4.1.

1 Energy changes in a system, and the ways energy is stored

before and after such changes
4.1.1.1 Energy stores and systems
Content Key opportunities for
skills development

A system is an object or group of objects. The link between work done

(energy transfer) and
There are changes in the way energy is stored when a system
current flow in a circuit is
changes.
covered in Energy transfers
Students should be able to describe all the changes involved in the (page 29).
way energy is stored when a system changes, for common
WS 4.5
situations. For example:
• an object projected upwards
• a moving object hitting an obstacle
• an object accelerated by a constant force
• a vehicle slowing down
• bringing water to a boil in an electric kettle.
Throughout this section on Energy students should be able to
calculate the changes in energy involved when a system is changed
by:
• heating
• work done by forces
• work done when a current flows

• use calculations to show on a common scale how the overall WS 1.2, 4.3, 4.5, 4.6
energy in a system is redistributed when the system is
MS 1a, c, 3b, c
changed.

4.1.1.2 Changes in energy

Content Key opportunities for
skills development

Students should be able to calculate the amount of energy WS 1.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.6
associated with a moving object, a stretched spring and an object
MS 1a, c, 3b, c
raised above ground level.

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Content Key opportunities for

skills development

The kinetic energy of a moving object can be calculated using the MS 3b, c
equation:
Students should be able to
kinetic energ y = 0.5 × mass × s peed
2 recall and apply this
equation.
Ek = 1
2
m v2
kinetic energy, Ek, in joules, J
mass, m, in kilograms, kg
speed, v, in metres per second, m/s
The amount of elastic potential energy stored in a stretched spring
can be calculated using the equation:

elastic potential energ y = 0.5 × s pring constant × extension

2 MS 3b, c
Students should be able to
Ee = 1
k e2
2 apply this equation which is
(assuming the limit of proportionality has not been exceeded) given on the Physics
equation sheet.
elastic potential energy, Ee, in joules, J
spring constant, k, in newtons per metre, N/m
extension, e, in metres, m
The amount of gravitational potential energy gained by an object
raised above ground level can be calculated using the equation:

g . p . e . = mass × gravitational f ield strength × height MS 3b, c

Ep = m g h Students should be able to
recall and apply this
gravitational potential energy, Ep, in joules, J equation.
mass, m, in kilograms, kg AT 1
gravitational field strength, g, in newtons per kilogram, N/kg (In any Investigate the transfer of
calculation the value of the gravitational field strength (g) will be energy from a gravitational
given). potential energy store to a
height, h, in metres, m kinetic energy store.

4.1.1.3 Energy changes in systems

Content Key opportunities for
skills development

The amount of energy stored in or released from a system as its

temperature changes can be calculated using the equation:

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Content Key opportunities for
skills development

change in thermal energ y = mass × s peci f ic heat ca pacit y MS 3b, c

× tem perature change
Students should be able to
∆E = m c ∆θ apply this equation which is
given on the Physics
change in thermal energy, ∆E, in joules, J
equation sheet.
mass, m, in kilograms, kg
This equation and specific
specific heat capacity, c, in joules per kilogram per degree Celsius, heat capacity are also
J/kg °C included in Temperature
changes in a system and
temperature change, ∆θ, in degrees Celsius, °C
specific heat capacity (page
The specific heat capacity of a substance is the amount of energy 34).
required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of the substance
by one degree Celsius.

Required practical activity 1: investigation to determine the specific heat capacity of one or more
materials. The investigation will involve linking the decrease of one energy store (or work done) to
the increase in temperature and subsequent increase in thermal energy stored.
AT skills covered by this practical activity: AT 1 and 5.
This practical activity also provides opportunities to develop WS and MS. Details of all skills are
given in Key opportunities for skills development (page 89).

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4.1.1.4 Power
Content Key opportunities for
skills development

Power is defined as the rate at which energy is transferred or the MS 3b, c

rate at which work is done.
Students should be able to
power = energ y trans f erred recall and apply both
time
equations.
E
P = t
work done
power = time

W
P = t

power, P, in watts, W
energy transferred, E, in joules, J
time, t, in seconds, s
work done, W, in joules, J
An energy transfer of 1 joule per second is equal to a power of 1
watt.
Students should be able to give examples that illustrate the
definition of power eg comparing two electric motors that both lift
the same weight through the same height but one does it faster
than the other.

4.1.2 Conservation and dissipation of energy

4.1.2.1 Energy transfers in a system
Content Key opportunities for
skills development

Energy can be transferred usefully, stored or dissipated, but cannot

be created or destroyed.
Students should be able to describe with examples where there are
energy transfers in a closed system, that there is no net change to
the total energy.
Students should be able to describe, with examples, how in all
system changes energy is dissipated, so that it is stored in less
useful ways. This energy is often described as being ‘wasted’.

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Content Key opportunities for
skills development

Students should be able to explain ways of reducing unwanted WS 1.4

energy transfers, for example through lubrication and the use of
AT 1, 5
thermal insulation.
Investigate thermal
The higher the thermal conductivity of a material the higher the rate
conductivity using rods of
of energy transfer by conduction across the material.
different materials.
Students should be able to describe how the rate of cooling of a
building is affected by the thickness and thermal conductivity of its
walls.
Students do not need to know the definition of thermal conductivity.

Required practical activity 2 (physics only): investigate the effectiveness of different materials
as thermal insulators and the factors that may affect the thermal insulation properties of a material.
AT skills covered by this practical activity: AT 1 and 5.
This practical activity also provides opportunities to develop WS and MS. Details of all skills are
given in Key opportunities for skills development (page 90).

4.1.2.2 Efficiency
Content Key opportunities for
skills development

The energy efficiency for any energy transfer can be calculated MS 3b, c
using the equation:
Students should be able to
e f f iciency = use f ul out put energ y trans f er recall and apply both
total in put energ y trans f er
equations.
Efficiency may also be calculated using the equation:
MS 1a, c, 3b, c
use f ul power out put
e f f iciency = total power in put Students may be required
to calculate or use efficiency
values as a decimal or as a
percentage.

(HT only) Students should be able to describe ways to increase the (HT only) WS 1.4
efficiency of an intended energy transfer.

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4.1.3 National and global energy resources

Content Key opportunities for
skills development

The main energy resources available for use on Earth include: fossil WS 4.4
fuels (coal, oil and gas), nuclear fuel, bio-fuel, wind, hydro-
electricity, geothermal, the tides, the Sun and water waves.
A renewable energy resource is one that is being (or can be)
replenished as it is used.
The uses of energy resources include: transport, electricity
generation and heating.
Students should be able to:
• describe the main energy sources available
• distinguish between energy resources that are renewable and
energy resources that are non-renewable
• compare ways that different energy resources are used, the
uses to include transport, electricity generation and heating
• understand why some energy resources are more reliable
than others

• describe the environmental impact arising from the use of WS 1.3, 1.4
different energy resources

• explain patterns and trends in the use of energy resources. WS 3.5

Descriptions of how energy resources are used to generate

electricity are not required.

Students should be able to: WS 1.3, 1.4, 4.4

• consider the environmental issues that may arise from the use MS 1c, 2c, 4a
of different energy resources
• show that science has the ability to identify environmental
issues arising from the use of energy resources but not
always the power to deal with the issues because of political,
social, ethical or economic considerations.

4.2 Electricity
Electric charge is a fundamental property of matter everywhere. Understanding the difference in
the microstructure of conductors, semiconductors and insulators makes it possible to design
components and build electric circuits. Many circuits are powered with mains electricity, but
portable electrical devices must use batteries of some kind.
Electrical power fills the modern world with artificial light and sound, information and entertainment,
remote sensing and control. The fundamentals of electromagnetism were worked out by scientists
of the 19th century. However, power stations, like all machines, have a limited lifetime. If we all

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continue to demand more electricity this means building new power stations in every generation –
but what mix of power stations can promise a sustainable future?

4.2.1 Current, potential difference and resistance

4.2.1.1 Standard circuit diagram symbols
Content Key opportunities for
skills development

Circuit diagrams use standard symbols. WS 1.2

Students should be able to draw and interpret circuit diagrams.

4.2.1.2 Electrical charge and current

Content Key opportunities for
skills development

For electrical charge to flow through a closed circuit the circuit must
include a source of potential difference.

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Content Key opportunities for

skills development

Electric current is a flow of electrical charge. The size of the electric MS 3b, c
current is the rate of flow of electrical charge. Charge flow, current
Students should be able to
and time are linked by the equation:
recall and apply this
charge f low = current × time equation.
Q =It
charge flow, Q, in coulombs, C
current, I, in amperes, A (amp is acceptable for ampere)
time, t, in seconds, s
A current has the same value at any point in a single closed loop.

4.2.1.3 Current, resistance and potential difference

Content Key opportunities for
skills development

The current (I) through a component depends on both the

resistance (R) of the component and the potential difference (V)
across the component. The greater the resistance of the component
the smaller the current for a given potential difference (pd) across
the component.
Questions will be set using the term potential difference. Students
will gain credit for the correct use of either potential difference or
voltage.

