

or i= sin

The current is maximum when t = 0, Im =

Substituting = Im in the above expression for instantaneous current, we get

i = Im sin

Capacitive Reactance: in the expression Im = is known as capacitive reactance and is

denoted by Xc. i.e., Xc =

If C is farads and " ‟ is in radians, then Xc will be in ohms.

If the applied voltage is given by = = , then the

current is given by i = Im sin

This shows that the current in a pure capacitor leads its voltage by a quarter cycle as shown or
phase difference between its voltage and current is with the current leading

1/ c is known as capacitive reactance and is denoted by Xc

 Fig:2.1.12. Power waveform[Ref: DSI ppt]

Power Curve: The power curve for a pure capacitive circuit is shown in figure. This indicates
that power absorbed in the circuit is zero (positive power = negative power). Power is positive
when both voltage and current are positive or negative. If any one (v or i) is negative then
power becomes negative.

R-L Series Circuit:

Fig:2.1.13(a). R-L series circuit Fig:2.1.13(b)Phasor Diagram of ‘L’

 Fig:2.1.13(c) Voltage and Impedance triangle

Let V = r.m.s. value of the applied voltage

I = r.m.s. value of the current

Voltage drop across R, VR = IR (in phase with I)

Voltage drop across L, VL = IXL (leading I by 900)

The voltage drops across these two circuit components are shown, where vector AB indicates VR
and BC indicates VL. The applied voltage V is the vector sum of the two AC (Z.)

V= =

=I

I=

The term offers opposition to current flow and is called the impedance (Z) of the
circuit. It is measured in ohms.

I=

tan =

The circuit current lags behind applied voltage by an angle .So, if applied voltage is expressed
as = t, the current is given by i = Im(( t - ), where Im =Vm/Z
Power:

Fig:2.1.14(a) Power waveform[R-L series] Fig:2.1.14(b) Power waveform[R-C series] .

Instantaneous power, P = vi = Vm sin t × Im sin( t - )

= Vm Im sin t .sin( t- )

= Vm Im [cos - cos(2 t- )]

Average power consumed, P = Vm Im cos

P= cos

P = V I cos

Where V and I are r.m.s. values of voltage and current

Apparent Power: The product of rms. values of current and voltage, VI, is called the apparent
power and is measured in volt-amperes (VA) or in kilo-volt amperes (KVA).

S=VI

Real Power: The product of the applied voltage and the active component of the current is
known as real power. It is expressed in watts or kilo-watts (kW).

P= VI cosФ
Reactive Power: It is defined as product of the applied voltage and the reactive component of
the current. It is expressed in volt-ampere reactive (VAR) or kilo volt ampere (kVAR)

Q= VIsinФ

R-C Series Circuit:

Consider an ac circuit containing resistance R ohms and capacitance C farads, as shown in the
figure

Fig:2.1.15. R-C series circuit[Ref:DSI ppt]

where Z is impedance of the circuit

Fig:2.1.16(a) Voltage triangle Fig:2.1.16(b) Impedance triangle.

Let V = r.m.s. value of voltage, I = r.m.s. value of current
Voltage drop across R, VR = IR

Voltage drop across C, VC = IXC

The capacitive resistance is negative, so VC is in the negative direction of Y axis, as shown

.
V=

V =

Or I=

Power factor, cos = , I leads V by an angle, tanФ=

Power: Average power, P = v × i = VI cos

Series R-L-C circuit:

Fig:2.1.17. Series R-L-C circuit.[Ref:DSI ppt]

 Fig:2..1.18 Phasor diagram of R-L-C series circuit

Consider an a.c. series circuit containing resistance „R‟ ohms, Inductance „L‟ henries and
capacitance 'C‟ farads, as shown above.

Let V = r.m.s. value of applied voltage .I = r.m.s. value of current

Voltage drop across R, VR = IR

Voltage drop across L, VL = IXL
Voltage drop across C, VC = IXC
AD = AB AC

= AB BD (because BD = AC)

= VL Vc

= I(XL Xc)

OD, which represents the applied voltage V, is the vector sum of OA and AD.

OD = OA2 + AD2 or V = (IR)2 + (IXL IXc)2

= I R2 + (XL Xc)2

I = V/ R2 + (XL Xc)2 = V/Z.

The denominator R2 +(XL Xc) 2 is the impedance of the circuit.

Z2 = R2 + (XL Xc) 2 = R2 +X2

Phase angle is given by

tan =

Power factor,
cos =

Power = VI cos

If XC > XL , then the current leads and the +ve sign is used
If XL > XC, then the current lags and the –ve sign is used

Z = R + j (XL - XC)
The value of the impedance is
Z=

The phase angle = tan-1

Z =Z tan-1

Z =Z tan-1
Problems:

1. A series R-L circuit takes 384 W at a power factor of 0.8 from a 120 V, 60 Hz supply.
What are the values of R and L?

Solution:

Given: V = 120 V, f = 60 Hz, P = 384 W and cos = 0.8

P = VI cos = 384

120 I x 0.8 = 384

I=4A

Impedance, Z = V/I = 120/4 = 30

Resistance, R = Z cos = 30 x 0.6 = 18

Now, XL = 2 fL = 18

L = 18 / 2 x 60 = 0.047 H
2. A voltage of 200 V is applied to a series circuit consisting of a resistor, an inductor and a
capacitor. The respective voltages across these components are 170, 150 and 100 V and the
current is 4 A. Find the power factor of the circuit.

Solution:

Current = 4A, VR = IR = 170, 4R = 170

R = 42.5

VL = I XL = 150

XL = 150 / 4 = 37.5

VC = I XC = 100

XC = 25

Impedance,

Z= R2 + (XL – XC)2

= 42.52 + 12.52 = 44.3

Power Factor,

cos =R/Z

= 42.5 / 44.3 = 0.96(lagging)

3.Find the reading of the ammeter when the voltmeter across the 3-ohm resistor in the circuit
shown in figure below reads 45 V.
Solution:

I1 = 45 / 3 = 15 A., I1 = 15 00 A

The applied v o l t a g e V = 15 00 x (3 j3) (V=IZ1)

= 15 00 x 4.24 450

= 63.6 450 V

I2 = V / Z2 = 63.6 450 / (5 +j2)

= 63.6 450 / 5.4 21.80

= 11.77 66.80 A

(converting polar to rectangular form)

= 4.64 – j10.8

I = I1 + I2 = (15 + j0) +(4.64 – j10.8) I = 19.64 – j10.8 (converting rectangular to polar form)

I=22.4 -28.80

Hence, ammeter reads 22.4A

 UNIT-3

BASIC INSTRUMENTS
Basic Instruments: The instruments which are designed to measure electrical quantities are
called electrical measuring instruments.

Classifications of measuring instruments: The secondary measuring instruments are broadly

classified into three types

1. Indicating instruments: it indicates the measuring value instantaneously by means of

pointer moving over calibrated scale
2. Recording instruments: It records the measuring quantity by a pen moving over a paper
for a period of time,
3. Integrating instruments: It not only measures and records the measuring quantity. But
also register the measured quantity which can be access by any time.

Operating principles of measuring instruments: various operating principles by which an

instrument can measures the electrical quantities are. Magnetic effect, thermal effects,
electromagnetic effects, chemical effects, electrostatic effects etc.
Essential features of measuring instruments are high sensitivity, fast response, high flexibility,
low weight, low power consumption and high degree of reliability.
Single phase Induction Type Energy Meter:

Fig:3.1.5. Induction Type Energy Meter[Ref: DSI ppt]

Construction:

It mainly consists of: 1. Driving system 2. Moving system 3. Braking system 4. Recording
system.

1.Driving system: It has two electromagnet

2.ts namely series magnet and shunt magnet. A coil of thick wire of few turns are wounded
on legs of series electromagnetic core connected in series with supply and load which carries
line current.

A coil of this wire and large number of turns are wounded on the central limb of shunt
electromagnet. This coil carries the current proportional to supply voltage since it is connected
parallel with supply. A copper shading band circuited copper rings are provided on control limb
of shunt magnet to obtain the current in shunt coil log behind the apply voltage by 90degree.

3. Moving system; It consist of light weight aluminum disc mounted on the spindle supported by
Jewel bearings. The disc is set to rotate in the air gap between the series and shunt
electromagnet. Since control torque is not provided to moving disc. Disc will rotate through an
angle of 360degree.

4. Braking system: A adjustable brake magnet is placed near the edge of the aluminum disc
which induce an emf in the disc which circulate the eddy current in the disc in such a direction to
produce the torque opposite to rotation of disc. That means it provides eddy current damping
force to moving system.

5. Recording mechanism: It records a number of revolutions made by the disc during the period
of energy consumption by the load.

Operation: When the supply is connected to load through the energy meter. The flux produced
by the series electromagnet and shunt electro magnet interacts over the disc which induced an
 emf and eddy current in the disc. According to Lenz‟s law the eddy current flows in such a
direction which oppose cause producing it induced voltage in the disc. Disc is subjected to
rotation power consumed by the load is number of disc rotation and Energy power time Total
number of disc revolution in „t‟ seconds directly proportional to energy consumption by the
load.

Physical Demonstration of different basic instruments:

Voltmeters and ammeters are used to measure voltage and current, respectively.
A voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring electrical potential difference between two points in an
electric circuit.

An ammeter is a measuring device used to measure the electric current in a circuit.

A voltmeter is connected in parallel with a device to measure its voltage, while an ammeter is connected
in series with a device to measure its current.
A voltmeter is an instrument that measures the difference in electrical potential between two points in an
electric circuit. An analog voltmeter moves a pointer across a scale in proportion to the circuit’s voltage; a
digital voltmeter provides a numerical display. Any measurement that can be converted to voltage can be
displayed on a meter that is properly calibrated; such measurements include pressure, temperature, and
flow.
 An ammeter measures the electric current in a circuit. The name is derived from the name for the SI unit
for electric current, amperes (A).

In order for an ammeter to measure a device’s current, it must be connected in series to that device.

This is necessary because objects in series experience the same current. They must not be connected to a
voltage source — ammeters are designed to work under a minimal burden, (which refers to the voltage
drop across the ammeter, typically a small fraction of a volt).

Basic Ammeter circuit:

Fig: 3.1.2. Ammeter circuit.[Ref: A.K Sawhney]

Basic ammeter circuit consists of PMMC meter coil in series with high value resistor. When
ammeter is used to measure the current. High voltage drop occurs at series resistor and small
 voltage is available across the ammeter. Now scale of the meter is calibrated to measure the main
current in terms of current in the meter proportional to voltage.

Basic voltmeter circuit:

Fig:3.1.3. Voltmeter circuit[Ref: A.K Sawhney]

Basic voltmeter circuit: It consists of PMMC meter coil in parallel with low value resistor.
When voltmeter is used to measure the voltage more current is diverted through the shunt
resistor and small value of current pass through the meter. Now the voltmeter pointer deflects
over the calibrated scale proportional to voltage drop across the meter.

Wattmeter

The traditional analog wattmeter is an electrodynamic instrument. The device consists of a pair of fixed
coils, known as current coils, and a movable coil known as the potential coil.
The current coils are connected in series with the circuit, while the potential coil is connected in parallel.
Also, on analog wattmeters, the potential coil carries a needle that moves over a scale to indicate the
measurement. A current flowing through the current coil generates an electromagnetic field around the
coil. The strength of this field is proportional to the line current and in phase with it. The potential coil has,
as a general rule, a high-value resistor connected in series with it to reduce the current that flows through
it.
The result of this arrangement is that on a DC circuit, the deflection of the needle is proportional to both
the current (I) and the voltage (V), thus conforming to the equation P=VI.
For AC power, current and voltage may not be in phase, owing to the delaying effects of circuit inductance
or capacitance. On an AC circuit the deflection is proportional to the average instantaneous product of
voltage and current, thus measuring true power, P=VI cos φ. Here, cosφ represents the power factor which
shows that the power transmitted may be less than the apparent power obtained by multiplying the
readings of a voltmeter and ammeter in the same circuit.
 THREE PHASE ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS

There are two types of system available in electric AC circuit, single phase and three phase
system. In single phase circuit, there will be only one phase, i.e the current will flow through
only one wire and there will be one return path called neutral line to complete the circuit.

