Principles of Developmental Theories
There are seven general principles of child development, which demonstrate that all life
follows a similar pattern. They are as follows:
1. Children are competent; they are brought into life with the ability to grow and survive.
2. Children at any age resemble one another in terms of physical development and similar types
of behavior.
3. Each child is unique.
4. Growth and development are directional.
a. The human embryo develops from head to toe (cephalocaudal).
b. It also develops from center to the outside (medial-lateral).
5. Development is timely.
a. There is a specific amount of time when a child learns a particular task to its maximum
achievement with enthusiasm and without effort. Montessori referred to these times as
“sensitive periods.”
b. Some of the sensitive periods for toddlers are movement, interest in tiny objects, grace
and courtesy, and language.
c. The important things that need to be accomplished during the sensitive periods are
separation, trust, autonomy, and self-control.
6. New skills tend to predominate the child’s behavior; children love to do over and over what
they just learned how to do.
7. Many aspects of development are interrelated.
Types of Developmental Theories
A theory is a detailed, organized, internally consistent framework for the study and
interpretation of development. There are four main types of developmental theories: biological,
stimulus/response, stage, and systems theory.
1. Biological theory contends that behavior comes from an internal influence, i.e., genetics.
Proponents of biological theory are Charles Darwin and Arnold Gesell.
2. Stimulus/response theory, also known as learning theory or behavior modification, states that
behavior is learned, not inherited. An organism makes an action, receives a reward or
punishment (reinforcement), and has its consequence which either changes or causes the
behavior to stop or continue. Proponents of stimulus-response theory are Ivan Pavlov, B. F.
Skinner, John Watson and, most recently, Gerald Patterson. While popularly utilized in many
schools and homes, Montessorians understand that this theory undermines the inner teacher.
3. Stage theory contends that both internal and external influences shape behavior and are
equally important. It describes development in stages or periods, where each stage has a
characteristic that is dominant. Montessori is largely a stage theory with stages or planes of
development. The two major types of stage theories are the psychoanalytic and cognitive.
4. Ecological systems theory was developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner. It offers a framework
through which community psychologists examine individuals’ relationships within
communities and the wider society. The theory is also commonly referred to as the
ecological/systems framework.
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Influential Theories
Freudian Psychosexual Theory
Psychoanalytic theory believes that unconscious motives control much of behavior. The
first and most well-known psychoanalytic theorist was Sigmund Freud. His work is also known
as psychosexual theory. According to his daughter, Anna Freud, he was known to say, “If all
children had Montessori, they wouldn’t need me.” There are seven main principles of his theory:
1. The mind is the principal organ used to resolve conflict.
2. The unconscious mind is the seat of memories, fantasies, fears, and motives that the
individual is unaware of at a conscious level.
3. The material in the unconscious can influence and change the behavior of a person.
4. The mind is composed of the id, ego, and superego. In mentally healthy people these three
parts are in harmony. If the parts of the mind oppose one another, there is conflict, and this
can lead to mental disturbance.
5. People contrive defense mechanisms to keep painful memories in the unconscious from
entering the conscious mind. These defense mechanisms protect the ego and help the
individual to cope.
6. The underlying motive for human behavior is the sexual drive, which Freud called the
“libido.”
7. Freud believed that a person passes through several stages of sexual development that begin
at birth. At each stage, the individual learns to control his sexual impulse. If he gets fixated in
an early stage and normal development is interrupted, mental illness or problems result.
8. Freud’s stages are:
a. Oral – Birth to one year
b. Anal – One to three years
c. Phallic – Three to six years
d. Latency – Six to twelve years
e. Genital – Twelve to eighteen-plus years
Erikson’s Stages of Personality Development
Another well-known psychoanalytic therapist and theorist is Erik Erikson. Erikson was
trained in Montessori during his years in Vienna, but he never taught. He identified what he
called the “identity crisis” as a conflict that threatens a person’s identity. A person goes through
eight stages to resolve conflict. Out of these eight stages, personality develops based on how well
the conflicts are resolved. The eight stages and the opposing forces within each stage are:
1. Trust versus mistrust
2. Autonomy versus shame and doubt
3. Initiative versus guilt
4. Industry versus inferiority
5. Identity versus role confusion
6. Intimacy versus isolation
7. Generativity versus self-absorption
8. Integrity versus despair
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A more recent psychoanalytic theorist is Margaret Mahler, who studied the child in
relation to his primary bonds. She believed that the child goes through a process of separation
and individuation to become a separate individual. The textbook, Oneness and Separateness, was
written by one of her students.
Piaget’s Cognitive Theory
The most well-known cognitive theorist is Jean Piaget, who believed that children pass
through three periods of mental development. He identified these periods as:
1. Sensory-motor: Birth-24 months, when children obtain knowledge through their senses.
2. Conceptual thought: Two to eleven years, when children develop language and drawing
ability and begin to think logically.
3. Cognitive thought: Eleven to fifteen years, when children begin to reason realistically about
the future and deal with abstractions. This is also known as the “period of formal operations.”
Constructivism Theory
Constructivism is based on the idea that people actively construct or make their own
knowledge, and that reality is determined by your experiences as a learner. Montessori education
is very much a constructivist approach. Lev Vygotsky believed that child development is a form
of social constructivism based on the idea that cognitive functions are the products of social
interactions.
Maria Montessori’s Stages of Development
We will closely examine this theory in your next unit.