Current, potential difference or resistance can be calculated using MS 3b, c

the equation:
Students should be able to
potential di f f erence = current × resistance recall and apply this
equation.
V =I R
potential difference, V, in volts, V
current, I, in amperes, A (amp is acceptable for ampere)
resistance, R, in ohms, Ω

Required practical activity 3: Use circuit diagrams to set up and check appropriate circuits to
investigate the factors affecting the resistance of electrical circuits. This should include:
• the length of a wire at constant temperature
• combinations of resistors in series and parallel.
AT skills covered by this practical activity: AT 1, 6 and 7.
This practical activity also provides opportunities to develop WS and MS. Details of all skills are
given in Key opportunities for skills development (page 91).

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4.2.1.4 Resistors
Content Key opportunities for
skills development

Students should be able to explain that, for some resistors, the

value of R remains constant but that in others it can change as the
current changes.
The current through an ohmic conductor (at a constant
temperature) is directly proportional to the potential difference
across the resistor. This means that the resistance remains
constant as the current changes.

The resistance of components such as lamps, diodes, thermistors

and LDRs is not constant; it changes with the current through the
component.
The resistance of a filament lamp increases as the temperature of
the filament increases.

The current through a diode flows in one direction only. The diode
has a very high resistance in the reverse direction.

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Content Key opportunities for

skills development

The resistance of a thermistor decreases as the temperature

increases.
The applications of thermistors in circuits eg a thermostat is
required.
The resistance of an LDR decreases as light intensity increases.

The application of LDRs in circuits eg switching lights on when it WS 1.2, 1.4

gets dark is required.
Students should be able to:

• explain the design and use of a circuit to measure the AT 6

resistance of a component by measuring the current through,
Investigate the relationship
and potential difference across, the component
between the resistance of a
• draw an appropriate circuit diagram using correct circuit thermistor and temperature.
symbols.
Investigate the relationship
between the resistance of
an LDR and light intensity.

Students should be able to use graphs to explore whether circuit WS 1.2, 1.4
elements are linear or non-linear and relate the curves produced to
MS 4c, d, e
their function and properties.

Required practical activity 4: use circuit diagrams to construct appropriate circuits to investigate
the I–V characteristics of a variety of circuit elements, including a filament lamp, a diode and a
resistor at constant temperature.
AT skills covered by this practical activity: AT 6 and 7.
This practical activity also provides opportunities to develop WS and MS. Details of all skills are
given in Key opportunities for skills development (page 93).

4.2.2 Series and parallel circuits

Content Key opportunities for
skills development

There are two ways of joining electrical components, in series and

in parallel. Some circuits include both series and parallel parts.
For components connected in series:
• there is the same current through each component
• the total potential difference of the power supply is shared
between the components
• the total resistance of two components is the sum of the
resistance of each component.

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Content Key opportunities for
skills development

Rtotal = R1 + R2 MS 1c, 3b, 3c, 3d

resistance, R, in ohms, Ω
For components connected in parallel:
• the potential difference across each component is the same
• the total current through the whole circuit is the sum of the
currents through the separate components
• the total resistance of two resistors is less than the resistance
of the smallest individual resistor.
Students should be able to:

• use circuit diagrams to construct and check series and AT 7

parallel circuits that include a variety of common circuit
components
• describe the difference between series and parallel circuits
• explain qualitatively why adding resistors in series increases
the total resistance whilst adding resistors in parallel
decreases the total resistance

• explain the design and use of dc series circuits for WS 1.4

measurement and testing purposes

• calculate the currents, potential differences and resistances in MS 1c, 3b, c, d

dc series circuits
• solve problems for circuits which include resistors in series
using the concept of equivalent resistance.
Students are not required to calculate the total resistance of two
resistors joined in parallel.

4.2.3 Domestic uses and safety

4.2.3.1 Direct and alternating potential difference

Content Key opportunities for
skills development

Mains electricity is an ac supply. In the United Kingdom the

domestic electricity supply has a frequency of 50 Hz and is about
230 V.
Students should be able to explain the difference between direct
and alternating potential difference.

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4.2.3.2 Mains electricity

Content Key opportunities for
skills development

Most electrical appliances are connected to the mains using three- WS 1.5
core cable.
The insulation covering each wire is colour coded for easy
identification:
live wire – brown
neutral wire – blue
earth wire – green and yellow stripes.
The live wire carries the alternating potential difference from the
supply. The neutral wire completes the circuit. The earth wire is a
safety wire to stop the appliance becoming live.
The potential difference between the live wire and earth (0 V) is
about 230 V. The neutral wire is at, or close to, earth potential (0 V).
The earth wire is at 0 V, it only carries a current if there is a fault.
Students should be able to explain:
• that a live wire may be dangerous even when a switch in the
mains circuit is open
• the dangers of providing any connection between the live wire
and earth.

4.2.4 Energy transfers

4.2.4.1 Power
Content Key opportunities for
skills development

Students should be able to explain how the power transfer in any MS 3b, c
circuit device is related to the potential difference across it and the
WS 4.5
current through it, and to the energy changes over time:
Students should be able to
power = potential di f f erence × current
recall and apply both
P =V I equations.
2
power = current × resistance

P = I2 R
power, P, in watts, W
potential difference, V, in volts, V
current, I, in amperes, A (amp is acceptable for ampere)
resistance, R, in ohms, Ω

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4.2.4.2 Energy transfers in everyday appliances
Content Key opportunities for
skills development

Everyday electrical appliances are designed to bring about energy

transfers.
The amount of energy an appliance transfers depends on how long
the appliance is switched on for and the power of the appliance.
Students should be able to describe how different domestic
appliances transfer energy from batteries or ac mains to the kinetic
energy of electric motors or the energy of heating devices.
Work is done when charge flows in a circuit.
The amount of energy transferred by electrical work can be
calculated using the equation:

energ y trans f erred = power × time MS 3b, c

E =Pt Students should be able to
recall and apply both
energ y trans f erred = charge f low × potential di f f erence equations.
E =QV WS 1.4
energy transferred, E, in joules, J
power, P, in watts, W
time, t, in seconds, s
charge flow, Q, in coulombs, C
potential difference, V, in volts, V

Students should be able to explain how the power of a circuit device WS 1.2
is related to:
• the potential difference across it and the current through it
• the energy transferred over a given time.
Students should be able to describe, with examples, the
relationship between the power ratings for domestic electrical
appliances and the changes in stored energy when they are in use.

4.2.4.3 The National Grid

Content Key opportunities for
skills development

The National Grid is a system of cables and transformers linking

power stations to consumers.

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Content Key opportunities for

skills development

Electrical power is transferred from power stations to consumers The construction and
using the National Grid. operation of transformers is
covered Transformers (HT
Step-up transformers are used to increase the potential difference
only) (page 72).
from the power station to the transmission cables then step-down
transformers are used to decrease, to a much lower value, the WS 1.4
potential difference for domestic use.
Students should be able to explain why the National Grid system is
an efficient way to transfer energy.

4.2.5 Static electricity (physics only)

4.2.5.1 Static charge
Content Key opportunities for
skills development

When certain insulating materials are rubbed against each other

they become electrically charged. Negatively charged electrons are
rubbed off one material and on to the other. The material that gains
electrons becomes negatively charged. The material that loses
electrons is left with an equal positive charge.
When two electrically charged objects are brought close together
they exert a force on each other. Two objects that carry the same
type of charge repel. Two objects that carry different types of
charge attract. Attraction and repulsion between two charged
objects are examples of non-contact force.
Students should be able to:
• describe the production of static electricity, and sparking, by
rubbing surfaces
• describe evidence that charged objects exert forces of
attraction or repulsion on one another when not in contact
• explain how the transfer of electrons between objects can
explain the phenomena of static electricity.

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4.2.5.2 Electric fields
Content Key opportunities for
skills development

A charged object creates an electric field around itself. The electric

field is strongest close to the charged object. The further away from
the charged object, the weaker the field.
A second charged object placed in the field experiences a force.
The force gets stronger as the distance between the objects
decreases.
Students should be able to:
• draw the electric field pattern for an isolated charged sphere
• explain the concept of an electric field

• explain how the concept of an electric field helps to explain WS 1.2, 1.5
the non-contact force between charged objects as well as
other electrostatic phenomena such as sparking.

4.3 Particle model of matter

The particle model is widely used to predict the behaviour of solids, liquids and gases and this has
many applications in everyday life. It helps us to explain a wide range of observations and
engineers use these principles when designing vessels to withstand high pressures and
temperatures, such as submarines and spacecraft. It also explains why it is difficult to make a good
cup of tea high up a mountain!

4.3.1 Changes of state and the particle model

4.3.1.1 Density of materials

Content Key opportunities for
skills development

The density of a material is defined by the equation: MS 1a, b, c, 3b, c

densit y = mass Students should be able to

volume
recall and apply this
ρ= m equation to changes where
V mass is conserved.
density, ρ, in kilograms per metre cubed, kg/m3
mass, m, in kilograms, kg
volume, V, in metres cubed, m3
The particle model can be used to explain
• the different states of matter
• differences in density.

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Content Key opportunities for

skills development

Students should be able to recognise/draw simple diagrams to WS 1.2

model the difference between solids, liquids and gases.

Students should be able to explain the differences in density WS 1.2

between the different states of matter in terms of the arrangement
of atoms or molecules.