A poly phase system is a combination of several single-phase voltages having the same
magnitude and frequency but displaced from one another by equal angle (electrical), which
depends on the number of phases and determined from the following relation:

Electrical displacement = 3600 electrical degree/ number of phases

There fore for three phase system = 360/3 = 1200

Three phase circuit is the polyphase system where three

phases are send together from the generator to the load. Each
phase are having a phase difference of 120°, i.e 120° angle
electrically. So from the total of 360°, three phases are equally
divided into 120° each. The power in three phase system is
continuous as all the three phases are involved in generating
the total power. The sinusoidal waves for 3 phase system is shown below fig 1

Fig :2.2.1. Wave forms of 3 phase voltages [Ref : Wikipedia.]

The three phases can be used as single phase each. So if the load is single phase, then one phase
can be taken from the three phase circuit and the neutral can be used as ground to complete the
circuit.

Advantages of Three-Phase Systems:

The output of a three-phase machine is always greater than that of a single-phase machine
of the same size and less cost.
 For transmission and distribution of a power over a given distance, a three-phase
transmission line requires less copper than a single-phase line.
Three phase motors have uniform torque compared to 1-phase motors.
Single-phase motors are not self-starting. Three phase motors are self-starting.
Three phase generators work in parallel without difficulty.
In the case of three-phase star system, two different voltages can be obtained whereas in
the case of a single-phase system only one voltage can be obtained.
Overall performance of 3- phase motors is better compared to 1-phase motor.

Generation of three phase voltage:

Fig: 2.2.2 Generation of 3 phase voltage [Ref : threephasepower.org]

Consider three electrical coils a1 a2, b1 b2 and c1 c2 as shown in the fig 2 mounted on the same
axis but displaced from each other by 120 electrical. Let the three coils be rotated in
anticlockwise direction in a magnetic field with an angular velocity of radians/sec, as shown.

When the coil a1 a2 is moved with the position AB shown in figure, the magnitude and direction
of the emf‟s induced in the various coils is as under;

a) E.M.F induced in coil a1 a2 is zero and is increasing in the positive direction. This is
indicated by ea1a2 wave in figure
ea1 a2 = Em . sin t = e r
b) The coil b1 b2 is 1200 electrically behind coil a1 a2.. The emf induced in this coil is
negative and is approaching maximum negative value. This is shown by the eb1 b2 wave
eb1 b2 = Em. sin [ t 2 /3] = e y
 c) The coil c1 c2 is 2400 electrically behind a1 a2 or 1200 electrically behind coil b1b2. The
emf induced in this coil is positive and is decreasing. This is indicated by ec1 c2 wave
ec1 c2 = Em sin [ t 4 /3] = e b

If the three voltages are added vectorially , it can be observed that the sum of the three voltages
at any instant is zero.

That is e r + e y + e b = 0.

Important definitions related to three phase system.

Symmetrical system : a three phase system in which the three voltages are of same
magnitude and frequency and displaced from each other by 120 degree phase angle is
called as symmetrical system.
Phase sequence : The order in which the voltages in the phases reach their maximum
positive values is called the phase sequence. Three phases are usually represented by R-
Y-B and should be connected in this order called phase sequence. (Red, Yellow, Blue).
Three phase supply connections:
In single phase system, two wires are sufficient for transmitting voltage to the load that is
phase and neutral. But in case of three phase, two ends of each phase are available to
supply voltage to the load.
Using these connections two different three phase connections can be obtained which are
called as Star connection and Delta connection.

Star connection:

The star connection is formed by connecting starting ends of all the three windings
together. The common point is known as Neutral point. The remaining three ends are
brought out for connection to load. Star connected circuit is illustrated in the fig
Delta connection:

The delta is formed by connecting one end of winding to starting end of other which
forms a closed loop.
The supply terminals are taken out from three junction points.
Delta connection always forms a closed loop. Delta connected circuit is illustrated in fig

Concept of Line and Phase values of Voltages and Currents.

The potential different between any two lines of supply is called line voltage and current
passing through any line is called line current. Line voltages are denoted as E L
Line current are denoted by I L .

The voltage across any branch of the three phase load is called phase voltage and the
current passing through any branch of the three phase load is called phase current.

Balanced Supply

A supply is said to be balanced if all three voltages are equal in magnitude and displaced by 120
degree. A three phase supply can be connected in two ways - Either in Delta connection or in
Star connection as shown in the figure 3.

Fig:2.2.3 Balanced supply [Ref : Wikipedia.]

Balanced Load

A load is said to be balanced if the impedances in all three phases are equal in magnitude and
phase A three phase load can be connected in two ways – Either in Delta connection or in Star
connection as shown in the fig
 Fig:2.2.4 Balanced load [ Ref : Wikipedia].

Star Connection: Relationship between line and phase values.

Fig:2.2.5 Star connected circuit [Ref: threephasepower.org]

The common point N at which similar ends are connected is called the neutral point.

The voltage between any line and the neutral point is called phase voltage; while the voltage
between any two lines is called line voltage.

For example, the potential difference between outers R and Y or line voltage ERY, is the vector
difference of phase emf‟s ER and EY or vector sum of phase emf‟s ER and ( EY).

i.e., ERY = ER EY

As phase angle between vectors ER and ( EY) is 60 ,

Therefore, from vector diagram shown in figure.

ERY = ER2 + EY2 + 2ER EY cos 60

Let ER = EY = EB = EP (phase voltage)

Then line voltage

ERY = EP2 + EP2 +(2 EP EP x 0.5)

3 EP

Similarly, potential difference between Y and B is

EYB = EY EB = 3 EP

In a balanced star system, ERY, EYB and EBR are equal in magnitude and are called line voltages.

EL = 3 EP

Since, in a star connected system, each line conductor is connected to a separate phase, the
current flowing through the lines and phases are the same.

i.e., Line current IL = Phase current IP

If the phase current has a phase difference of with the phase voltage.

Power output per phase = EPIP cos

Total power output,

P = 3EPIP cos
= 3(EL/ 3) IP cos
= 3 EL IL cos
Mesh or Delta Connected System: Relationship between line and phase values.

Fig:2.2.6 Delta connected circuit[Ref: threephasepower.org]

IR, IY and IB are line currents and IRB, IBY and IYR are phase currents .

Line current, IR = IYR IRB

IR = IYR2 + IRB2 +2 IYRIRB cos 60

For a balanced load, the phase current in each winding is equal and let it be IP

Line current, IR = I P2 + IP2 +2 IP IP x 0.5

3IP

Similarly, line current, IY = IBY IYR = 3 IP

and line current, IB = IRB IBY = 3 IP

In a delta network, there is only one phase between any pair of lines, so the potential difference
between the lines (line voltage) is equal to phase voltage.

EL = EP

Power output per phase = EP IP cos ,

 Where cos is the power factor of the load.

Total power output,

P = 3EP IP cos
= 3 EL(IL/ 3) cos
= 3 ELIL cos

The Power Triangle:

Fig:2.2.7 Power triangle [Ref: PMC]

In the figure,

AB = √3 ELIL cos , represents the real power in watts or kW.

BC = √3 ELIL sin , represents the reactive power in VAR or kVAR.

AC = 3EI, represents the apparent power in VA or kVA.

i) (kVA)2 = (kW)2 + (kVAR)2

ii) Circuit power factor, cos = True power / Apparent power

iii) kVAR = kVA sin

= ( kW / cos ) x sin

= kW tan

Dept.of EEE,DSCE Page 60

Measurement of Power in 3-Phase Circuits:

In three circuits total three phase power is given by 3 EL IL cos , in practice the problems in
measuring three phase power occur as power factor for different type of load. And the power
factor of induction motor and synchronous generators may vary with the load conditions, there
fore it is difficult to calculate power. Hence it is necessary to use wattmeter which can sense the
power factor and will give power in watts.

Wattmeter is a device which gives power reading , when connected in single phase or three
phase system in watts.

Fig:2.2.8 Single phase wattmeter[Ref: electrical basic projects.com]

It consists of two coils as shown in the circuit diagram fig 8.

Current coil: Senses the current and always to be connected in series with the
load.
Potential coil: This is also called as pressure coil. This senses the voltage and
always to be connected across the supply terminals.
The terminologies used to denote current coil and pressure coil are ML – CV.
M – From Mains for current coil
L – To Load for current coil
C – Common for voltage coil
V- Voltage for voltage coil

Three phase power can be measured by using two single phase watt meter connected to any of
the two phases, irrespective of the type (star or delta). Consider a balanced load of star type to
which two watt meters are connected W1 and W2 as shown in the circuit diagram fig 10.
Two Wattmeter Method – Balanced Load:

In the case of balanced load, (where impedances of all the 3 phases are equal) we can find the
power factor of the load from the two-wattmeter readings. Consider star-connected inductive
load (figure 9) the vector diagram for which is given in figure10.

Fig:2.2.9 Two watt meter connected to star connected load.[Ref: threephasepower.org]

Fig:2.2.10 Vector diagram of line current and line voltage[Ref: threephasepower.org]

Current through wattmeter W1 is = IR

The potential difference across the voltage coil of W1 is

ERB = ER – EB - vectorially

Reading of W1 = IR ERB cos(30 - )

Similarly, current through W2 = IY and potential difference across W2 = EYB = EY – EB

The angle between IY and EYB is (30 + ).

Reading of W2 = IY EYB cos (30 +

) ERB = EYB = Line voltage EL and

IY = IR = Line current IL (Since the load is balanced)

W1 = EL IL cos (30 - ) and W2 = EL IL cos (30 + )

W1 + W2 = 3 EL IL cos

= Total power in the 3-phase load.

Thus, the total power absorbed in the 3-phase load is given by the sum of the two-wattmeter
readings.

Power Factor – Balanced 3-Phase Load:

Case 1: Lagging power factor

W1 + W2 = 3 EL IL cos ------------ (i)

Similarly,

W1 - W2 = EL IL sin ------------ (ii)

Dividing equation (ii) by (i), we get

tan = 3 (W1 – W2 ) / (W1+W2) ------------ (iii)

Once tan is known, and hence power factor, cos can be found.

Power Factor – Balanced 3-Phase Load:

Case 2: Leading power factor

W1 = EL IL cos (300 + ) and

W2 = EL IL cos (300 - )

W1 + W2 = 3 EL IL cos

W1 - W2 = - EL IL sin

tan = - 3 (W1 – W2 ) / (W1 + W2)

Effect of power factor on wattmeter reading:

Case 1: at cos = 0

= 900
W1 = ½ EL IL
W2 = -½ EL IL

Case 2 : at cos = 0.5

= 600
W1 = EL IL cos 300
W2 = 0

Case 3 : at cos = 1

= 00
W1 = EL IL cos 300
W2 = EL IL cos 300

Numericals:

1.The power in a three-phase system is measured by two watt meters. If the input power is
100kW and power factor is 0.66 (lag)

a) What will be the reading of each wattmeter?

 b) For what power factor will one of the wattmeter read zero?

Solution:

a) P = 100 kW = W1 + W2
cos = 0.66
= 48.70
tan = 3 x (W1 - W2 ) / (W1 + W2)
Substituting the values in the above equation,
W1 - W2 = 65.7 kW
W1 + W2 = 100 kW
2 W1 = 165.7 kW
or W1 = 82.85 kW
W2 = 17.15 kW
b) If W2 = 0,
tan = 3
= 600
cos = 0.5

2.Two watt meters are connected to measure the input of a 15 HP, 50Hz, 3-phase induction
motor at full load. The full load efficiency and power factor are 0.9 and 0.8 lag respectively. Find
the readings of the watt meters.

Solution:

Efficiency = Output / Input

0.9 = (15 x 735.5) / Input

Input = 12258.3 = W1 + W2 -------------- (1)

cos = 0.8
= 36.86
tan = 3 x (W1 - W2 ) / (W1 + W2)
 0.75 = 3 x (W1 - W2) /12258.3
W1-W2 = 5308 W -------------- (2)
From (1) and (2)
W1 = 8783 W
W2 = 3476 W

3.Three identical impedances are connected in delta to a 3- phase supply of 400v. The line
current is 35A, and the total power taken from the supply is 15kW. Calculate the resistance and
inductance values of each impedances.

Solution:

Delta connection
VL = 400 V = VPh
P = 15kW
IL = 35A
IPh = IL/ 3
= 35/ 3 = 20.2A
ZPh = VPh/ IPh
= 400/20.2
=19.8 ohms
We know that for 3- phase power
P = 3VL IL cos
15000 = 3 x 400 x 35 x cos
cos = 0.62
= 51.68
sin = 0.78
RPh = Z cos = 19.8 x 0.62 = 12.3 ohms
XPh = Z sin = 19.8 x 0.785 = 15.54 ohms
B. balanced star connected load of (3 + j4) impedance is connected to 400V, three phase
supply. What is the real power consumed by the load?

Solution:

VL = 400 V
impedance / phase = Z = 3 + j4 = 5 53
In a star connected system,
Phase voltage
Current in each phase = 46.02 -53 A
Line current = 46.02 A
Total power consumed in the
load
= 3VL IL cos
= 3 X 400 X 46.02 X cos (− 53 )
= 19188 W
 BEE LAB SESSION:

2. Measurement of power by two-wattmeter method with physical

demonstration
To measure three phase power in a balanced three phase circuit by using two single-phase wattmeter
Circuit Diagram:

Procedure:
1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.
2. Switch on A.C supply.
3. For balanced load condition measure the values of wattmeters, ammeters and voltmeter.
4. Repeat the same process for two more set of readings. (Any one ammeter reading is sufficient)
5. Switch off all the loads and supply. (K=(I(select)*V(select)*P.f)/FSR)

Sl.No. V(volts) W1*K(watts) W2*K(watts) I- P-practical P-

Load = theoretical
(ampere) W1+W2(watts) =√3VICos¢
(watts)
1
2
3
Result: Theoretical and Practical Values of power are obtained and verified

3. Two-way and three-way control of a lamp with physical

experiment
To wire for a stair case arrangement using a two-way switch
Procedure:
1. Connect the two-way switches and bulb holder in the marked position
2. Complete the wiring as per the circuit diagram.
3. Test the working of the bulb by giving electric supply to the circuit.

Result: Two-way stair case wiring tabular column is verified

To wire for a stair case arrangement using a Three-way switch

Procedure:
1. Connect the two-way switches and bulb holder in the marked position
2. Complete the wiring as per the circuit diagram.
3. Test the working of the bulb by giving electric supply to the circuit.

Circuit Diagram:

Tabular Column:
Sl Switch 1 Intermediate Switch 2 Lamp
.NO. switch
1 ON ON ON ON
2 ON OFF ON OFF
3 ON OFF OFF OFF
4 OFF ON ON OFF
5 OFF OFF ON OFF

Result: Three-way stair case wiring tabular column is verified

 DOMESTIC WIRING
Service mains: The conductors which bring electrical energy from the nearest pole carrying the
secondary distribution system to the consumers premises are known as Service mains. For all
domestic purposes only single phase supply is required. There are 2 types namely: Over head
service mains and Underground service mains.

Over head service mains: In this, the conductors from the pole to the meter board run above
the ground level at a reasonably good height providing clearance from the adjacent buildings.
Aluminum core steel reinforced or hard drawn copper conductors are used as service mains.
Their size depends on load of the consumer.

Underground service mains: This is provided if the load of the consumer is more than 25kW.
In this overhead connections can not be given and this improves the beauty of the building.

Meter board and Distribution board:

Fig: 3.2.1. Meter board & distribution board. [Ref: Basic Electrical Engineering text book, Bakshi]
Supply is taken through service mains and connected to the input terminals of the energy meter
which is fixed in wooden box. The wooden box is known as meter board. This consists of a use
which is a safety device during over loads or short circuits. The energy meter is provided by the
electric supply company. The energy meter must be installed at a place which is easily accessible
by meter readers. The main switch is used to switch on and off the supply to the building. This is
provided next to the energy meter and output terminals of the energy meter are connected as
input terminals to main switch. The output terminals of the energy meter are connected as input
terminals of main switch and this is connected to distribution board. The main switch is usually
an iron clad double pole [ICDP] switch. The main switch is fixed inside the distribution board
itself. The distribution board is a rectangular box which consists of 2 bus bars fixed. One neutral
bus bar and other phase bus bar. Domestic load is distributed to various sub circuits from
distribution board.

Systems of wiring:

1.Cleat wiring:

Fig: 3.2.2. Cleat wiring.[ Ref: www.google.com]

In this type of wiring wires run b/w porcelain cleats which are fixed by screwing. The wires are
made of VIR or PVC. The porcelain cleats used are of two halves one base and other cap. Ax
distance b/w the cleats should not exceed 60cm so that wires will not come into contact either
with wall or each other.

Advantages: Low cost and easy maintenance, requires less labour and workmanship.

Disadvantages: Not suitable for wet and damp areas, does not provide good appearance.
Applications: Preferred for temporary installations where the place is dry.
2.Wooden casing and capping wiring:

Fig: 3.2.3. Wooden casing and capping wiring[Ref: www.google.com]

When the wires/ cables used in wiring needs protection this system is used. These have wooden
casing with grooves covered by capping. Cables are made of VIR or PVC. Length of casing and
capping should be 2.5- 3 meters.

Advantages: Good appearance, low quality wires can be used, easy to install and rewire.

Disadvantages: Cannot be used in wet and damp places, requires better workman ship.

Applications: Preferred for low voltage.

3. Conduit wiring:

Fig: 3.2.4. Conduit wiring [Ref: www.google.com]

Conduit is buried under the wall or ceiling. PVC conduit is popularly is used as it requires less
time to install and cheaper in cost. The conduit is fixed by means of J hooks, fully protected
mechanical injury. Does not affect appearance. The channels are provided in the wall before
plastering and then conduit is fixed in the channel by the hooks.
Two Way and Three Way Control of Lamps:

Two way control of the lamp. If we want to control a lamp from more than one point (stair case)
say from two places then it is called two way control. Similarly we can control a lamp from three
places under certain circumstances and is called as three way control.

Fig: 3.2.5. Two way control of lamps [Ref: DSI ppt]

The operation of the circuit is explained in the following table

Position of S Position of S Condition of lamp

1 2

1 3 ON
1 4 OFF
2 3 OFF
2 4 ON
The Wiring Diagram of Three Way Control of the Lamp with OC – Open:

Fig:3.2.6. Three Way Control of the Lamp[Ref: DSI ppt]

Three way control: Figure shows the circuit to control a lamp at three different points. SW1 and
SW2 are single pole double throw switches (SPDT). SW3 is a double pole double throw switch
(DPDT). The operation of the circuit is given in table.

SW SW SW State of Lamp
1 2 3

A G CD, ON
EF

A H CD, OFF
EF
 B G CD, OFF
EF

B H CD, ON
EF

A G CF, OFF
ED

A H CF, ON
ED

B G CF, ON
ED

B H CF, OFF
ED

Protective Devices:

Protection for electrical installation must be provided in the event of faults such as short circuit,
overload and earth faults. The protective circuit or device must be fast acting and must be able to
isolate the faulty part of the circuit immediately. It also helps in isolating only required part of
the circuit without affecting the remaining circuit during maintenance.

The following devices are usually used to provide the necessary protection:

• Fuses

• Relays

• Miniature circuit breakers (MCB)

• Earth leakage circuit breakers (ELCB)

Fig:3.2.6.Connection of fuse[Ref DSI ppt]

In case of a short circuit or a fault the current increases beyond the rated current. This results in
the melting of the conductor. This may cause a fire. Hence it is necessary to cut off the supply to
the circuit. This is done by using a fuse. Fuse consists of a wire made of copper or lead tin alloy
fixed to a porcelain base. The fuse wire is connected in series between the supply and the circuit.
The thickness of the fuse wire depends upon the rated current of the circuit. When the circuit
current exceeds the rated current, the fuse wire melts, resulting into the disconnection of the
supply to the circuit. Thus any damage to the circuit is prevented. The material used for fuse
wires must have the following characteristics : Low melting point, Low ohmic losses, High
conductivity, Lower rate of deterioration.

Terms Related with Fuses:

1.Rated current: It is the maximum current, which a fuse can carry without undue heating or
melting. It depends on the following factors: Permissible temperature rise of the contacts of the
fuse holder and the fuse material, Degree of deterioration due to oxidation

2.Fusing current: The minimum current at which the fuse melts is known as the fusing current.
It depends on the material characteristics, length, diameter, cross-sectional area of the fuse
element and the type of enclosure used.

3.Fusing Factor: It is the ratio of the minimum fusing current to the rated current. It is always
greater than unity.

Miniature circuit breakers[MCB’s]:

These are electrical switching devices which are used to protect the electrical equipment and
circuits under over load conditions. Circuit breakers used in residential , commercial installations
at low voltages are referred as MCB‟s. These are single pole breakers and are installed in a
cabinet. It is also use for Tripping during ground faults.
 Features of MCB:

Operation is very fast, No tripping circuit is necessary operation is automatic, Provides

protection against over load and short circuit without noise, Can be reset very quickly after
correcting the fault, Current rating is from 0.5A to 63A, Voltage rating 240V for single ohase
415V for three phase, 220V for DC.

Electric shock:

When a person comes in contact with the live wire supplying electricity, he receives a shock. The
severity of the shock received depends on the voltage of the wire and the body resistance of the
person. The max.current a human body can withstand is 30mA. If the body is totally wet, the
body resistance is 1000 ohms, if it is dry, it is about 5000 ohms. Mild shocks produce
nervousness. The damage caused due to an electric shock depends the voltage, the current, per
son‟s health etc.

Precautions:

Insulation of the conductors used must be proper, Meggar tests should be conducted, insulation
must be checked, earth connection should be always maintained in proper condition, use rubber
soled shoes and gloves while working, never touch the two different terminals at the same time,
sockets should be fixed at a height beyond reach of children.

1. Avoid water at all times when working with electricity. Never touch or try repairing any electrical
equipment or circuits with wet hands. It increases the conductivity of electric current.

2. Never use equipment with frayed cords, damaged insulation or broken plugs.

3. If you are working on any receptacle at your home then always turn off the mains. It is also a good
idea to put up a sign on the service panel so that nobody turns the main switch ON by accident.

4. Always use insulated tools while working.

5. Electrical hazards include exposed energized parts and unguarded electrical equipment which may
become energized unexpectedly. Such equipment always carries warning signs like “Shock Risk”.
Always be observant of such signs and follow the safety rules established by the electrical code
followed by the country you’re in.

6. Always use appropriate insulated rubber gloves and goggles while working on any branch circuit or
any other electrical circuit.

7. Never try repairing energized equipment. Always check that it is de-energized first by using a
tester. When an electric tester touches a live or hot wire, the bulb inside the tester lights up showing
that an electrical current is flowing through the respective wire. Check all the wires, the outer metallic
covering of the service panel and any other hanging wires with an electrical tester before proceeding
with your work.

8. Never use an aluminium or steel ladder if you are working on any receptacle at height in your
home. An electrical surge will ground you and the whole electric current will pass through your body.
Use a bamboo, wooden or a fibreglass ladder instead.

9. Know the wire code of your country.

10. Always check all your GFCI’s once a month. A GFCI (Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter) is a RCD
(Residual Current Device). They have become very common in modern homes, especially damp areas
like the bathroom and kitchen, as they help avoid electrical shock hazards. It is designed to disconnect
quickly enough to avoid any injury caused by over current or short circuit faults.

11. Always use a circuit breaker or fuse with the appropriate current rating. Circuit breakers and fuses
are protection devices that automatically disconnect the live wire when a condition of short circuit or
over current occurs. The selection of the appropriate fuse or circuit breaker is essential. Normally for
protection against short circuits a fuse rated of 150% of the normal circuit current is selected. In the
case of a circuit with 10 amperes of current, a 15 ampere fuse will protect against direct short circuits
whereas a 9.5 amperes fuse will blow out.

12. Working outside with underground cabling can be dangerous. The damp soil around the cable is a
good conductor of electricity and ground faults are quite common in the case of underground cabling.
Using a spade to dig at the cable can damage the wiring easily so it is better to dig at the cable by hand
while wearing insulated gloves.

13. Always put a cap on the hot/live wire while working on an electric board or service panel as you
could end up short circuiting the bare ends of the live wire with the neutral. The cap insulates the
copper ends of the cable thus preventing any kind of shock even if touched mistakenly.

14. Take care while removing a capacitor from a circuit. A capacitor stores energy and if it’s not
properly discharged when removed it can easily cause an electric shock. An easy way to discharge
low voltage capacitor is that after removal from the circuit is to put the tip of two insulated screw
drivers on the capacitor terminals. This will discharge it. For high voltage ones a 12 Volts light bulb
can be used. Connecting the bulb with the capacitor will light up the bulb using up the last of the
stored energy.

15. Always take care while soldering your circuit boards. Wear goggles and keep yourself away from
the fumes. Keep the solder iron in its stand when not in use; it can get extremely hot and can easily
cause burns.
Earthing:

Earthing is connecting the exposed metal parts of the appliances to ground (or earth) by using a
conductor of very low resistance. The earthing procedure is as follows;

• The earthing wire brought out from the equipment is joined to the earthing electrode
through the earthing terminal of the 3 pin socket.