Required practical activity 5: use appropriate apparatus to make and record the measurements
needed to determine the densities of regular and irregular solid objects and liquids. Volume should
be determined from the dimensions of regularly shaped objects, and by a displacement technique
for irregularly shaped objects. Dimensions to be measured using appropriate apparatus such as a
ruler, micrometer or Vernier callipers.
AT skills covered by this practical activity: AT 1.
This practical activity also provides opportunities to develop WS and MS. Details of all skills are
given in Key opportunities for skills development (page 94).

4.3.1.2 Changes of state

Content Key opportunities for
skills development

Students should be able to describe how, when substances change

state (melt, freeze, boil, evaporate, condense or sublimate), mass is
conserved.
Changes of state are physical changes which differ from chemical
changes because the material recovers its original properties if the
change is reversed.

4.3.2 Internal energy and energy transfers

4.3.2.1 Internal energy

Content Key opportunities for
skills development

Energy is stored inside a system by the particles (atoms and

molecules) that make up the system. This is called internal energy.
Internal energy is the total kinetic energy and potential energy of all
the particles (atoms and molecules) that make up a system.
Heating changes the energy stored within the system by increasing
the energy of the particles that make up the system. This either
raises the temperature of the system or produces a change of state.

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4.3.2.2 Temperature changes in a system and specific heat capacity
Content Key opportunities for
skills development

If the temperature of the system increases, the increase in

temperature depends on the mass of the substance heated, the
type of material and the energy input to the system.

The following equation applies: MS 1a, 3b, c, d

change in thermal energ y = mass × s peci f ic heat ca pacit y Students should be able to
× tem perature change apply this equation, which is
given on the Physics
∆E = m c ∆θ
equation sheet, to calculate
change in thermal energy, ∆E, in joules, J the energy change involved
when the temperature of a
mass, m, in kilograms, kg
material changes.
specific heat capacity, c, in joules per kilogram per degree Celsius,
This equation and specific
J/kg °C
heat capacity are also
temperature change, ∆θ, in degrees Celsius, °C. included in Energy changes
in systems (page 19).
The specific heat capacity of a substance is the amount of energy
required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of the substance
by one degree Celsius.

4.3.2.3 Changes of state and specific latent heat

Content Key opportunities for
skills development

If a change of state happens:

The energy needed for a substance to change state is called latent
heat. When a change of state occurs, the energy supplied changes
the energy stored (internal energy) but not the temperature.
The specific latent heat of a substance is the amount of energy
required to change the state of one kilogram of the substance with
no change in temperature.

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Content Key opportunities for

skills development

energ y f or a change o f state = mass × s peci f ic latent heat MS 1a, 3b, c, d

E =mL Students should be able to
apply this equation, which is
energy, E, in joules, J given on the Physics
mass, m, in kilograms, kg equation sheet, to calculate
the energy change involved
specific latent heat, L, in joules per kilogram, J/kg in a change of state.
Specific latent heat of fusion – change of state from solid to liquid MS 4a
Specific latent heat of vaporisation – change of state from liquid to AT 5
vapour
Perform an experiment to
measure the latent heat of
fusion of water.

Students should be able to interpret heating and cooling graphs that WS 3.5
include changes of state.
Students should be able to distinguish between specific heat
capacity and specific latent heat.

4.3.3 Particle model and pressure

4.3.3.1 Particle motion in gases

Content Key opportunities for
skills development

The molecules of a gas are in constant random motion. The WS 1.2

temperature of the gas is related to the average kinetic energy of
the molecules.
Changing the temperature of a gas, held at constant volume,
changes the pressure exerted by the gas.

Students should be able to: WS 1.2

• explain how the motion of the molecules in a gas is related to
both its temperature and its pressure
• explain qualitatively the relation between the temperature of a
gas and its pressure at constant volume.

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4.3.3.2 Pressure in gases (physics only)
Content Key opportunities for
skills development

A gas can be compressed or expanded by pressure changes. The WS 1.2

pressure produces a net force at right angles to the wall of the gas
container (or any surface).

Students should be able to use the particle model to explain how MS 3b, c
increasing the volume in which a gas is contained, at constant
Students should be able to
temperature, can lead to a decrease in pressure.
apply this equation which is
For a fixed mass of gas held at a constant temperature: given on the Physics
equation sheet.
pressure × volume = constant
p V = constant
pressure, p, in pascals, Pa
volume, V, in metres cubed, m3
Students should be able to calculate the change in the pressure of
a gas or the volume of a gas (a fixed mass held at constant
temperature) when either the pressure or volume is increased or
decreased.

4.3.3.3 Increasing the pressure of a gas (physics only) (HT only)

Content Key opportunities for
skills development

Work is the transfer of energy by a force.

Doing work on a gas increases the internal energy of the gas and
can cause an increase in the temperature of the gas.

Students should be able to explain how, in a given situation eg a WS 1.2

bicycle pump, doing work on an enclosed gas leads to an increase
in the temperature of the gas.

4.4 Atomic structure

Ionising radiation is hazardous but can be very useful. Although radioactivity was discovered over
a century ago, it took many nuclear physicists several decades to understand the structure of
atoms, nuclear forces and stability. Early researchers suffered from their exposure to ionising
radiation. Rules for radiological protection were first introduced in the 1930s and subsequently
improved. Today radioactive materials are widely used in medicine, industry, agriculture and
electrical power generation.

4.4.1 Atoms and isotopes

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4.4.1.1 The structure of an atom

Content Key opportunities for
skills development

Atoms are very small, having a radius of about 1 × 10-10 metres. MS 1b

The basic structure of an atom is a positively charged nucleus WS 4.4
composed of both protons and neutrons surrounded by negatively
Students should be able to
charged electrons.
recognise expressions
The radius of a nucleus is less than 1/10 000 of the radius of an given in standard form.
atom. Most of the mass of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus.
The electrons are arranged at different distances from the nucleus
(different energy levels). The electron arrangements may change
with the absorption of electromagnetic radiation (move further from
the nucleus; a higher energy level) or by the emission of
electromagnetic radiation (move closer to the nucleus; a lower
energy level).

4.4.1.2 Mass number, atomic number and isotopes

Content Key opportunities for
skills development

In an atom the number of electrons is equal to the number of

protons in the nucleus. Atoms have no overall electrical charge.
All atoms of a particular element have the same number of protons.
The number of protons in an atom of an element is called its atomic
number.
The total number of protons and neutrons in an atom is called its
mass number.
Atoms can be represented as shown in this example:

Atoms of the same element can have different numbers of

neutrons; these atoms are called isotopes of that element.
Atoms turn into positive ions if they lose one or more outer
electron(s).

Students should be able to relate differences between isotopes to WS 4.1

differences in conventional representations of their identities,
charges and masses.

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4.4.1.3 The development of the model of the atom (common content with chemistry)
Content Key opportunities for
skills development

New experimental evidence may lead to a scientific model being WS 1.1, 1.6
changed or replaced.
This historical context
Before the discovery of the electron, atoms were thought to be tiny provides an opportunity for
spheres that could not be divided. students to show an
understanding of why and
The discovery of the electron led to the plum pudding model of the
describe how scientific
atom. The plum pudding model suggested that the atom is a ball of
methods and theories
positive charge with negative electrons embedded in it.
develop over time.
The results from the alpha particle scattering experiment led to the
WS 1.2
conclusion that the mass of an atom was concentrated at the centre
(nucleus) and that the nucleus was charged. This nuclear model
replaced the plum pudding model.
Niels Bohr adapted the nuclear model by suggesting that electrons
orbit the nucleus at specific distances. The theoretical calculations
of Bohr agreed with experimental observations.
Later experiments led to the idea that the positive charge of any
nucleus could be subdivided into a whole number of smaller
particles, each particle having the same amount of positive charge.
The name proton was given to these particles.
The experimental work of James Chadwick provided the evidence
to show the existence of neutrons within the nucleus. This was
about 20 years after the nucleus became an accepted scientific
idea.
Students should be able to describe:

• why the new evidence from the scattering experiment led to a WS 1.1
change in the atomic model

• the difference between the plum pudding model of the atom WS 1.2
and the nuclear model of the atom.

Details of experimental work supporting the Bohr model are not

required.
Details of Chadwick’s experimental work are not required.

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4.4.2 Atoms and nuclear radiation

4.4.2.1 Radioactive decay and nuclear radiation
Content Key opportunities for
skills development

Some atomic nuclei are unstable. The nucleus gives out radiation
as it changes to become more stable. This is a random process
called radioactive decay.
Activity is the rate at which a source of unstable nuclei decays.
Activity is measured in becquerel (Bq)
Count-rate is the number of decays recorded each second by a
detector (eg Geiger-Muller tube).
The nuclear radiation emitted may be:
• an alpha particle (α) – this consists of two neutrons and two
protons, it is the same as a helium nucleus
• a beta particle (β) – a high speed electron ejected from the
nucleus as a neutron turns into a proton
• a gamma ray (γ) – electromagnetic radiation from the nucleus
• a neutron (n).

Required knowledge of the properties of alpha particles, beta WS 1.4, 1.5

particles and gamma rays is limited to their penetration through
materials, their range in air and ionising power.
Students should be able to apply their knowledge to the uses of
radiation and evaluate the best sources of radiation to use in a
given situation.