• The earthing electrode may be a galvanized iron (GI) pipe or a rod or a plate or may be a
strip.

• A pit is dug (in the ground) of size 30 cm x 30 cm for at least 2 m depth below the ground
level.

• This pit is half filled with a layer of common salt and charcoal as shown in figure.

• Above this the remaining depth is filled by soil till ground level.

• The earthing electrode is embedded in a pit.

The two types of earthing are: Plate earthing and Pipe earthing.
Plate Earthing:

Fig:3.2.7. Plate earthing[Ref: DSI ppt]

• In this method a copper plate of 60 cm x 60 cm x 3.18 cm or a GI plate of the size 60 cm

x 60 cm x 6.35 cm is used for earthing.

• The plate is placed vertically down inside the ground at a depth of 3 m and is embedded
in alternate layers of coal and salt for a thickness of 15 cm.

• In addition, water is poured for keeping the earth electrode resistance value well below a
maximum of 5 ohms.

• The earth wire is securely bolted to the earth plate.

• A cement masonry chamber is built with a cast iron cover for easy regular maintenance.

Earthing efficiency increases with increase of plate area and depth of embedding. The
disadvantage is that discontinuity of earth plate can not be observed.
 [Type here] [Type
here]

Pipe Earthing:

Fig: 3.2.8. Pipe earthing. [Ref DSI ppt]

• Earth electrode made of galvanized iron (GI) pipe of 38 mm in diameter and length of 2
m (depending on the current) with 12 mm holes on the surface, is placed upright at a
depth of 4.75 m in a permanently wet ground.

• To keep the value of the earth resistance at the desired level, the area (15 cms)
surrounding the GI pipe is filled with a mixture of salt and coal.

• The efficiency of the earthing system is improved by pouring water through the funnel
periodically.

• The GI earth wires of sufficient cross- sectional area are run through a 12.7 mm diameter
pipe at 60 cms below from the 19mm diameter pipe and secured tightly at the top as
shown in the figure.

The disadvantage is embedded pipe length has to be increased sufficiently with high order
specific resistivity.
 [Type here] [Type
here]

Power Calculation :

To calculate the consumption of an electrical appliance in kWh, you have to take into account three
factors:

1. the capacity of your electrical appliance, expressed in watt.

2. the number of hours that the appliance is in use in one day.
3. the number of days per year when the appliance is in use.
The calculation is as follows:

[number of hours’ use] x [number of days’ use] x ([capacity of appliance expressed in watt] /
1,000) = number of kWh

The capacity should be divided by 1,000 to convert the number of watts into the number of kilowatts.
This finally gives us the number of kWh (kilowatt hours).

Example Calculation for the energy consumption of a radio alarm

A radio alarm is on all the time and therefore uses energy continuously.

hours / day 24 hours

days / year 365

Capacity of radio alarm 10 watts

Annual energy consumption of radio alarm: 24 x 365 x (10 watts / 1,000) = 87.6 kWh

Example Calculation for the energy consumption of a vacuum cleaner

In the table below we assume that the vacuum cleaner is used for two hours once a week.
 [Type here] [Type
here]

hours / day 2 hours

days / year 52 days

Capacity of vacuum cleaner 2000 watts

Annual energy consumption of vacuum cleaner: 2 x 52 x (2,000 watts / 1,000) = 208 kWh
 [Type here] [Type
here]

UNIT-4

DC MOTORS

D C machines are electrical machines which deal with the conversion of one form of energy to
another. The process of conversion is called as electromechanical energy conversion.

D.C Generator:-A D.C machine which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy is called
a d.c generator.

D.C Motor:-A D.C machine which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy is known as a d.c
motor.

Basic principle of D.C machine: - A D.C machine works on the principle of Faradays laws of
electromagnetic induction.

When a conductor moves in a magnetic field, voltage is induced in the conductor. (Generator action)

When a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field, the conductor experiences a
mechanical force (Motor action)
 [Type here] [Type
here]

Construction of DC MACHINE
 [Type here] [Type
here]

Fig: DC MACHINE

Yoke: The outer frame or yoke serves double purpose: (i) It provides mechanical support for the poles
and acts as a protecting cover for the whole machine. (ii) It carries the magnetic flux produced by
the poles. In small generators where cheapness rather than weight is the main consideration, yokes
are made of cast iron. But for large machines usually cast steel or rolled steel is employed.

Pole Cores and Pole Shoes: The field magnets consist of pole cores and pole shoes. The pole shoes
serve two purposes: (i) They spread out the flux in the air gap and also, being of larger cross-section,
reduce the reluctance of the magnetic path. (ii) They support the exciting coils (or field coils) as shown
below.

Pole Coils: The field coils or pole coils, which consist of copper wire or strip, are former-wound for the
correct dimension. Then, the former is removed and wound coil is put into place over the core. When
current is passed through these coils, they electro magnetize the poles which produce the necessary flux
that is cut by revolving armature conductors.
 [Type here] [Type
here]

Armature Core: It houses the armature conductors or coils and causes them to rotate and hence cut the
magnetic flux of the field magnets. In addition to this, its most important function is to provide a path
of very low reluctance to the flux through the armature from a N-pole to a S-pole. It is cylindrical or
drum-shaped and is built up of usually circular sheet steel discs or laminations approximately 0.5 mm
thick. The slots are either die-cut or punched on the outer periphery of the disc and the keyway is located
on the inner diameter as shown. In small machines, the armature stampings are keyed directly to the
shaft. Usually, these laminations are perforated for air ducts which permit axial flow of air through the
armature for cooling purposes. The purpose of using laminations is to reduce the loss due to eddy
currents. Thinner the laminations, greater is the
resistance offered to the induced emf, smaller the current and hence lesser the I2 R loss in the
core.

Armature Windings: The armature windings are usually former-wound. These are first wound in the
form of flat rectangular coils and are then pulled into their proper shape in a coil puller. Various
conductors of the coils are insulated from each other. The conductors are placed in the armature slots
which are lined with tough insulatingmaterial. This slot insulation is folded over above the armature
conductors placed in the slot and is secured in place by special hard wooden or fiber wedges.

Commutator: The functions of the commutator are to facilitate collection of current from the
armature conductors, and to convert the alternating current induced in the armature conductors into
unidirectional current in the external load circuit. It is of cylindrical structure and is built up of wedge-
shaped segments of high-conductivity hard-drawn or drop forged copper. These segments are insulated
from each other by thin layers of mica. The number of segments is equal to the number of armature
coils. Each commutator segment is connected to the armature conductor by means of a copper lug or
riser. To prevent them from flying out under the action of centrifugal forces, the segments have V-
grooves, these grooves being insulated by conical micanite rings.

Brushes and Bearings: The brushes, whose function is to collect current from commutator, are usually
made of carbon or graphite and are in the shape of a rectangular block. These brushes are
 [Type here] [Type
here]

housed in brush-holders, the brush-holder is mounted on a spindle and the brushes can slide in the
rectangular box open at both ends. The brushes are made to bear down on the commutator by a spring.
A flexible copper pigtail mounted at the top of the brush conveys current from the brushes to the
holder. The number of brushes per spindle depends on the magnitude of the current to be collected
from the commutator.

Because of their reliability, ball-bearings are frequently employed, though for heavy duties, roller
bearings are preferable. The ball and rollers are generally packed in hard oil for quieter operation and
for reduced bearing wear, sleeve bearings are used which are lubricated by ring oilers fed from oil
reservoir in the bearing bracket.
 [Type here] [Type
here]

Commutation

The process of reversal of current in the short circuited armature coil is called „Commutation‟. This
process of reversal takes place when coil is passing through the interpolar axis (q-axis), the coil is short
circuited through commutator segments. Commutation takes place simultaneously for „P‟ coils in a
lap-wound machine and two coil sets of P/2 coils each in a wave-wound machine.

The process of commutation of coil „B‟ is shown below. In figure (a) coil „B‟ carries current from
left to right and is about to be short circuited in figure (b) brush has moved by 1/3 rd of its width and
the brush current supplied by the coil are as shown. In figure (c)coil „B‟ carries no current as the
brush is at the middle of the short circuit period and the brush current in supplied by coil C and coil A.
In figure (d) the coil B which was carrying current from left to right carries current from right to left. In
fig (e) spark is shown which is due to the reactance voltage. As the coil is embedded in the armature
slots, which has high permeability, the coil possess appreciable amount of self-inductance. The current
is changed from +I to –I. So due to self-inductance and variation in the current from +I to –I, a voltage
is induced in the coil which is given by L dI/dt. Fig (f) shows the variation of current plotted on the
time axis. Sparking can be avoided by the use of interpoles or commutating-poles.
INTERPOLES OR COMPOLES

These are small poles fixed to the yoke and placed in

between the main poles as shown in figure,they are wound with
few turns of heavy gauge copper wire and are connected in
series with the armature so that they carry full armature current.
Their polarity in case of generator is that of the main pole
ahead in the direction of rotation. The function of interpoles
is (i) to induce an emf which is equal and opposite to that of
reactance emf thereby making commutation sparkles. (ii)
Interpoles neutralize the cross
magnetizing effect of armature reaction in fig. „OF‟ represents mmf due to main poles and „OA‟
represents the cross magnetizing mmf due to armature. „BC‟ represents mmf due to Interpoles and is
in opposite to that of „OA‟ resulting in the cancellation of cross magnetization.

Basic principle of D.C machine as a motor:-For clear understanding the principle of DC motor
we have to determine the magnitude of the force, by considering the diagram below.

We know that when an infinitely small charge dq is made to flow at a velocity „v‟ under the
influence of an electric field E, and a magnetic field B, then the Lorentz Force dF experienced by the
charge is given by
dF=dq(E+vB)

For the operation of dc motor, considering E = 0 dF=dq(v×B)

Where dL is the length of the conductor carrying charge q.

dF=dq(v×B)

F=IL×B=ILBsinș

F=BILsinș

From the 1st diagram we can see that the construction of a DC motor is such that the direction of current
through the armature conductor at all instance is perpendicular to the field. Hence the force acts on
the armature conductor in the direction perpendicular to the both uniform field and current is constant.

i.e. ș=900

So if we take the current in the left hand side of the armature conductor to be I, and current at right hand
side of the armature conductor to be − I, because they are flowing in the opposite direction with
respect to each other.

Then the force on the left hand side armature conductor,

Fi=BILsin900=BIL

Similarly force on the right hand side conductor

0
FT=B(-I)Lsin90 = -BIL

where, F = Force in Newtons

B = Flux density in Weber/ meter2

 I = Current in amperes flowing through the conductor L =

Length of the conductor in meters

By Fleming’s left hand rule:-It states that “when the thumb, fore finger and middle finger are held
mutually perpendicular to each other, with the fore finger in the direction of magnetic field, middle
finger in the direction of the current, then the direction of thumb indicates the direction of force
experienced by the conductor”.

Types of DC Motors: -Separately Excited DC Motor: - As the name suggests, in case of a

separately excited DC motor the supply is given separately to the field and armature windings. The
main distinguishing fact in these types of dc motor is that, the armature current does not flow
through the field windings, the field winding is energized from a separate external source.

From the torque equation of dc motor we know Tg = Ka φ Ia So the torque in this case can be varied
by varying field flux φ, independent of the armature current Ia.

Self-Excited DC Motor:-In case of self-excited dc motor, the field winding is connected either in series
or in parallel or partly in series, partly in parallel to the armature winding, and on this basis its further
classified as

(1) DC Shunt Motor

(2) DC Series Motor
(3) DC Compound Motor

(i) Cumulative Compound Motor

(a) Long shunt

(b) Short shunt

(ii) Differential Compound Motor

(a) Long shunt

 (b) Short shunt

DC Shunt Motor: -In this type of motor, the field winding is connected in parallel with armature as
shown in Figure (a). There are as many number of field coils as there are poles. When connected to
supply, constant voltage appears across the field windings (as they are connected in parallel with
armature). The field current is therefore constant and is independent of the load current.

Shunt field winding usually are designed to have large number of turns of fine wire. Its resistance,
therefore, is high enough to limit the shunt field current to about 1 to 4 percent of the rated motor
current

Ish = V/Rsh and

Ia= I – Ish.

where I is the line current

Eb = V – Ia Ra – B.C.D – A.R.D

where B.C.D is brush contact drop(1 V/brush, A.R.D is the armature reaction drop
DC Series Motor: -A series motor receives its excitation from a winding which is connected in series
with the armature and carries load current. As the series field has to carry high load current, it is
made of a thick wire and a few turns. As the resistance is low, the voltage drop across the series
winding is small.

This motor has excellent starting and over-load torque characteristics. The disadvantages are that the
motor attains dangerously high speed at no-load. Speed adjustment of the motor is somewhat difficult.

Ia = I = Ise

Eb = V – Ia (Ra +Rse) – B.C.D – A.R.D.

DC Compound Motor: -In compound motors excitation results from combined action of both shunt
field winding and series field winding. In the short-shunt connection, which is sometimes used, the
shunt field is directly connected in parallel with the armature, in which case, the series field current is
the same as the line current. Excitation of a compound motor is a combination of series and shunt
excitation. The motor, therefore, has mixed characteristic between that of a series motor and a shunt
motor. These motors behaves somewhat better than a shunt motor from the point of view of starting
and overload torque; and has definite stable no-load speed like a shunt motor. Speed of this motor is
adjustable as easily as that of a shunt motor. It‟s speed,
however, tends to change as much as 25 percent between full-load and no-load due to the effect of
series winding.

Differential compound motor

Cumulative compound motor

Back EMF (Eb) & its significance: When the voltage V is applied to the motor, current Ia will flow
through the armature and Ish will flow through the field of the motor which will set the flux causing
EMF. The EMF developed in the armature opposes the applied voltage and hence it is called the back
e.m.f (Eb).
The applied voltage V has to drive current through the armature conductors against the opposition of
the back E.M.F and hence work has to be done. It is in the form of mechanical power developed by
the armature. The armature current Ia is given by eq(1)

-------------------------(1)

Torque Equation:-

Torque is the turning moment about its axis. It is also equal to Force x Distance

Consider the armature of the DC Motor of radius r and let F be the force acting tangential to its surface
as shown in figure.

Therefore, Torque = Ta = F x r in Newton meter ------ (1)

The work done by this force F in one revolution

W = F x distance covered in revolution.

\W = F x 2πr watt second.

The power developed by the armature = work done in one second.

= F x r x 2π N / 60 where N = No of revolutions / minute

= (2πN / 60) x Ta watts

But power developed in the armature =Eb Ia

The actual torque or shaft torque (torque available at the shaft) or Useful torque = Tsh = Ta – TL

whereTsh = shaft torque

Ta = armature torque

TL = lost torque due to iron losses and mechanical losses

Output = 2πNTsh/60

Tsh = output x 60 / 2πN

If output is in Horse Power,

Tsh = output in H.P x 735.5/(2πN/60) N-M

Characteristics of DC Shunt Motor:

(a)Ta/Ia characteristics (electrical characteristics):- As assumed that flux ϕ is constant in the shunt
machine

Ta∝Ia
This implies that the characteristic is a straight line. Larger armature current is required to start a
heavy load. Therefore a shunt motor should not be started on heavy load.

(b)N/Ia characteristics:-
N∝ (Eb/ϕ), As ϕ is assumed to be constant, N∝Eb. As Ebis also practically constant, the speed is
constant.

However, to be accurate both Eb and ϕ decrease with increasing load. But Eb decreases
somewhat more than ϕ so that there is some decrease in speed, the drop ranging from 5 to 15 %
of full load, depending on certain other conditions. The actual speed curve will be somewhat
dropping as shown by line AC.

The characteristic does not have a point of zero armature current, because a small current is
necessary to maintain the rotation of motor at no-load.

As there is no change in the speed of shunt motor, during the transition from no load to full load, it may
be connected to loads which can be suddenly disconnected without fear of excessive speeding.

(c) N/Ta characteristics or mechanical characteristics:-

The values of N and Ta for various armature currents Ia is shown. The speed falls as the load torque
increases.

The N/Ta characteristic is of great importance in determining which type of motor is best suited to drive
a given load.
Characteristics of series motor

(a)Torque vs. armature current characteristic

Since T α Ia 2 in the linear zone and Tα Ia in the saturation zone, the T vs. Ia characteristic is as
shown in fig.
At light loads, Ia and hence ϕ is small, but as Ia increases, Ta increases as the square of the current
and reaches saturation point.After saturation ϕ is practically independent of Ia, hence Ta α Ia and so
that the characteristic becomes straight line.

(b)Speed vs. armature current

The changes in speed can be determined from the formula

Nα (Eb/ϕ)
variation of Eb for different load currents is negligible that Eb may be treated as a constant. If Ia is
increased, flux ϕ too increases. So speed is inversely proportional to the armature current.When there is
heavy load Ia is large. But when the load increases consequently Ia decreases to a low value, the speed
becomes dangerously high. Hence, a series motor should invariably be started with some mechanical load
on it, to prevent excessive speed and damage due to heavy centrifugal forces produced.

(c) Speed vs. Torque characteristic

The speed vs torque characteristic of a series motor is shown. From the curve, it is apparent that the
series motor develops a high torque at low speed and vice versa. This is because an increase in torque
requires an increase in armature current, which is also the field current. The result is that the flux is
strengthened and hence speed drops. Similarly, at low torque, the motor speed is high.

Characteristics of DC Compound Motor:

In the cumulative compound motor as Ia increases, flux Фse increases but the shunt field current

Ish and ϕsh remain constant and total flux increases.

 Ta∝ϕIa

Fig(A)

As the armature current is increased, the series flux increases, thus increasing the total flux of the motor.
As a result of this, the torque is increased. The increase of torque Ta with armature current is shown by a
Ta/Ia characteristic curve OA. This increase of Ta with Ia is greater than what it is in the case of shunt
motor (dotted curve OB) less than what it is in the case of series motor develops a high torque with
sudden increase in load.

Fig (B) Fig (C)

We have just discussed that, with the increase of Ia, the series flux and hence total flux increases. This
leads to decrease in motor speed, starting from a particular value given by the point A at no- load. The
variation of N with Ia is given by the characteristic AB in fig (B). Again, the decrease in speed is
greater than what it would be in the case of a shunt motor (given by the dotted curve AC), but less than
what it would be in the case of a series motor.

As series excitation assists shunt excitation, the N/Ta characteristic curve AB will lie between that of
a shunt motor(dotted line AC) and of a series motor(dotted line AD)

Applications of DC Motors:

(1)DC Shunt Motor: When constant speed is required DC shunt motors are used.

Example: Lathes, Centrifugal pumps, fans, drilling machines. etc.

(2)DC Series Motor: For high starting torque we prefer DC series motor. Example: Electric
traction, electric locomotive, cranes, hoists, conveyors etc.

(3)DC Compound Motor: When we require constant speed and high starting torque Cumulative
compound motors are preferred. Example: shears, punches, coal cutting machine, elevators,
conveyors, printing presses etc. Differential compound motors have no practical applications (being
unstable).

Necessity of Starter

We know armature current in a d.c motor is given by Ia =

(V – Eb) / Ra, at starting, Eb= 0, therefore Ia = V/Ra

At the instant of starting, rotor speed n = 0, hence starting armature current is (Ia)st= (V/Ra)
Since, armature resistance is quite small, starting current may be quite high (many times larger than
the rated current). A large machine, characterized by large rotor inertia (J), will pick up speed rather
slowly. Thus the level of high starting current may be maintained for quite some time so as to cause
serious damage to the brush/commutator and to the armature winding. Also the source should be
capable of supplying this burst of large current. The other loads already
connected to the same source, would experience a dip in the terminal voltage, every time a D.C motor
is attempted to start with full voltage. This dip in supply voltage is caused due to sudden rise in voltage
drop in the source's internal resistance. The duration for which this drop in voltage will persist once again
depends on inertia (size) of the motor.

Hence, for small D.C motors extra precaution may not be necessary during starting as large starting
current will very quickly die down because of fast rise in the back emf. However, for large motor, a
starter is to be used during starting.

3-POINT STARTER

Fig: 3 point starter

• L, F, A are the three terminals of the starter, to which external connections are made.

• R is the starting resistance, which is divided into various studs.

• To start the motor, close the supply switch and the brass arm L is moved to the right to touch stud
no.1 of R.

• It also touches the brass arc, thus current will flow through shunt field winding as well as the
armature.

• The motor starts rotating, the starting arm is moved gradually and completely when the speed is above
50% of its rated speed.
• Speed can be increased by field rheostat Rh if required.

• As long as motor is running and the supply is on, the brass arm L is held in the ON position by the
electromagnet E.

There are two protective devices in the starter; one is the electromagnet, (hold on coil).

• Under running condition when the power fails electromagnet E de-energizes and the spring S
attached to the brass arm pulls back to OFF position.

• The electromagnet E also prevents the motor from reaching dangerously high speed, when the field
circuit is opened under running condition. The second protective device is an electromagnet M which, is
known as the “over load release” (Over load protection).

• When the current increases beyond the rated value, M attracts D; thereby short circuiting the
electromagnet E. The electromagnet E gets de- energized and hence the arm L is pulled back to OFF
position.

• This starter is normally used for starting D.C shunt motors.

Introduction to BLDC Motors ( Brushless DC Motors)

Definition : A brushless DC motor consists of a rotor in form of a permanent magnet and stator in form of
polyphase armature windings. It differs from conventional dc motor in such that it doesn’t contains brushes
and the commutation is done using electrically, using a electronic drive to feed the stator windings.

Basically a BLDC motor can be constructed in two ways- by placing the rotor outside the core and the
windings in the core and another by placing the windings outside the core. In the former arrangement, the
rotor magnets act as a insulator and reduce the rate of heat dissipation from the motor and operates at low
current. It is typically used in fans. In the latter arrangement, the motor dissipates more heat, thus causing an
increase in its torque. It is used in hard disk drives.

Figure below represents the outer and inner rotor of BLDC

BLDC Motor

Principle of Working

The principles for the working of a BLDC motors are the same as for a brushed DC motor, i.e., the internal
shaft position feedback. In case of a brushed DC motor, feedback is implemented using a mechanical
commutator and brushes. Within BLDC motor, it is achieved using multiple feedback sensors. In BLDC motors
we mostly use Hall-effect sensor, whenever rotor magnetic poles pass near the hall sensor, they generate a
HIGH or LOW level signal, which can be used to determine the position of the shaft. If the direction of the
magnetic field is reversed, the voltage developed will reverse too.

Control unit is implemented by microelectronic has several high-tech choices. This may be implemented using
a micro-controller, a dedicated micro-controller, a hard-wired microelectronic unit, a PLC or similar other unit.
Advantages of Brushless DC Motors

 Better speed versus torque characteristics

 High dynamic response
 High efficiency
 Long operating life due to a lack of electrical and friction losses
 Noiseless operation
 Higher speed ranges

Applications of Brushless DC Motors

 Consumer electronics
 Transport
 Heating and ventilation
 Industrial engineering
 Model engineering
 Problems

1) A d.c series motor is running with a speed 800 rpm while taking a current of 20 A from the
supply. If the load is changed such that the current drawn by the motor is increased to 50A,
calculate the speed of the motor on new load. The armature and series field winding resistances
are 0.2 ohm and 0.3 ohm respectively. Assume that the flux produced is proportional to the
current. Assume the supply voltage as 250 V.
For load 1, N1 = 800 rpm, I1 = Ia1 = 20 A For
load 2, I1 = Ia2 = 50 A
Eb1 = 240 V ………………(Eb1 = V – Ia1 (Ra + Rse))
Eb2 = 225 V ………………(Eb2 = V – Ia2 (Ra + Rse))
 N2 = 300 rpm.
2) The armature current of a series motor is 60 A when on full load. If the load is adjusted so that
this current decreases to 40 A, find the new torque expressed as a percentage of full load
torque. The flux for a current of 40 A is 70% of that when the current is 60 A.