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4.4.2.2 Nuclear equations
Content Key opportunities for
skills development

Nuclear equations are used to represent radioactive decay. WS 1.2, 4.1

In a nuclear equation an alpha particle may be represented by the MS 1b, c, 3c
symbol:

and a beta particle by the symbol:

The emission of the different types of nuclear radiation may cause a

change in the mass and /or the charge of the nucleus. For example:

So alpha decay causes both the mass and charge of the nucleus to
decrease.

So beta decay does not cause the mass of the nucleus to change
but does cause the charge of the nucleus to increase.
Students are not required to recall these two examples.
Students should be able to use the names and symbols of common
nuclei and particles to write balanced equations that show single
alpha (α) and beta (β) decay. This is limited to balancing the atomic
numbers and mass numbers. The identification of daughter
elements from such decays is not required.
The emission of a gamma ray does not cause the mass or the
charge of the nucleus to change.

4.4.2.3 Half-lives and the random nature of radioactive decay

Content Key opportunities for
skills development

Radioactive decay is random.

The half-life of a radioactive isotope is the time it takes for the
number of nuclei of the isotope in a sample to halve, or the time it
takes for the count rate (or activity) from a sample containing the
isotope to fall to half its initial level.

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Content Key opportunities for

skills development

Students should be able to explain the concept of half-life and how WS 1.2
it is related to the random nature of radioactive decay.

Students should be able to determine the half-life of a radioactive MS 4a

isotope from given information.

(HT only) Students should be able to calculate the net decline, (HT only) MS 1c, 3d
expressed as a ratio, in a radioactive emission after a given number
of half-lives.

4.4.2.4 Radioactive contamination

Content Key opportunities for
skills development

Radioactive contamination is the unwanted presence of materials WS 1.5

containing radioactive atoms on other materials. The hazard from
contamination is due to the decay of the contaminating atoms. The
type of radiation emitted affects the level of hazard.
Irradiation is the process of exposing an object to nuclear radiation.
The irradiated object does not become radioactive.

Students should be able to compare the hazards associated with WS 1.5

contamination and irradiation.

Suitable precautions must be taken to protect against any hazard WS 1.5

that the radioactive source used in the process of irradiation may
present.

Students should understand that it is important for the findings of WS 1.6

studies into the effects of radiation on humans to be published and
shared with other scientists so that the findings can be checked by
peer review.

4.4.3 Hazards and uses of radioactive emissions and of background

radiation (physics only)

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4.4.3.1 Background radiation
Content Key opportunities for
skills development

Background radiation is around us all of the time. It comes from:

• natural sources such as rocks and cosmic rays from space
• man-made sources such as the fallout from nuclear weapons
testing and nuclear accidents.
The level of background radiation and radiation dose may be
affected by occupation and/or location.

Radiation dose is measured in sieverts (Sv) WS 4.4

1000 millisieverts (mSv) = 1 sievert (Sv)

Students will not need to recall the unit of radiation dose.

4.4.3.2 Different half-lives of radioactive isotopes

Content Key opportunities for
skills development

Radioactive isotopes have a very wide range of half-life values. MS 1b

Students should be able to explain why the hazards associated with Students should be able to
radioactive material differ according to the half-life involved. use data presented in
standard form.

4.4.3.3 Uses of nuclear radiation

Content Key opportunities for
skills development

Nuclear radiations are used in medicine for the:

• exploration of internal organs
• control or destruction of unwanted tissue.
Students should be able to:

• describe and evaluate the uses of nuclear radiations for WS 1.4

exploration of internal organs, and for control or destruction of
unwanted tissue

• evaluate the perceived risks of using nuclear radiations in WS 1.5

relation to given data and consequences.

4.4.4 Nuclear fission and fusion (physics only)

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4.4.4.1 Nuclear fission

Content Key opportunities for
skills development

Nuclear fission is the splitting of a large and unstable nucleus (eg

uranium or plutonium).
Spontaneous fission is rare. Usually, for fission to occur the
unstable nucleus must first absorb a neutron.
The nucleus undergoing fission splits into two smaller nuclei,
roughly equal in size, and emits two or three neutrons plus gamma
rays. Energy is released by the fission reaction.
All of the fission products have kinetic energy.
The neutrons may go on to start a chain reaction.
The chain reaction is controlled in a nuclear reactor to control the
energy released. The explosion caused by a nuclear weapon is
caused by an uncontrolled chain reaction.
Students should be able to draw/interpret diagrams representing
nuclear fission and how a chain reaction may occur.

4.4.4.2 Nuclear fusion

Content Key opportunities for
skills development

Nuclear fusion is the joining of two light nuclei to form a heavier

nucleus. In this process some of the mass may be converted into
the energy of radiation.

4.5 Forces
Engineers analyse forces when designing a great variety of machines and instruments, from road
bridges and fairground rides to atomic force microscopes. Anything mechanical can be analysed in
this way. Recent developments in artificial limbs use the analysis of forces to make movement
possible.

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4.5.1 Forces and their interactions
4.5.1.1 Scalar and vector quantities
Content Key opportunities for
skills development

Scalar quantities have magnitude only.

Vector quantities have magnitude and an associated direction.
A vector quantity may be represented by an arrow. The length of
the arrow represents the magnitude, and the direction of the arrow
the direction of the vector quantity.

4.5.1.2 Contact and non-contact forces

Content Key opportunities for
skills development

A force is a push or pull that acts on an object due to the interaction

with another object. All forces between objects are either:
• contact forces – the objects are physically touching
• non-contact forces – the objects are physically separated.
Examples of contact forces include friction, air resistance, tension
and normal contact force.
Examples of non-contact forces are gravitational force, electrostatic
force and magnetic force.
Force is a vector quantity.
Students should be able to describe the interaction between pairs
of objects which produce a force on each object. The forces to be
represented as vectors.

4.5.1.3 Gravity
Content Key opportunities for
skills development

Weight is the force acting on an object due to gravity. The force of

gravity close to the Earth is due to the gravitational field around the
Earth.
The weight of an object depends on the gravitational field strength
at the point where the object is.

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Content Key opportunities for

skills development

The weight of an object can be calculated using the equation: MS 3b, c

weight = mass × gravitational field strength Students should be able to
recall and apply this
W =mg equation.
weight, W, in newtons, N
mass, m, in kilograms, kg
gravitational field strength, g, in newtons per kilogram, N/kg (In any
calculation the value of the gravitational field strength (g) will be
given.)
The weight of an object may be considered to act at a single point
referred to as the object’s ‘centre of mass’.

The weight of an object and the mass of an object are directly MS 3a

proportional.
Students should recognise
Weight is measured using a calibrated spring-balance (a and be able to use the
newtonmeter). symbol for proportionality, ∝

4.5.1.4 Resultant forces

Content Key opportunities for
skills development

A number of forces acting on an object may be replaced by a single

force that has the same effect as all the original forces acting
together. This single force is called the resultant force.
Students should be able to calculate the resultant of two forces that
act in a straight line.
(HT only) Students should be able to:
• describe examples of the forces acting on an isolated object
or system

• use free body diagrams to describe qualitatively examples WS 1.2

where several forces lead to a resultant force on an object,
including balanced forces when the resultant force is zero.
(HT only) A single force can be resolved into two components
acting at right angles to each other. The two component forces
together have the same effect as the single force.

(HT only) Students should be able to use vector diagrams to MS 4a, 5a, b
illustrate resolution of forces, equilibrium situations and determine
the resultant of two forces, to include both magnitude and direction
(scale drawings only).

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4.5.2 Work done and energy transfer
Content Key opportunities for
skills development

When a force causes an object to move through a distance work is

done on the object. So a force does work on an object when the
force causes a displacement of the object.

The work done by a force on an object can be calculated using the MS 3b, c
equation:
Students should be able to
work done = force × distance recall and apply this
moved along the line of action of the force equation.
W =Fs
work done, W, in joules, J
force, F, in newtons, N
distance, s, in metres

One joule of work is done when a force of one newton causes a WS 4.5
displacement of one metre.
1 joule = 1 newton-metre
Students should be able to describe the energy transfer involved
when work is done.

Students should be able to convert between newton-metres and MS 1c

joules.
WS 4.5
Work done against the frictional forces acting on an object causes a
rise in the temperature of the object.

4.5.3 Forces and elasticity

Content Key opportunities for
skills development

Students should be able to:

• give examples of the forces involved in stretching, bending or
compressing an object
• explain why, to change the shape of an object (by stretching,
bending or compressing), more than one force has to be
applied – this is limited to stationary objects only
• describe the difference between elastic deformation and
inelastic deformation caused by stretching forces.
The extension of an elastic object, such as a spring, is directly
proportional to the force applied, provided that the limit of
proportionality is not exceeded.

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Content Key opportunities for

skills development

f orce = s pring constant × extension MS 3b, c, 4a

F =ke Students should be able to
recall and apply this
force, F, in newtons, N equation.
spring constant, k, in newtons per metre, N/m
extension, e, in metres, m

This relationship also applies to the compression of an elastic MS 3b, c, 4a

object, where ‘e’ would be the compression of the object.
A force that stretches (or compresses) a spring does work and
elastic potential energy is stored in the spring. Provided the spring
is not inelastically deformed, the work done on the spring and the
elastic potential energy stored are equal.
Students should be able to:
• describe the difference between a linear and non-linear
relationship between force and extension
• calculate a spring constant in linear cases

• interpret data from an investigation of the relationship WS 3.5

between force and extension

• calculate work done in stretching (or compressing) a spring MS 3c

(up to the limit of proportionality) using the equation:
Students should be able to
elastic potential energ y = 0.5 × s pring constant × extension
2 apply this equation which is
given on the Physics
Ee = 1
2
k e2 equation sheet.
This equation is also given
in Changes in energy (page
18).