T∝ϕIa,

i) Full load torque = Tfl = ϕ x 60

ii) T40 = 0.7 ϕ x 40

Tfl/ T40 = 60 ϕ/ (0.7 ϕx 40)

T40 = 0.4667 Tfl
Torque at 40 A is 46.67% of full load torque
3) A 4 pole 250 V d.c. shunt motor has a back emf of 240.8 V and takes a current of 20 A.
Calculate the power developed. Take the resistance of the field winding as 250 ohms.
P=4
V = 250 V
Eb= 240.8 V
IL = 20A
Rsh= 250 ohms
Power developed = EbIa Ia
= IL – Ish and
Ish = V/Rsh
Ish = 250/250 =1 A Ia
= 20 – 1 = 19 A.
Power developed =240.8 x 19 = 4572.8 W.
4) A 230 V dc series motor takes 12 A and runs at 800 rpm. At what speed will it run, when 10
ohm resistance is connected in series with the armature the motor taking the same current at the
same supply voltage. Take Ra and Rse of the motor as 0.5 ohm each.
 V = 230 V
IL = Ia = Ise = 12 A
Ra = Rse = 0.5 ohms
Eb1 = V – IseRse- IaRa.
= 230 - 12 x 0.5 - 12 x 0.5 = 218.
When 10-ohm resistance is connected in series with the armature, then Eb2 =
V – Ise (Rse + Ra + 10)
= 230 - 12(0.5 + 10 + 0.5) = 98 V.
Let N2 be the corresponding speed then
Eb2/Eb1=(N2/N1) x (f1/f2) Since f1 = f2
N2 = (Eb2/Eb1) xN1
N2 = 98 x 800/218 =359.6 rpm.

BEE LAB SESSION:

4. Experimental demonstration of torque speed characteristics of

DC motors.
Procedure:

1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram

2. Keeping the rheostat R1 in the field circuit of motor in cut-out position, the rheostat R2 in
the armature circuit in cut in position of the motor , the supply switch is closed.
3. The motor is brought to its rated speed by cutting out the rheostat R2 and then by cutting in
the rheostat R1, if necessary.
4. No load readings of all meters and speed are noted down.
5. The motor is loaded by gradually applying the loads. At each load, readings of all the
meters and the speed are noted down.
6. The load on the motor is completely removed; all the rheostats are brought back to their
respective initial positions and the supply switch is opened.

Circuit Diagram:
Tabular column:

Sl.NO. Current Voltage N(Speed) S1(in S2(in T=

(I) in (V)in in rpm KG) Kg) 9.81*r*(S1~S2)
amps volts Hint: r=10.5cm
in Nm
 Expected Graph of torque(T) and Speed (N)

Result: Speed and Torque characteristics of DC motor is plotted by performing Load test on DC
motor.
 SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR
Introduction:

The machines generating ac emf are called as alternators. Theses work at specific constant speed
called synchronous speed and hence in general called synchronous generators. The main
difference b/w DC generators and alternators is that in alternators the field is rotating while
armature is stationary and the commutator absent.

Principle of Operation:

• Alternator (A.C generator) operates on the basic principle of electromagnetic induction

ie., when a conductor moves across a magnetic field or vice versa, an emf is induced in
the conductor (Dynamically induced emf).

• The magnetic poles are excited by D.C. supply with a source of 125 V or 250 V.

• The exciting current is obtained from small DC Generator which is mounted on the shaft
of the synchronous machine.

• When the rotor is rotated by means of any prime mover the stator conductors are cut by
magnetic field, hence an emf is induced in the stator conductor.

• The frequency of the induced emf is given by f = PN/120 Hz where P is the number of
poles and N is the speed in rpm.

Advantages of Stationary Armature:

1. It is simpler to insulate a stationary armature winding.

2. It is easier to brace armature winding against any deformation.

3. Only two slip rings are required for D.C supply for the rotor circuit.

4. Higher speed of the rotating field is possible.

5. It is easy to take power out from the stationary armature.

Construction of Alternator:

The alternator consists of two parts: Stator and Rotor. Most of the alternators has stator as
armature and rotor as field.
Stator:

Fig: 4.2.1. Stator of alternator [Ref: www.google.com]

It is stationary part of an alternator and it is built up of sheet steel of thin laminations having slots
on its inner periphery (shown in figure). A three phase star connected winding is placed in the
slots. The neutral of the winding is grounded. Steel is chosen to reduce hysteresis loss and
laminated to reduce eddy current loss.

Rotor: There are two types rotors namely: Salient pole rotor and. Smooth cylindrical rotor

Salient pole rotor:

Fig:4.2.2(a) Salient pole Rotor Fig:4.2.2(b) Smooth cylindrical Rotor

[Ref: DSI ppt]

Salient pole Rotor:

This is known as projected pole type as all the poles are projected out from the surface of the
surface. Poles are made of thick steel laminations and bolted to rotor. These rotors have large
diameter and small axial lengths. Mechanical strength is less, preferred for low speed
alternators(125rpm-500rpm)

Smooth cylindrical rotor: This is known as non-salient type of rotor. The un slotted portions
are the poles and surface is smooth which maintains uniform air gap b/w stator and rotor. These
have small diameters and large axial lengths. Mechanically strong and can be used for high speed
alternators (1500rpm-3000rpm)

Frequency of generated EMF:

If a conductor passes through a pair of poles, a complete cycle of emf will be induced.

Let f = frequency of generated emf, P = no of poles, N = speed in rpm.

Therefore, in one revolution, (P/2) pair of poles sweep past every armature conductor hence (P/2)
emf cycles in one revolution. In one second there are N/60 revolutions of rotor. Therefore,
number of cycles of the induced emf /sec = number of cycles/revolution x No. of revolutions/sec.

(P/2) x (N/60) = PN/120

i.e., f = PN/120 Hz.

EMF Equation of Synchronous Generator:

Let Z = number of conductors in series per phase

P = number of poles

= Flux per pole in webers

f = frequency of induced emf in Hertz.

N = Speed of rotor in rpm

Average emf induced per conductor = d / dt = P / (60 / N) = P N / 60 volts. -------- (1)

Frequency f = NP / 120 or N = 120f / P

Average emf induced per conductor = (P / 60) * (120f / P) = 2f volts.

For Z conductors in series per phase we have,

Average emf induced per phase = 2f Z volts -------- (2)

If T = number of turns per phase, then Z = 2T

Substituting Z in equation (2) we get,

Average emf induced per phase = 4f T volts

R.M.S value of emf induced = 4.44f T volts …(Kf = RMS Value /Average Value = 1.11)

R.M.S value of actual emf induced per phase = 4.44*Kc*Kd*f T volts.

Winding Factor:

The armature winding (conductor) of an alternator is distributed over the entire armature.
Generally we use short pitched, distributed windings, due to which voltage induced in the
armature will reduce. Short pitched windings are used to get better waveform and to reduce
unwanted harmonics.

Kw = Kp.Kd 0.95

Pitch Factor:

Pitch factor (Kp) = (vector sum of emf / arithmetic sum of emf)

Kp = cos( /2)

Kp = 1 for full pitched winding.

Distribution factor (Kd) = emf with distributed winding / emf with concentrated winding

Kd = sin (m /2) /(msin /2)

Kd = 1 for concentrated winding.

where and are short pitch angle, distribution angle respectively.

m is no. of slots/pole/phase

= 1800 / no. of slots per pole.

Problems:

1.The stator of an ac machine is wound for six poles, three phase. If the supply frequency is 25
Hz, what is the value of the synchronous speed?
Solution: Ns= 120f/P = 500 rpm

2.Calculate the phase emf induced in a 4 pole, 3 phase, 50 Hz, star connected alternator with 36
slots and 30 conductors per slot. The flux per pole is 0.05 Webers. Assume factor of 0.95.

Solution:

Total number of slots = 36, Frequency f = NP / 120 = 375 x 16 / 120 = 50 Hz

No. of slots per phase = 36 / 3 = 12

No. of conductors per slot = 30

No. of conductors per phase = 12 x 30 = 360

No. of turns per phase = T = 360 / 2 = 180

Assuming full pitch winding, pitch factor Kc = 1

Phase emf = Eph = 4KfKcKd f T volts

Eph = 4 x 1.11 x 1 x 0.95 x 50 x 0.05 x 180=1898V

3.A 3-phase, 16 pole alternator has a star connected winding having 144 slots and 10 conductors
per slot. The flux per pole is 0.03 Webers and speed is 375 rpm. Find the frequency and phase
and line voltage. Winding Factor Kd = 0.96, Pitch factor Kc = 1.

Solution:

Flux per pole, = 0.03 Webers

Frequency f = NP / 120 = 375 x 16 / 120 = 50 Hz

No. of slots per phase = 144 / 3 = 48

No. of conductors per slot = 10

No. of conductors per phase = 48 x 10 = 480

Turns per phase T = conductors per phase / 2 = 480/2 = 240

Form factor = Kf = 1.11

E.M.F generated per phase = Eph = 4KfKcKd f T volts

= 4 x 1.11 x 1 x 0.96 x 50 x 0.03 x 240

 = 1534 volts.

Line emf = 3 x 1534 = 2657 volts.

4.A 3-phase star connected alternator with 12 poles generates 1100 volts on open circuit at a
speed of 500 rpm. Assuming 180 turns per phase, a distribution factor of 0.96 and full pitched
coils, find the useful flux per pole.

Solution:

Given line emf = 1100 volts

E.M.F per phase, Eph = 1100 / 3 = 635 volts

f = NP / 120 = 500x12 / 120 = 50 Hz

Eph = 4KfKcKd f T volts --------- (1)

Kf = 1.11

For full-pitched winding,

Pitch Factor = Kc = 1

Distribution factor = Kd = 0.96

T = No. of turns per phase = 180

= Flux per pole (in Webers)

Substituting in expression (1) above,

Eph = 4KfKcKd f T volts

635 = 4 x 1.11 x 1 x 0.96 x 50 x x 180

Flux per pole = = 635 / 4.44 x 0.96 x 50 x 180

Flux per pole = = 0.0165 Webers

 UNIT-5

INTRODUCTION TO TRANSFORMERS
Transformer is a static electrical device . It transfers electrical power from one circuit to other
circuit , which are magnetically coupled and with no change in frequency and power. Basically
transformers are employed to increase or to decrease the A.C. voltage in a Power Transmission
System .

The Transformer used to increase the A.C. voltage is known as Step – Up Transformer ,
Transformer used to decrease the A.C. voltage is known as Step – Down Transformer and if the
transformer voltage is not changed it is known One – to – One Transformer .

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

Transformer operates on the principal of mutual induction between two coils. The horizontal
portion of steel core i.e, the top and bottom bars are called as Yoke. The vertical portion of the
steel core is known as Limbs.

N1 N2

Fig:5.1.1: Transformer [Referred from DSI ppt]

The two coils of primary and secondary are termed as N1 and N2 as shown in the above figure ,
these coils are wound on the two limbs of the Transformer . They are magnetically coupled via
magnetic flux in the core . The coil N1 connected to the Supply and the coil N2 connected to the
load. The principles involved in the operation of transformer are , An electric current produces a
magnetic field i.e., electro magnetism and changing magnetic field with in the coil induces an
EMF in the coil i.e. electromagnetic induction . Due to A.C. in the primary coil , it creates a
changing magnetic field ,in turn this magnetic field induces a voltage in the secondary circuit .
Thus , the electrical energy is transferred from one circuit to other circuit .

SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATION OF TRANSFORMER

N1
N1 N2 N2

Fig 5.1.2(a): Laminated core Fig 5.1.2(b): Non-laminated core.

Figure 5.1.2(a) & 5.1.2 (b) shows the transformer symbol ,the line in between the coils indicates
the lamination of the core. By designing number of turns of N1 and N2 the electrical power at
low or high voltage can be obtained .If the turns of the coil N1 is greater than the turns of the coil
N2 then it is Step down transformer, if the turns of the coil N1 is less than the turns of the coil N2
then it is Step up transformer and if the turns of the coils N 1and N 2 are equal then it is one to
one transformer .

CONSTRUCTION

In a single phase transformer shown in the figure above mentioned consists of mainly two parts
, they are (a) Windings,(b) Core

The winding wound on the limbs of the transformer are insulated from each other and also from
the limbs of the core . The windings are made of copper in order to posses low resistance . The
windings connected to supply are termed as primary windings (with N1 number of turns) and the
windings connected to load are termed as secondary windings (with N2 number of turns) .

The core is made up of silicon steel laminations to reduce eddy current losses with high relative
permeability and low hysteresis co-efficient . Transformers of small size are made up of single
piece of lamination and that of large size transformers are made of two or more sections of
laminations like E,L,I or T .The joints of such sectioned laminations are staggered while forming
the core in order to minimize the reluctance of the joints.
WORKING PRINCIPLE

Transformer works on the principle of mutual inductance . when a primary coil is connected to
an A.C. voltage V1 an alternating current (I1) flows through the coil an d induces an A.C. flux ( )
in the core of the transformer . Due to magnetic coupling , the flux induced by primary coil links
the secondary coil of the transformer . By the principle of electromagnetism a statically induced
EMF e1 and e2 are induced in the primary and secondary windings respectively . From Faraday‟s
Laws e1 and e2 are ,

E1 = -N1 / dt & e2 = -N2 / dt

e 2/e 2 = N2/N1 = E1/E2 = K

where K = Transformation ratio of Transformer

When the secondary windings are connected to load due to E2 an A.C. (I2) flows through the
winding and a voltage drop of V2 is obtained across the load terminal hence the voltage is termed
terminal voltage. The power transferred from one circuit to another circuit is same for a
transformer , hence

E1 I1 = E2 I2

E2 / E1 = I1 / I2 = N2 / N1 = K

( Note : The direction of E1 and E2 opposes the primary voltage V1 )

TYPES OF TRANSFORMERS

Based on the type of winding transformers are classified as ,

(a) Core Type Transformer

(b) Shell Type Transformer

Core Type Transformer :

In this type of transformer the primary windings and the secondary windings are wound on the
two limbs of the core and while making the symbolic representation the two windings are shown
to be wound on the two different limbs of the core but in actual practice apart of primary
winding and apart of secondary winding are wound on both the limbs of the core as shown in the
figure below in order to reduce the leakage flux .
 Fig: 5.1.3(a). Core type transformer [Referred from DSI ppt]

Transformer of small size is made of rectangular core and that of large sized transformers
cruciform core is employed .The oval or cylindrical shaped coils are wound in helical layers with
insulation from each other . The core is laminated to reduce eddy current loss. Core type
transformers are employed for low and medium voltage transmission system .

Shell Type Transformer :

In this type of transformer the core has three limbs , the primary windings and the secondary
windings are wound on the same middle limb of the core as shown in the figure below . Here the
core surrounds the portion of the both high voltage (HV) and low voltage (LV) windings on the
central limb. The windings are insulated from each other and the core . The rectangular core is
used with lamination to reduce eddy current losses .

Fig 5.1.3(b) Shell type transformer [Referred from DSI ppt]

Unlike core type , in shell type transformer the total flux from primary side to secondary side
divides half the times and returns through the outer limbs .
The selection made between core type and shell type is based on voltage rating , KVA rating ,
insulation stress , heat distribution and so on . As there is absence of space in shell type for
insulation it is preferred for economical low voltage construction but in core type the availability
of space is more for insulation hence preferred for high voltage application.

EMF EQUATION OF TRANSFORMER

Considering single phase core type transformer , by applying A.C. voltage to the primary
winding with RMS value , A.C. flows through the winding ,inducing alternating flux in both
primary and secondary windings . By Faraday‟s Laws , an EMFs e1 and e2 are induced in the
primary and secondary windings

V1 = Vm sin (ωt)

e1 = -N1 / dt -------- (1)

As the applied voltage is A.C. , the flux produced is also alternating in nature hence the equation
for flux is given by ,

Ф = Фm sin (ωt) ---------(2)

Substituting equation 2 in 1 , e1 = -N1 (Фm sin(ωt))/ dt

= -N1 Фm cos(ωt)

= 2πf N1 Фm sin(ωt - 90°)

(Note : sin(90°-Ɵ) = cos Ɵ , sin(Ɵ-90°) = -cos Ɵ , from the equation it is evident that the
induced EMF lags the flux by 90°)

Fig 5.1.4 Sinusoidal waveform [Referred from DSI ppt]

The maximum value of the magnitude of the EMF inthe primary coil is given by ,
 Em1 = 2πfФm N1

The Effective Value (RMS value ) of the EMF induced in the primary winding is given by ,

E1 = Em1 / √ 2 = 2πfФm N1 / √ 2 = 4.44fФmN1

E1 = 4.44f ФmN1

The above is the equation for the effective value of the EMF of the primary winding, similarly
the effective value of the EMF of the secondary winding is ,

E2 = 4.44fФmN2

The EMF induced in each coils of both primary and secondary windings is of Same value .

CHARACERISTICS OF IDEAL TRANSFORMER

The ideal transformer should posses the following properties ,

1. Ideal transformer has no losses .

2. Ideal transformer coils have resistance is zero .
3. The flux produced by primary completely links with the secondary windings without
any leakage of flux.
4. Transformation ratio , K = 1 always .
5. The applied voltage V1 is equal to the EMF induced in the primary coil i.e. V1=E1
and similarly on secondary side V2 = E2 .

CHARACERISTICS OF PRACTICAL TRANSFORMER

The ideal transformer should posses the fowling properties ,

1. Practical transformer has losses .

 2. Practical transformer coils have resistance value .
3. The flux produced by primary does not completely link with the secondary windings .
It has leakage of flux.
4. Transformation ratio , K is always less than one .
5. The applied voltage V1 is not equal to the EMF induced in the primary coil and
similarly on secondary side due to presence of losses

EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE

Fig: 5.1.5 Equivalent circuit of transformer

Transferring of impedances from primary and secondary side to vice versa can be done as shown
in the above figure , we can even exclude ideal transformer and get the simplified circuits and
equations as ,

R01 = R1 + R2 / k2 X01 = X1 + X1 / k2
R02 = R2 + R1 * k2 X02 = X2 + X1 * k2

Z01 = Z1 + Z1 / k2 Z02 = Z2 + Z1 * k2

LOSSES IN A TRANSFORMER

Transformer is a static device hence it does not contain any moving parts , it has no frictional
losses but has windage losses and core losses . The types of loses that occur in the transformer
are , (1) Core losses, (2) Copper losses

Core losses [Wi or Pi]: It occurs in the iron core of the transformer it is also called as Iron Losses
it occurs due to presence of A.C. and frequency in the core . It is also known as Constant Loss
due the fact that the supply voltage and frequency are kept constant . It is of two types (a) Eddy
current losses & (b) Hysteresis losses

Eddy current losses [We or Pe]: It occurs in the transformer due to the the flow of A.C. Eddy
Current in the laminated core of the transformer . It heats up the core and causes power losses in
the core . It is given by Steinmetz empirical formula ,

We or Pe = β *B2m * f2 *t2 * v Watts

To minimize eddy current losses the core of transformer is made of thin insulated laminations
from vanish or an oxide layer with high permeability magnetic material .

Hysteresis losses [Wh or Ph] : It occurs in the core due to the fact that the it under goes number
of cycles of magnetization . The Hysteresis losses of the transformer is given by ,

Wh or Ph = Ș * B1.6m * f *v Watts

To minimize the hysteresis losses of transformer a proper magnetic material must be used for
core material of the transformer .

Copper Losses [Wcu or Pcu ]: Copper losses in the transformer is due to the copper windings
wound on the limbs of the transformer core . It occurs in the both primary (R1) and secondary
(R2) turn resistances. It is known as variable losses as the secondary current I2 varies as per the
load on transformer.

Wcu or Pcu = copper losses in primary coil + copper losses in secondary coil

Wcu or Pcu = I12 * R1 + I22 * R2 Watts

In terms of equivalent resistance , Wcu = I12 * [R1 + R'] = I22 * [R2 + R']

= I12 * [R01] = I22 * [R02]

Where , R01 = R1 + R2 / k2
R02 = R2 + R1 * k2

Copper losses are minimized by designing coils with low resistance value .

Total Losses of the transformer = Iron losses + Copper losses

 Losses = Wi +Wcu Watts

EFFICIENCY OF THE TRANSFORMER

Because of the losses in the transformer the output power [Pout] is not equal to the power input
[Pin] of the transformer . Hence ,

Power Output = Power Input – Power Losses

Power Input = Power Output + Power Losses = Pout + Pi +Pcu

Efficiency of the transformer is give by ,

Ș = Power output / Power input = Pout / Pin

Ș = V2 I2 cos Ф2 / V2 I2 cos Ф2 + Pi + R02 I22

where , V2 I2 = VA rating of transformer

Ș = ( VA rating ) * cos Ф / ( VA rating ) * cos Ф + Pi + [Pcu]F.L.

% Ș = ( VA rating ) * cos Ф*100 / ( VA rating ) * cos Ф + Pi + [Pcu]F.L.

The above equation given the formula for FULL LOAD efficiency of the transformer . But on
the transformer will not be a full load condition every time , so the equation for fractional loads
on the transformer id given below . Accordingly the copper losses also will vary as the current I2
varies .

Let n or x = fraction load on the transformer

If the load is 50% of Full load then n = Half load / Full load = 50 /100 =0.5

When the load varies on the transformer the load current or the secondary current I2 varies as per
the fraction of the load , I2 α Fraction Load

Therefore , new I2 = n(I2) F.L. and hence , new Pcu = R02 (n I2)2
New Pcu = n2 [Pcu] F.L.

Therefore , efficiency of the transformer for fractional load is given by ,

% Ș =n* ( VA rating ) * cos Ф*100 / n* ( VA rating ) * cos Ф + Pi + n2[Pcu]F.L.

Where , n or x = fractional load on the transformer

CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY:

(Referred from DSI ppt)

Output power = V2I2 cos

If R02 = total resistance referred to secondary of the transformer, then

Total copper loss at any load = X2I22R02

Iron loss = Wi (constant loss)

Total losses = Wi + X2I22R02

V2 2
I cos
V I cos X 2WCU
2 2
Wi

In the above equation, the load current I2 is the variable quantity. Hence, efficiency is
differentiated w.r.t. I2 and equated to zero.

d d V2 I2 cos
0
dI2 dI2 V2I2 cos Wi X 2I22R 02
Wi = X2I22R02 or Iron loss = copper loss

Hence efficiency of transformer is maximum when Iron loss = copper loss.

OUTPUT KVA CORRESPONDING TO MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY:

(Referred from DSI ppt)

At maximum efficiency

Wi = (X) 2 Wcu

X = (Iron loss/full load copper loss)

Output kVA at maximum efficiency = full load kVA (Wi/Wcu)

 Expression of Voltage Regulation of Transformer

Where , E2= No load voltage , V2=Full load Voltage

PROBLEMS:

(Referred from DSI ppt)

1. A 40 kVA transformer has a core loss of 450 watt, and full load copper loss of 850 watt.
If the power factor of the load is 0.8, calculate (i) the full load efficiency (ii) maximum
efficiency.

Solution: = efficiency at 0.8 power factor and at full load.

output = 40 x 0.8 x 103 W

input = 40 x 0.8 x 103 + (0.45 +0.85 ) x 103 W

= Output/input

= 96.1 %

(ii) Let x be the x times full load

Total losses = (0.45 + 0.85 x2) kW

Iron loss = Full load copper loss (at maximum efficiency)

0.45 = 0.85 x2

x = 0.7276

Output at maximum efficiency = = 0.7276 x 40 x 0.8 = 23.28 kW

Input = 24.18 kW
23.28
Maximum efficiency 100 96.3%
24.18

2.A 25 kVA, single-phase transformer has 500 turns on the primary and 40 turns on the
secondary winding. The primary is connected to 3000 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate (i) Primary
and Secondary currents on full-load (ii) The secondary emf (iii) The maximum flux in the core.

Solution:

Given rating = 25 kVA

 Primary applied voltage V1 = 3000 Volts

Number of primary turns, N1 = 500

Number of secondary turns, N2 = 40

i) Full load primary current I1 = kVA rating x 1000 / Rated primary voltage, V1

I1 = 25 x 1000 / 3000 = 8.33 A

Turns ratio, K = N2 / N1 = 40 / 500 = 0.08

We have, I1 / I2 = N2 / N1

Full load secondary current, I2 = 8.33 {1/0.08} = 104.125 A

2.A 40 kVA single phase transformer has 500 turns on the primary and 100 turns on the
secondary windings. The primary is connected to 3000 V, 50 Hz a.c. supply.Determine i)
secondary voltage on open circuit (ii) Current flowing through the two windings on full load. (iii)
Maximum value of flux.

Solution:

i) We know that

(V2 / V1) = (N2 / N1)

(V2/3000) = (100/500)

V2 = 600 V

ii) V2I2 = 40,000 V

I2 = 66.7 A

iii) E1 = V1 = 4.44 f N1 m

3000 = 4.44 x 50 x 500 x m

m = 0.027 Wb
 UNIT-4
INDUCTION MOTOR

Introduction:
A three phase induction motor is a three phase ac motor. These motors are widely used for many
industrial applications. The advantages of induction motor are:

(1) Construction is simple, rugged, unbreakable.

(2) Low cost and highly reliable.
(3) It has high efficiency.
(4) It works with good power factor at rated load.
(5) Less maintenance
(6) Small IM are self starting and large motors starting arrangement is simple.

Disadvantages:

1. It‟s a constant speed motor, hence speed cannot be varied easily.

2. Its starting torque is less, compared to dc shunt motor.

Construction: A 3Ф IM has mainly two parts. Stator and Rotor.