Students should be able to calculate relevant values of stored MS 3c

energy and energy transfers.

Required practical activity 6: investigate the relationship between force and extension for a
spring.
AT skills covered by this practical activity: AT 1 and 2.
This practical activity also provides opportunities to develop WS and MS. Details of all skills are
given in Key opportunities for skills development (page 95).

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4.5.4 Moments, levers and gears (physics only)
Content Key opportunities for
skills development

A force or a system of forces may cause an object to rotate.

Students should be able to describe examples in which forces
cause rotation.
The turning effect of a force is called the moment of the force. The
size of the moment is defined by the equation:

moment o f a f orce = f orce × distance MS 3c

M = Fd Students should be able to

recall and apply this
moment of a force, M, in newton-metres, Nm equation.
force, F, in newtons, N
distance, d, is the perpendicular distance from the pivot to the line
of action of the force, in metres, m.
If an object is balanced, the total clockwise moment about a pivot
equals the total anticlockwise moment about that pivot.
Students should be able to calculate the size of a force, or its
distance from a pivot, acting on an object that is balanced.
A simple lever and a simple gear system can both be used to
transmit the rotational effects of forces.
Students should be able to explain how levers and gears transmit
the rotational effects of forces.

4.5.5 Pressure and pressure differences in fluids (physics only)

4.5.5.1 Pressure in a fluid

4.5.5.1.1 Pressure in a fluid 1

Content Key opportunities for

skills development

A fluid can be either a liquid or a gas.

The pressure in fluids causes a force normal (at right angles) to any
surface.
The pressure at the surface of a fluid can be calculated using the
equation:

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Content Key opportunities for

skills development

pressure = force normal to a surface MS 3b, c

area of that surface

F
WS 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6
p= A Students should be able to
pressure, p, in pascals, Pa recall and apply this
equation.
force, F, in newtons, N
area, A, in metres squared, m2

4.5.5.1.2 Pressure in a fluid 2 (HT only)

Content Key opportunities for

skills development

The pressure due to a column of liquid can be calculated using the

equation:

pressure = height of the column × density of the liquid MS 3b, 3c

× gravitational field strength
WS 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6
[p=hρg]
Students should be able to
pressure, p, in pascals, Pa apply this equation which is
height of the column, h, in metres, m given on the Physics
equation sheet.
density, ρ, in kilograms per metre cubed, kg/m3
gravitational field strength, g, in newtons per kilogram, N/kg (In any
calculation the value of the gravitational field strength (g) will be
given.)
Students should be able to explain why, in a liquid, pressure at a
point increases with the height of the column of liquid above that
point and with the density of the liquid.

Students should be able to calculate the differences in pressure at MS 1c, 3c

different depths in a liquid.
A partially (or totally) submerged object experiences a greater
pressure on the bottom surface than on the top surface. This
creates a resultant force upwards. This force is called the upthrust.
Students should be able to describe the factors which influence
floating and sinking.

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4.5.5.2 Atmospheric pressure
Content Key opportunities for
skills development

The atmosphere is a thin layer (relative to the size of the Earth) of

air round the Earth. The atmosphere gets less dense with
increasing altitude.
Air molecules colliding with a surface create atmospheric pressure.
The number of air molecules (and so the weight of air) above a
surface decreases as the height of the surface above ground level
increases. So as height increases there is always less air above a
surface than there is at a lower height. So atmospheric pressure
decreases with an increase in height.
Students should be able to:

• describe a simple model of the Earth’s atmosphere and of WS 1.2

atmospheric pressure
• explain why atmospheric pressure varies with height above a
surface.

4.5.6 Forces and motion

4.5.6.1 Describing motion along a line

4.5.6.1.1 Distance and displacement

Content Key opportunities for

skills development

Distance is how far an object moves. Distance does not involve MS 1, 3c

direction. Distance is a scalar quantity.
Throughout this section
Displacement includes both the distance an object moves, (Forces and motion),
measured in a straight line from the start point to the finish point students should be able to
and the direction of that straight line. Displacement is a vector use ratios and proportional
quantity. reasoning to convert units
and to compute rates.
Students should be able to express a displacement in terms of both
the magnitude and direction.

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4.5.6.1.2 Speed

Content Key opportunities for

skills development

Speed does not involve direction. Speed is a scalar quantity.

The speed of a moving object is rarely constant. When people walk,
run or travel in a car their speed is constantly changing.
The speed at which a person can walk, run or cycle depends on
many factors including: age, terrain, fitness and distance travelled.
Typical values may be taken as:
walking ̴ 1.5 m/s
running ̴ 3 m/s
cycling ̴ 6 m/s.
Students should be able to recall typical values of speed for a
person walking, running and cycling as well as the typical values of
speed for different types of transportation systems.
It is not only moving objects that have varying speed. The speed of
sound and the speed of the wind also vary.
A typical value for the speed of sound in air is 330 m/s.

Students should be able to make measurements of distance and MS 1a, c, 2f

time and then calculate speeds of objects.
For an object moving at constant speed the distance travelled in a
specific time can be calculated using the equation:

distance travelled = s peed × time MS 3b, 3c

s =vt Students should be able to
recall and apply this
distance, s, in metres, m equation.
speed, v, in metres per second, m/s
time, t, in seconds, s

Students should be able to calculate average speed for non-uniform MS 3b, 3c

motion.

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4.5.6.1.3 Velocity

Content Key opportunities for

skills development

The velocity of an object is its speed in a given direction. Velocity is

a vector quantity.
Students should be able to explain the vector–scalar distinction as it
applies to displacement, distance, velocity and speed.
(HT only) Students should be able to explain qualitatively, with
examples, that motion in a circle involves constant speed but
changing velocity.

4.5.6.1.4 The distance–time relationship

Content Key opportunities for

skills development

If an object moves along a straight line, the distance travelled can MS 4a, b, c, d, f
be represented by a distance–time graph.
The speed of an object can be calculated from the gradient of its
distance–time graph.
(HT only) If an object is accelerating, its speed at any particular time
can be determined by drawing a tangent and measuring the
gradient of the distance–time graph at that time.
Students should be able to draw distance–time graphs from
measurements and extract and interpret lines and slopes of
distance–time graphs, translating information between graphical
and numerical form.
Students should be able to determine speed from a distance–time
graph.

4.5.6.1.5 Acceleration

Content Key opportunities for

skills development

The average acceleration of an object can be calculated using the

equation:

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Content Key opportunities for

skills development

acceleration = change in velocit y MS 1d, 3b, 3c

time taken

∆v
Students should be able to
a = t recall and apply this
equation.
acceleration, a, in metres per second squared, m/s2
change in velocity, ∆v, in metres per second, m/s
time, t, in seconds, s
An object that slows down is decelerating.
Students should be able to estimate the magnitude of everyday
accelerations.

The acceleration of an object can be calculated from the gradient of MS 4a, b, c, d, f

a velocity–time graph.
(HT only) The distance travelled by an object (or displacement of an
object) can be calculated from the area under a velocity–time
graph.
Students should be able to:

• draw velocity–time graphs from measurements and interpret WS 3.3

lines and slopes to determine acceleration
• (HT only) interpret enclosed areas in velocity–time graphs to
determine distance travelled (or displacement)

• (HT only) measure, when appropriate, the area under a WS 3.3

velocity–time graph by counting squares.

The following equation applies to uniform acceleration: MS 3b, 3c

f inal velocit y
2
− initial velocit y
2
= 2 × acceleration × distance Students should be able to
apply this equation which is
v2 − u2 = 2 a s given on the Physics
equation sheet.
final velocity, v, in metres per second, m/s
initial velocity, u, in metres per second, m/s
acceleration, a, in metres per second squared, m/s2
distance, s, in metres, m
Near the Earth’s surface any object falling freely under gravity has
an acceleration of about 9.8 m/s2.

An object falling through a fluid initially accelerates due to the force

of gravity. Eventually the resultant force will be zero and the object
will move at its terminal velocity.
(Physics only) Students should be able to:

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Content Key opportunities for
skills development

• draw and interpret velocity–time graphs for objects that reach WS 3.3, 3.5
terminal velocity
AT 1, 2
• interpret the changing motion in terms of the forces acting.
Investigation to measure
the effect of air resistance
on a falling object eg a
model parachute.

4.5.6.2 Forces, accelerations and Newton's Laws of motion

4.5.6.2.1 Newton's First Law

Content Key opportunities for

skills development

Newton’s First Law:

If the resultant force acting on an object is zero and:
• the object is stationary, the object remains stationary
• the object is moving, the object continues to move at the
same speed and in the same direction. So the object
continues to move at the same velocity.
So, when a vehicle travels at a steady speed the resistive forces
balance the driving force.
So, the velocity (speed and/or direction) of an object will only
change if a resultant force is acting on the object.
Students should be able to apply Newton’s First Law to explain the
motion of objects moving with a uniform velocity and objects where
the speed and/or direction changes.
(HT only) The tendency of objects to continue in their state of rest
or of uniform motion is called inertia.