Stator:

Fig. 5.2.1 Stator of three phase IM [Ref:DSI ppt]

 1. The stator is enclosed in steel frame which has hallow cylindrical core made up of thin
laminations of silicon steel to reduce eddy current loss and hysteresis loss.
2. The stator conductors are placed in the slots which are insulated from one another and
from the slots.
3. Conductors are connected as a balanced three phase star or delta winding.
4. Windings are wound for a definite number of poles and speed.
Ns=120f/P
Ns= Synchronous speed
f=frequency
P=number of poles.
5. When 3Ф supply is applied to stator winding a magnetic field of constant magnitude
rotating at synchronous speed is produced.
6. Rotating magnetic field is responsible for producing torque in the rotor.

Rotor: It is the rotating part of IM, which is mounted on the shaft to which the mechanical load
is connected. There are two types are rotor: Squirrel cage rotor and Phase wound rotor.

Squirrel cage rotor:

Fig 5.2.2(a): Squirrel cage induction motor [Ref: DSI ppt]

Almost 90% of IM are squirrel cage type, as their construction is simple and rugged. Its consists
of cylindrical laminated core with slots for carrying rotor windings. The rotor windings are
heavy bars of copper or aluminum. Each slot has one bar of copper placed in it. All the bars are
welded at both the ends of the end rings, thereby short circuiting both ends of the rotor. Slots are
skewed to reduce the noise due to magnetic hum and to make the rotor run quietly. It also
reduces the locking tendency between rotor and stator.

Advantages:

1.Simple and rugged construction and can withstand rough handling.

2.Low cost of maintenance and repair.

3.Good efficiency and power factor.

4.Simple star-delta starter is sufficient for starting.

Disadvantages:

1. Size of slip ring IM of same capacity is more than squirrel cage IM.

2. Costlier as the construction is complicated.

3. High maintenance cost and repair.

Applications:

Used for loads which require high starting torque such hoists, cranes, etc

Phase wound rotor:

 Fig 5.2.2(b): Phase wound rotor [Ref: DSI ppt]

The rotor is laminated, cylindrical having uniform slots on its outer periphery. A 3 phase which
is star connected is placed in these slots. The open end of star winding is brought out and
connected to 3 insulated slip rings, mounted on the shaft with carbon brushes resting on them.
Three brushes are externally connected to 3 phase star connected rheostat which is used as
starter. When running under normal conditions the slip rings are automatically short circuited by
means of metal collar, which is pushed along the shaft that connects all the rings. Brushes are
lifted from slip rings to reduce frictional losses and wear and tear.

Advantages:

1.Has external resistance in the rotor circuit which is used to start.

2.Has high starting torque and low starting current.

3.Smooth running motor

4.Slip ring IM of very high capacity can be built.

5. Explosion proof due to absence of slip ring and brush.

Disadvantages:

1.Low starting torque, hence pf is also low.

Dept.of EEE,DSCE Page 140
2.Starting current is high, no smooth running.

Applications.

Used for loads which require normal starting torque such as lathes,etc.

Concept of rotating magnetic field:

Fig: 5.2.3 (a) Stator Fig: 5.2.3(b) Rotor.

Fig: 5.2.3(c) Three phase waveform [Ref: DSI ppt]

a) At = 0o

This corresponds to point O in the figure of waveforms of phases R,Y and B.

3 3
R 0, Y m, B m
2 2

3
2 60 3 3
cos 3 m m
T
2 m 2 2 2
b) At = 60 , corresponding to point 1 in the figure of waveforms of phases R,Y and B.

3
R m
2

3
Y m B
2

3 3
T 2 m cos 30 m
2 2
The resultant flux is again 3/ 2 Фm , but has rotated clockwise through an angle of 60 .

c) At =120 i.e. corresponds to point 2 in the figure of waveforms of phases R,Y and B.

3 3
R m, Y 0, B m
2 2

3
T m
2
 Thus, once again the resultant has the same value, but has further rotated clockwise
through an angle of 60 .

d) At = 180 , i.e. relating to point 3 in the figure of waveforms of phases R,Y and B.

3 3
R 0, Y m, B m
2 2

The resultant is 3/ 2 Фm , and has rotated clockwise through an additional angle of 60 ,

or through

an angle of 180 from the beginning. Thus, we come to the following conclusions:

1. The resultant flux is of constant value = 3/ 2 Фm , i.e. 1.5 times the maximum value of
the flux due to any phase.
120f
2. The resultant flux rotates around the stator at synchronous edS given by
speN
p
where P = number of stator poles and f = supply frequency in Hz.

Working principle:

Fig: 5.2.4 Working principle of Induction motor [Ref: DSI ppt]

• When the stator of a 3-phase induction motor is connected to a 3-phase a.c supply, a
rotating magnetic field is established which rotates at synchronous speed.

• The magnetic flux of constant amplitude, rotating at synchronous speed, passes through
the air-gap and cuts the rotor conductors which are stationary.

• Due to the relative speed between the rotating flux and the stationary conductors an e.m.f
is induced in the latter as per Faraday‟s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction.

• The frequency of the induced e.m.f is the same as the supply frequency. Its magnitude is
proportional to the relative velocity between the flux and the conductors, and its direction
is given by Fleming‟s Right-Hand Rule.

• Since the rotor conductors form a closed circuit, rotor current is produced, whose
direction in terms of Lenz‟s Law is such as to oppose the very cause producing it.

• Here, the cause which produces the rotor current is the relative velocity between the
rotating field and the stationary rotor.

• Hence, to reduce this relative speed, the rotor starts running in the same direction as the
stator field in an effort to catch up with it.

• In figure, the stator field is shown as rotating in an anticlockwise direction.

• The relative motion of the rotor with respect to the stator is clockwise.

• By applying the Right-hand Rule, the direction of the induced e.m.f in the rotor is
outwards.

• So, the direction of the flux because of the rotor current alone is as shown in figure.

• Considering the effect of both rotor and stator fields, the rotor conductors are subjected to
a force tending to rotate them in the anticlockwise direction.

• Thus the rotor is made to rotate in the same direction as the stator field.

• As discussed earlier the rotor follows the stator field.

• In actual practice, the rotor can never reach the speed of the stator field.

• If it does so, there would be no relative movement between the stator field and rotor
conductors, no induced rotor current, and therefore, no torque to drive the rotor.

• Hence, the rotor speed is always less than the speed of the stator field.
• The difference in the speed between stator field and rotor depends on the load.

Slip:

• The difference between the synchronous speed NS and the actual speed N of the rotor is
called slip speed. (The quantity NS N is sometimes called the slip-speed.)

• It is usually expressed as a percentage of synchronous speed.

• It is apparent that the rotor (or motor) speed is N = NS (1 S).

• In an induction motor, the change in slip from no-load to full-load is hardly 3 - 6%, so
that the induction motor is essentially a constant speed motor

Frequency of Rotor Current:

• When the rotor is at standstill, the frequency of rotor current is the same as the supply
frequency.

• When there is relative speed between the rotor and the stator field, the frequency of the
induced voltage, and hence the current, in the rotor varies with the rotor speed i.e., slip

• Let at any speed N of the rotor, the frequency of the rotor current be f‟.

• Hence, the frequency of rotor current (or e.m.f) may be obtained by multiplying the
supply frequency by fractional slip.

Rotor Torque:

The torque T on the rotor is directly proportional to

Rotor current at standstill, I2

Magnitude of the rotating flux per stator pole,

cos 2 (p.f. of the rotor circuit)

2 = angle between rotor e.m.f. and rotor current

T F I2 cos 2

or T E2 I2 cos 2
 Torque-Slip Characteristics:

Fig: 5.2.5. Torque –slip characteristics. [Ref: DSI ppt]

• This maximum torque is known as pull-out or breakdown torque.

• When the slip increases beyond that corresponding to maximum torque, the term (sX2)2
increases very rapidly R22 may be neglected as compared to (sX2)2.

• Thus, the torque is now inversely proportional to slip, and the torque-slip curve is a
rectangular hyperbola.

• We see that any further increase in motor load beyond the point of maximum torque,
results in decrease of torque developed by the motor.

• As a result, the motor slows down and ultimately stops.

• So, stable running of the motor lies between the values of s = 0 and that corresponding to
maximum torque.

Starters for 3-Phase Induction Motors:

 Fig: 5.2.6. Star –delta starter. [Ref: DSI ppt]

• During the normal operation of the motor, it has the full rated voltage applied across it.

• However, at the time of starting, it draws about 5 to 7 times the full load current and
produces only 1.5 to 2.5 times the full load torque, when it is directly connected to the
supply.

• This large initial surge of current is due to the absence of back emf during starting.

• This large starting current is objectionable, as it is sure to cause damage to the motor;
besides it causes large line drop, adversely affecting the operation of other connected
apparatus to the line.

• Hence, in the case of a squirrel cage induction motor, where the rotor of the motor is
permanently short-circuited, a reduced voltage is applied at starting, and the voltage is
increased to the rated value, when the motor has picked up speed. The reduced voltage is
obtained by using a starter.

• In the case of slip-ring induction motors, resistance can be included in the rotor circuit
during starting and can be removed when the motor picks up speed.

• Squirrel–cage motors are generally started by operating the changeover switch of a star-
delta starter.

• The starter connects the three stator windings in star at the instant of starting and as the
motor picks up the normal speed, the starter is switched over to the running position, to
connect the stator windings in delta.
• The voltage of each phase at starting is reduced by factor of 1/√3.

• The current in each phase is also reduced by the same factor. Thus, the line current during
starting is of the current which the motor would have taken if it had been directly
connected across the mains supply.

• As T V2 the starting torque is reduced.

• The changeover switch is of the double-throw type, with interlocks to prevent the motor
from starting when the switch is in the RUN position.

• An overload relay is provided, whose contact will open in the event of overload, stopping
the motor as supply to one of the stator windings is disconnected.

• An under voltage coil is incorporated, so that if the supply voltage falls below a particular
value, the stop button will be operated and supply to a stator phase will be disconnected,
again bringing the motor to halt.

• The stop button can also be manually operated, in order to stop the machine.

Problems:

1. A 3-phase, 4-pole, 400 V, 50 Hz induction motor runs with a speed of 1440 rpm.
Calculate its slip.

Solution:
120f 120 50
Synchronous speed, Ns
P

Rotor speed N Ns 1 s

1500 s 60 or 0.04 or
 2. The frequency of the emf in the stator of a 4-pole induction motor is 50 Hz and in the rotor
is 1.5 Hz. What is the slip and at what speed is the motor running?

Solution:

Synchronous speed, f sf or 1.5 s 50

s 0.03 or 3%

Ns

Rotor speed, N Ns 1 s

=1500(1-0.03)

=1455RPM
 BEE LAB SESSION:

3. Demonstration of transformer cut section

A transformer is a static electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two or
more circuits. A varying current in one coil of the transformer produces a varying magnetic flux,
which, in turn, induces a varying electromotive force across a second coil wound around the
same core. Electrical energy can be transferred between the two coils, without a electrical
connection between the two circuits. Faraday's law of induction discovered in 1831 described the
induced voltage effect in any coil due to changing magnetic flux encircled by the coil.
Transformers are used for increasing or decreasing the alternating voltages in electric power
applications, and for coupling the stages of signal processing circuits.
Since the invention of the first constant-potential transformer in 1885, transformers have become
essential for the transmission, distribution, and utilization of alternating current electric power. A
wide range of transformer designs is encountered in electronic and electric power applications.
Transformers range in size from RF transformers less than a cubic centimeter in volume, to units
weighing hundreds of tons used to interconnect the power grid.
 4. Demonstration of induction motor cut section

An induction motor or asynchronous motor is an AC electric motor in which the electric

current in the rotor needed to produce torque is obtained by electromagnetic induction from
the magnetic field of the stator winding. An induction motor can therefore be made without
electrical connections to the rotor. An induction motor's rotor can be either wound
type or squirrel-cage type.
Three-phase squirrel-cage induction motors are widely used as industrial drives because they are
self-starting, reliable and economical. Single-phase induction motors are used extensively for
smaller loads, such as household appliances like fans. Although traditionally used in fixed-speed
service, induction motors are increasingly being used with variable-frequency drives (VFDs) in
variable-speed service. VFDs offer especially important energy savings opportunities for existing
and prospective induction motors in variable-torque centrifugal fan, pump and compressor load
applications. Squirrel cage induction motors are very widely used in both fixed-speed
and variable-frequency drive (VFD) applications.