4.5.6.2.2 Newton's Second Law

Content Key opportunities for

skills development

Newton’s Second Law:

The acceleration of an object is proportional to the resultant force MS 3a

acting on the object, and inversely proportional to the mass of the
Students should recognise
object.
and be able to use the
As an equation: symbol for proportionality, ∝

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Content Key opportunities for

skills development

resultant f orce = mass × acceleration MS 3b, c

F =ma WS 4.2
force, F, in newtons, N Students should be able to
recall and apply this
mass, m, in kilograms, kg equation.
acceleration, a, in metres per second squared, m/s2

(HT only) Students should be able to explain that: MS 3a

• inertial mass is a measure of how difficult it is to change the
velocity of an object
• inertial mass is defined as the ratio of force over acceleration.

Students should be able to estimate the speed, accelerations and MS 1d

forces involved in large accelerations for everyday road transport.
Students should recognise and be able to use the symbol that
indicates an approximate value or approximate answer, ̴

Required practical activity 7: investigate the effect of varying the force on the acceleration of an
object of constant mass, and the effect of varying the mass of an object on the acceleration
produced by a constant force.
AT skills covered by this practical activity: AT 1, 2 and 3.
This practical activity also provides opportunities to develop WS and MS. Details of all skills are
given in Key opportunities for skills development (page 96).

4.5.6.2.3 Newton's Third Law

Content Key opportunities for

skills development

Newton’s Third Law:

Whenever two objects interact, the forces they exert on each other WS 1.2
are equal and opposite.
Students should be able to apply Newton’s Third Law to examples
of equilibrium situations.

4.5.6.3 Forces and braking

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4.5.6.3.1 Stopping distance

Content Key opportunities for

skills development

The stopping distance of a vehicle is the sum of the distance the

vehicle travels during the driver’s reaction time (thinking distance)
and the distance it travels under the braking force (braking
distance). For a given braking force the greater the speed of the
vehicle, the greater the stopping distance.
(Physics only) Students should be able to estimate how the
distance for a vehicle to make an emergency stop varies over a
range of speeds typical for that vehicle.

(Physics only) Students will be required to interpret graphs relating WS 3.3

speed to stopping distance for a range of vehicles.

4.5.6.3.2 Reaction time

Content Key opportunities for

skills development

Reaction times vary from person to person. Typical values range

from 0.2 s to 0.9 s.
A driver’s reaction time can be affected by tiredness, drugs and
alcohol. Distractions may also affect a driver’s ability to react.
Students should be able to:
• explain methods used to measure human reaction times and
recall typical results

• interpret and evaluate measurements from simple methods to WS 3.5, 3.7

measure the different reaction times of students

• evaluate the effect of various factors on thinking distance WS 1.5, 2.2

based on given data.
MS 1a, c
AT 1
Measure the effect of
distractions on reaction
time.

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4.5.6.3.3 Factors affecting braking distance 1

Content Key opportunities for

skills development

The braking distance of a vehicle can be affected by adverse road

and weather conditions and poor condition of the vehicle.
Adverse road conditions include wet or icy conditions. Poor
condition of the vehicle is limited to the vehicle's brakes or tyres.
Students should be able to:
• explain the factors which affect the distance required for road
transport vehicles to come to rest in emergencies, and the
implications for safety

• estimate how the distance required for road vehicles to stop in MS 1c, 1d, 2c, 2d, 2f, 2h,
an emergency varies over a range of typical speeds. 3b, 3c

4.5.6.3.4 Factors affecting braking distance 2

Content Key opportunities for

skills development

When a force is applied to the brakes of a vehicle, work done by the

friction force between the brakes and the wheel reduces the kinetic
energy of the vehicle and the temperature of the brakes increases.
The greater the speed of a vehicle the greater the braking force
needed to stop the vehicle in a certain distance.
The greater the braking force the greater the deceleration of the
vehicle. Large decelerations may lead to brakes overheating and/or
loss of control.
Students should be able to:

• explain the dangers caused by large decelerations WS 1.5

• (HT only) estimate the forces involved in the deceleration of (HT only) MS 1d
road vehicles in typical situations on a public road.

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4.5.7 Momentum (HT only)
4.5.7.1 Momentum is a property of moving objects
Content Key opportunities for
skills development

Momentum is defined by the equation: WS 1.2

momentum = mass × velocit y MS 3b, c
p =mv Students should be able to
recall and apply this
momentum, p, in kilograms metre per second, kg m/s equation.
mass, m, in kilograms, kg
velocity, v, in metres per second, m/s

4.5.7.2 Conservation of momentum

Content Key opportunities for
skills development

In a closed system, the total momentum before an event is equal to AT 1, 2, 3

the total momentum after the event.
Investigate collisions
This is called conservation of momentum. between laboratory trollies
using light gates, data
Students should be able to use the concept of momentum as a
loggers or ticker timers to
model to:
measure and record data.
• describe and explain examples of momentum in an event,
such as a collision
• (physics only) complete calculations involving an event, such
as the collision of two objects.

4.5.7.3 Changes in momentum (physics only)

Content Key opportunities for
skills development

When a force acts on an object that is moving, or able to move, a

change in momentum occurs.

The equations F = m × a and a =

v−u MS 3b, c
t
Students should be able to
m ∆v
combine to give the equation F = ∆t
apply this equation which is
given on the Physics
where m∆v = change in momentum Equation sheet.
ie force equals the rate of change of momentum.

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Content Key opportunities for

skills development

Students should be able to explain safety features such as: air WS 1.2, 4
bags, seat belts, gymnasium crash mats, cycle helmets and
cushioned surfaces for playgrounds with reference to the concept of
rate of change of momentum.

Students should be able to apply equations relating force, mass, MS 3b, 3c, 3d
velocity and acceleration to explain how the changes involved are
inter-related.

4.6 Waves
Wave behaviour is common in both natural and man-made systems. Waves carry energy from one
place to another and can also carry information. Designing comfortable and safe structures such
as bridges, houses and music performance halls requires an understanding of mechanical waves.
Modern technologies such as imaging and communication systems show how we can make the
most of electromagnetic waves.

4.6.1 Waves in air, fluids and solids

4.6.1.1 Transverse and longitudinal waves
Content Key opportunities for
skills development

Waves may be either transverse or longitudinal.

The ripples on a water surface are an example of a transverse
wave.
Longitudinal waves show areas of compression and rarefaction.
Sound waves travelling through air are longitudinal.

Students should be able to describe the difference between WS 1.2

longitudinal and transverse waves.

Students should be able to describe evidence that, for both ripples WS 1.2, 2.2
on a water surface and sound waves in air, it is the wave and not
the water or air itself that travels.

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4.6.1.2 Properties of waves
Content Key opportunities for
skills development

Students should be able to describe wave motion in terms of their MS 1c, 3b, c
amplitude, wavelength, frequency and period.
The amplitude of a wave is the maximum displacement of a point
on a wave away from its undisturbed position.
The wavelength of a wave is the distance from a point on one wave
to the equivalent point on the adjacent wave.
The frequency of a wave is the number of waves passing a point
each second.

period = 1 MS 1c, 3b, c

f requency
Students should be able to
1
T= f apply this equation which is
given on the Physics
period, T, in seconds, s equation sheet.
frequency, f, in hertz, Hz
The wave speed is the speed at which the energy is transferred (or
the wave moves) through the medium.
All waves obey the wave equation:

wave s peed = f requency × wavelength MS 1c, 3b, 3c

v = f λ Students should be able to
recall and apply this
wave speed, v, in metres per second, m/s equation.
frequency, f, in hertz, Hz
wavelength, λ, in metres, m
Students should be able to:
• identify amplitude and wavelength from given diagrams

• describe a method to measure the speed of sound waves in AT1

air
WS 2.3, 2.4, 2.6, 2.7, 3.1,
3.5

• describe a method to measure the speed of ripples on a water AT1, AT4

surface.
WS 2.3, 2.4, 2.6, 2.7, 3.1,
3.5

(Physics only) Students should be able to show how changes in (Physics only) MS 1c, 3b,
velocity, frequency and wavelength, in transmission of sound waves 3c
from one medium to another, are inter-related.

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Required practical activity 8: make observations to identify the suitability of apparatus to

measure the frequency, wavelength and speed of waves in a ripple tank and waves in a solid and
take appropriate measurements.
AT skills covered by this practical activity: AT 4.
This practical activity also provides opportunities to develop WS and MS. Details of all skills are
given in Key opportunities for skills development (page 97).

4.6.1.3 Reflection of waves (physics only)

Content Key opportunities for
skills development

Waves can be reflected at the boundary between two different

materials.
Waves can be absorbed or transmitted at the boundary between
two different materials.

Students should be able to construct ray diagrams to illustrate the MS 5a, 5c

reflection of a wave at a surface.
WS 1.2
Students should be able to describe the effects of reflection,
transmission and absorption of waves at material interfaces.

Required practical activity 9 (physics only): investigate the reflection of light by different types
of surface and the refraction of light by different substances.
AT skills covered by this practical activity: AT 4 and 8.
This practical activity also provides opportunities to develop WS and MS. Details of all skills are
given in Key opportunities for skills development (page 98).

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4.6.1.4 Sound waves (physics only) (HT only)
Content Key opportunities for
skills development

Sound waves can travel through solids causing vibrations in the

solid.
Within the ear, sound waves cause the ear drum and other parts to
vibrate which causes the sensation of sound. The conversion of
sound waves to vibrations of solids works over a limited frequency
range. This restricts the limits of human hearing.
Students should be able to:
• describe, with examples, processes which convert wave
disturbances between sound waves and vibrations in solids.
Examples may include the effect of sound waves on the ear
drum
• explain why such processes only work over a limited
frequency range and the relevance of this to human hearing.
Students should know that the range of normal human hearing is
from 20 Hz to 20 kHz.

4.6.1.5 Waves for detection and exploration (physics only) (HT only)
Content Key opportunities for
skills development

Students should be able to explain in qualitative terms, how the

differences in velocity, absorption and reflection between different
types of wave in solids and liquids can be used both for detection
and exploration of structures which are hidden from direct
observation.

Ultrasound waves have a frequency higher than the upper limit of WS 1.4
hearing for humans. Ultrasound waves are partially reflected when
they meet a boundary between two different media. The time taken
for the reflections to reach a detector can be used to determine how
far away such a boundary is. This allows ultrasound waves to be
used for both medical and industrial imaging.
Seismic waves are produced by earthquakes. P-waves are
longitudinal, seismic waves. P-waves travel at different speeds
through solids and liquids. S-waves are transverse, seismic waves.
S-waves cannot travel through a liquid. P-waves and S-waves
provide evidence for the structure and size of the Earth’s core.
Echo sounding, using high frequency sound waves is used to
detect objects in deep water and measure water depth.

Students should be aware that the study of seismic waves provided WS 1.1
new evidence that led to discoveries about parts of the Earth which
are not directly observable.

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4.6.2 Electromagnetic waves

4.6.2.1 Types of electromagnetic waves
Content Key opportunities for
skills development

Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves that transfer energy

from the source of the waves to an absorber.
Electromagnetic waves form a continuous spectrum and all types of
electromagnetic wave travel at the same velocity through a vacuum
(space) or air.
The waves that form the electromagnetic spectrum are grouped in
terms of their wavelength and their frequency. Going from long to
short wavelength (or from low to high frequency) the groups are:
radio, microwave, infrared, visible light (red to violet), ultraviolet, X-
rays and gamma rays.

Our eyes only detect visible light and so detect a limited range of
electromagnetic waves.
Students should be able to give examples that illustrate the transfer
of energy by electromagnetic waves.

4.6.2.2 Properties of electromagnetic waves 1

Content Key opportunities for
skills development

(HT only) Different substances may absorb, transmit, refract or

reflect electromagnetic waves in ways that vary with wavelength.
(HT only) Some effects, for example refraction, are due to the
difference in velocity of the waves in different substances.
Students should be able to construct ray diagrams to illustrate the
refraction of a wave at the boundary between two different media.

(HT only) Students should be able to use wave front diagrams to WS 1.2
explain refraction in terms of the change of speed that happens
when a wave travels from one medium to a different medium.

Required practical activity 10: investigate how the amount of infrared radiation absorbed or
radiated by a surface depends on the nature of that surface.
AT skills covered by this practical activity: AT 1 and 4.

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This practical activity also provides opportunities to develop WS and MS. Details of all skills are
given in Key opportunities for skills development (page 98).

4.6.2.3 Properties of electromagnetic waves 2

Content Key opportunities for
skills development

(HT only) Radio waves can be produced by oscillations in electrical

circuits.
(HT only) When radio waves are absorbed they may create an
alternating current with the same frequency as the radio wave itself,
so radio waves can themselves induce oscillations in an electrical
circuit.
Changes in atoms and the nuclei of atoms can result in
electromagnetic waves being generated or absorbed over a wide
frequency range. Gamma rays originate from changes in the
nucleus of an atom.

Ultraviolet waves, X-rays and gamma rays can have hazardous WS 1.5
effects on human body tissue. The effects depend on the type of
radiation and the size of the dose. Radiation dose (in sieverts) is a
measure of the risk of harm resulting from an exposure of the body
to the radiation.

1000 millisieverts (mSv) = 1 sievert (Sv) WS 1.5

Students will not be required to recall the unit of radiation dose.
Students should be able to draw conclusions from given data about
the risks and consequences of exposure to radiation.
Ultraviolet waves can cause skin to age prematurely and increase
the risk of skin cancer. X-rays and gamma rays are ionising
radiation that can cause the mutation of genes and cancer.

4.6.2.4 Uses and applications of electromagnetic waves

Content Key opportunities for
skills development

Electromagnetic waves have many practical applications. For

example:
• radio waves – television and radio
• microwaves – satellite communications, cooking food
• infrared – electrical heaters, cooking food, infrared cameras
• visible light – fibre optic communications
• ultraviolet – energy efficient lamps, sun tanning
• X-rays and gamma rays – medical imaging and treatments.

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Content Key opportunities for

skills development

(HT only) Students should be able to give brief explanations why (HT only) WS 1.4
each type of electromagnetic wave is suitable for the practical
application.

4.6.2.5 Lenses (physics only)

Content Key opportunities for
skills development

A lens forms an image by refracting light. In a convex lens, parallel

rays of light are brought to a focus at the principal focus. The
distance from the lens to the principal focus is called the focal
length. Ray diagrams are used to show the formation of images by
convex and concave lenses.
The image produced by a convex lens can be either real or virtual.
The image produced by a concave lens is always virtual.

Students should be able to construct ray diagrams to illustrate the MS 5a, 5c

similarities and differences between convex and concave lenses.
WS 1.2
The magnification produced by a lens can be calculated using the
equation:

magni f ication = image height MS 3b, c

ob ject height
Students should be able to
Magnification is a ratio and so has no units.
apply this equation which is
Image height and object height should both be measured in either given on the Physics
mm or cm. equation sheet.
In ray diagrams a convex lens will be represented by: AT 4, 8
Investigate the
magnification produced by a
range of convex lenses.

A concave lens will be represented by:

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4.6.2.6 Visible light (physics only)
Content Key opportunities for
skills development

Each colour within the visible light spectrum has its own narrow
band of wavelength and frequency.
Reflection from a smooth surface in a single direction is called
specular reflection. Reflection from a rough surface causes
scattering: this is called diffuse reflection.
Colour filters work by absorbing certain wavelengths (and colour)
and transmitting other wavelengths (and colour).
The colour of an opaque object is determined by which wavelengths
of light are more strongly reflected. Wavelengths that are not
reflected are absorbed. If all wavelengths are reflected equally the
object appears white. If all wavelengths are absorbed the objects
appears black.
Objects that transmit light are either transparent or translucent.
Students should be able to explain:
• how the colour of an object is related to the differential
absorption, transmission and reflection of different
wavelengths of light by the object
• the effect of viewing objects through filters or the effect on
light of passing through filters
• why an opaque object has a particular colour.

4.6.3 Black body radiation (physics only)

4.6.3.1 Emission and absorption of infrared radiation
Content Key opportunities for
skills development

All bodies (objects), no matter what temperature, emit and absorb

infrared radiation. The hotter the body, the more infrared radiation it
radiates in a given time.
A perfect black body is an object that absorbs all of the radiation
incident on it. A black body does not reflect or transmit any
radiation. Since a good absorber is also a good emitter, a perfect
black body would be the best possible emitter.

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4.6.3.2 Perfect black bodies and radiation

Content Key opportunities for
skills development

Students should be able to explain:

• that all bodies (objects) emit radiation
• that the intensity and wavelength distribution of any emission
depends on the temperature of the body.
(HT only) A body at constant temperature is absorbing radiation at
the same rate as it is emitting radiation. The temperature of a body
increases when the body absorbs radiation faster than it emits
radiation.
(HT only) The temperature of the Earth depends on many factors
including: the rates of absorption and emission of radiation,
reflection of radiation into space.
(HT only) Students should be able to explain how the temperature
of a body is related to the balance between incoming radiation
absorbed and radiation emitted, using everyday examples to
illustrate this balance, and the example of the factors which
determine the temperature of the Earth.

(HT only) Students should be able to use information, or draw/ WS 1.2

interpret diagrams to show how radiation affects the temperature of
the Earth’s surface and atmosphere.

4.7 Magnetism and electromagnetism

Electromagnetic effects are used in a wide variety of devices. Engineers make use of the fact that
a magnet moving in a coil can produce electric current and also that when current flows around a
magnet it can produce movement. It means that systems that involve control or communications
can take full advantage of this.

4.7.1 Permanent and induced magnetism, magnetic forces and fields

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4.7.1.1 Poles of a magnet
Content Key opportunities for
skills development

The poles of a magnet are the places where the magnetic forces
are strongest. When two magnets are brought close together they
exert a force on each other. Two like poles repel each other. Two
unlike poles attract each other. Attraction and repulsion between
two magnetic poles are examples of non-contact force.
A permanent magnet produces its own magnetic field. An induced
magnet is a material that becomes a magnet when it is placed in a
magnetic field. Induced magnetism always causes a force of
attraction. When removed from the magnetic field an induced
magnet loses most/all of its magnetism quickly.
Students should be able to describe:
• the attraction and repulsion between unlike and like poles for
permanent magnets
• the difference between permanent and induced magnets.

4.7.1.2 Magnetic fields

Content Key opportunities for
skills development

The region around a magnet where a force acts on another magnet WS 2.2
or on a magnetic material (iron, steel, cobalt and nickel) is called
the magnetic field.
The force between a magnet and a magnetic material is always one
of attraction.
The strength of the magnetic field depends on the distance from the
magnet. The field is strongest at the poles of the magnet.
The direction of the magnetic field at any point is given by the
direction of the force that would act on another north pole placed at
that point. The direction of a magnetic field line is from the north
(seeking) pole of a magnet to the south(seeking) pole of the
magnet.
A magnetic compass contains a small bar magnet. The Earth has a
magnetic field. The compass needle points in the direction of the
Earth’s magnetic field.
Students should be able to:
• describe how to plot the magnetic field pattern of a magnet
using a compass
• draw the magnetic field pattern of a bar magnet showing how
strength and direction change from one point to another
• explain how the behaviour of a magnetic compass is related
to evidence that the core of the Earth must be magnetic.

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4.7.2 The motor effect

4.7.2.1 Electromagnetism
Content Key opportunities for
skills development

When a current flows through a conducting wire a magnetic field is

produced around the wire. The strength of the magnetic field
depends on the current through the wire and the distance from the
wire.
Shaping a wire to form a solenoid increases the strength of the
magnetic field created by a current through the wire. The magnetic
field inside a solenoid is strong and uniform.
The magnetic field around a solenoid has a similar shape to that of
a bar magnet. Adding an iron core increases the strength of the
magnetic field of a solenoid. An electromagnet is a solenoid with an
iron core.
Students should be able to:

• describe how the magnetic effect of a current can be WS 2.2

demonstrated
• draw the magnetic field pattern for a straight wire carrying a
current and for a solenoid (showing the direction of the field)
• explain how a solenoid arrangement can increase the
magnetic effect of the current.

(Physics only) Students should be able to interpret diagrams of (Physics only) WS 1.4
electromagnetic devices in order to explain how they work.

4.7.2.2 Fleming's left-hand rule (HT only)

Content Key opportunities for
skills development

When a conductor carrying a current is placed in a magnetic field

the magnet producing the field and the conductor exert a force on
each other. This is called the motor effect.
Students should be able to show that Fleming's left-hand rule
represents the relative orientation of the force, the current in the
conductor and the magnetic field.
Students should be able to recall the factors that affect the size of
the force on the conductor.

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Content Key opportunities for
skills development

For a conductor at right angles to a magnetic field and carrying a MS 3b, c

current:
Students should be able to
f orce = magnetic f lux densit y × current × length apply this equation which is
given on the physics
F =BIl equation sheet.
force, F, in newtons, N
magnetic flux density, B, in tesla, T
current, I, in amperes, A (amp is acceptable for ampere)
length, l, in metres, m

4.7.2.3 Electric motors (HT only)

Content Key opportunities for
skills development

A coil of wire carrying a current in a magnetic field tends to rotate.

This is the basis of an electric motor.
Students should be able to explain how the force on a conductor in
a magnetic field causes the rotation of the coil in an electric motor.

4.7.2.4 Loudspeakers (physics only) (HT only)

Content Key opportunities for
skills development

Loudspeakers and headphones use the motor effect to convert

variations in current in electrical circuits to the pressure variations in
sound waves.
Students should be able to explain how a moving-coil loudspeaker
and headphones work.

4.7.3 Induced potential, transformers and the National Grid (physics

only) (HT only)

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4.7.3.1 Induced potential (HT only)

Content Key opportunities for
skills development

If an electrical conductor moves relative to a magnetic field or if

there is a change in the magnetic field around a conductor, a
potential difference is induced across the ends of the conductor. If
the conductor is part of a complete circuit, a current is induced in
the conductor. This is called the generator effect.
An induced current generates a magnetic field that opposes the
original change, either the movement of the conductor or the
change in magnetic field.
Students should be able to recall the factors that affect the size of
the induced potential difference/induced current.
Students should be able to recall the factors that affect the direction
of the induced potential difference/induced current.
Students should be able to apply the principles of the generator
effect in a given context.

4.7.3.2 Uses of the generator effect (HT only)

Content Key opportunities for
skills development

The generator effect is used in an alternator to generate ac and in a

dynamo to generate dc.
Students should be able to:

• explain how the generator effect is used in an alternator to WS 1.4

generate ac and in a dynamo to generate dc
• draw/interpret graphs of potential difference generated in the
coil against time.

4.7.3.3 Microphones (HT only)

Content Key opportunities for
skills development

Microphones use the generator effect to convert the pressure

variations in sound waves into variations in current in electrical
circuits.
Students should be able to explain how a moving-coil microphone
works.

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4.7.3.4 Transformers (HT only)
Content Key opportunities for
skills development

A basic transformer consists of a primary coil and a secondary coil

wound on an iron core.
Iron is used as it is easily magnetised.
Knowledge of laminations and eddy currents in the core is not
required.
The ratio of the potential differences across the primary and
secondary coils of a transformer Vp and Vs depends on the ratio of
the number of turns on each coil, np and ns.

vp n MS 3b, c
vs
= np
s
Students should be able to
potential difference, Vp and Vs in volts, V apply this equation which is
given on the Physics
In a step-up transformer Vs > Vp
equation sheet.
In a step-down transformer Vs < Vp
If transformers were 100% efficient, the electrical power output
would equal the electrical power input.

V s × Is = V p × I p MS 3b, c

Where Vs × Is is the power output (secondary coil) and Vp × Ip is the Students should be able to
power input (primary coil). apply this equation which is
given on the Physics
power input and output, in watts, W equation sheet.
Students should be able to:
• explain how the effect of an alternating current in one coil in
inducing a current in another is used in transformers
• explain how the ratio of the potential differences across the
two coils depends on the ratio of the number of turns on each
• calculate the current drawn from the input supply to provide a
particular power output

• apply the equation linking the p.d.s and number of turns in the MS 1c, 3b, c
two coils of a transformer to the currents and the power
transfer involved, and relate these to the advantages of power
transmission at high potential differences.

4.8 Space physics (physics only)

Questions about where we are, and where we came from, have been asked for thousands of
years. In the past century, astronomers and astrophysicists have made remarkable progress in
understanding the scale and structure of the universe, its evolution and ours. New questions have
emerged recently. ‘Dark matter’, which bends light and holds galaxies together but does not emit

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electromagnetic radiation, is everywhere – what is it? And what is causing the universe to expand
ever faster?

4.8.1 Solar system; stability of orbital motions; satellites (physics only)

4.8.1.1 Our solar system

Content Key opportunities for
skills development

Within our solar system there is one star, the Sun, plus the eight
planets and the dwarf planets that orbit around the Sun. Natural
satellites, the moons that orbit planets, are also part of the solar
system.
Our solar system is a small part of the Milky Way galaxy.
The Sun was formed from a cloud of dust and gas (nebula) pulled
together by gravitational attraction.
Students should be able to explain:
• how, at the start of a star's life cycle, the dust and gas drawn
together by gravity causes fusion reactions
• that fusion reactions lead to an equilibrium between the
gravitational collapse of a star and the expansion of a star due
to fusion energy.

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4.8.1.2 The life cycle of a star
Content Key opportunities for
skills development

A star goes through a life cycle. The life cycle is determined by the
size of the star.
Students should be able to describe the life cycle of a star:
• the size of the Sun
• much more massive than the Sun.

Fusion processes in stars produce all of the naturally occurring

elements. Elements heavier than iron are produced in a supernova.
The explosion of a massive star (supernova) distributes the
elements throughout the universe.
Students should be able to explain how fusion processes lead to
the formation of new elements.

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 AQA GCSE Physics 8463. GCSE exams June 2018 onwards. Version 1.1 30 September 2019

4.8.1.3 Orbital motion, natural and artificial satellites

Content Key opportunities for
skills development

Gravity provides the force that allows planets and satellites (both
natural and artificial) to maintain their circular orbits.
Students should be able to describe the similarities and distinctions
between the planets, their moons, and artificial satellites.
(HT only) Students should be able to explain qualitatively how:
• (HT only) for circular orbits, the force of gravity can lead to
changing velocity but unchanged speed
• (HT only) for a stable orbit, the radius must change if the
speed changes.

4.8.2 Red-shift (physics only)

Content Key opportunities for
skills development

There is an observed increase in the wavelength of light from most

distant galaxies. The further away the galaxies, the faster they are
moving and the bigger the observed increase in wavelength. This
effect is called red-shift.
The observed red-shift provides evidence that space itself (the
universe) is expanding and supports the Big Bang theory.

The Big Bang theory suggests that the universe began from a very WS 1.2
small region that was extremely hot and dense.
Since 1998 onwards, observations of supernovae suggest that
distant galaxies are receding ever faster.
Students should be able to explain:
• qualitatively the red-shift of light from galaxies that are
receding
• that the change of each galaxy’s speed with distance is
evidence of an expanding universe
• how red-shift provides evidence for the Big Bang model
• how scientists are able to use observations to arrive at
theories such as the Big Bang theory

• that there is still much about the universe that is not WS 1.1, 1.3
understood, for example dark mass and dark energy.

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