MBEYA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

(MUST)

Electrical Circuit Analysis

EE 8208
Time: Wednesday (19:15-21:30)Hours
& Thursday (16:50-19:05)Hours
Course facilitator: Eng. Fredy F. Loita

Consultation: Tuesday and Wednesday

1
 First-Order Circuits
❖In this case we are going examine two types of simple
circuits.
❖A circuit comprising a resistor and capacitor and a circuit
comprising a resistor and a inductor.
❖These are called RC and RL circuits, respectively.
❖As simple as these circuits are, they find continual
applications in electronics, communications, and control
system.
 First-order Circuits
❖We carry out the analysis of RC and RL circuits by
applying Kirchhoff’s laws, as we did for resistive
circuits.
❖The only difference is that applying Kirchhoff’s laws
to purely resistive circuits results in algebraic
equations, while applying the laws to RC and RL
circuits produces differential equations, which are
more difficult to solve than algebraic equations.
❖The differential equations resulting from analyzing
RC and RL circuits are of the first order. Hence, the
circuits are collectively known as first-order circuits.
 First-order Circuits
❖In addition to the two types of first-order circuits (RC and
RL), there are two ways to excite the circuits.
❖ The first way is by initial conditions of the storage
elements in the circuits. In these so called source-free
circuits, we assume that energy is initially stored in the
capacitive or inductive element.
❖The energy causes current to flow in the circuit and is
gradually dissipated in the resistors.
❖Although source free circuits are by definition free of
independent sources, they may have dependent
sources.
 First-order Circuits
❖The second way of exciting first-order circuits is by
independent sources.
❖In this case, the independent sources we will consider
are DC sources.
❖The two types of first-order circuits and the two ways
of exciting them add up to the four possible situations
we will Study.
 The Source-free RC Circuit
❖It occurs when its dc source is suddenly disconnected.
❖The energy already stored in the capacitor is released to
the resistors.
 The Source-free RC Circuit
❖Consider a series combination of a
resistor and an initially charged
capacitor, as shown below
❖The objective is to determine the
circuit response. Assume that it is
the voltage v(t) across the
capacitor
❖The capacitor is assumed to be
initially charged with voltage Vo
at time, t=0 (i.e. v(0)=0
 Applying KCL at the top node
ic+ iR = 0
By definition,
dv v
ic = C iR =
dt R
dv v
Thus C + =0
dt R
dv 1
=− dt
v RC

This is a first order differential

RC-Circuit
equation since the first derivative
of v is involved
Integrating both sides,
t
ln v = − + ln A
RC

Where, ln A is the integration constant

v t
ln = −
A RC

−t
Thus, taking power of e produces v(t ) = Ae RC

But from the initial conditions, v(0) = A = Vo

t
−
v(t ) = Vo e RC
❖The voltage response is the exponential decay of the
initial voltage it is called the natural response of the
circuit since the response is due to initial energy and
not due to external voltage or current source
❖The natural response of the circuit refers to the
behavior (in terms of voltage and currents) of the
circuit itself, with no external sources of excitation.
Natural response of RC circuit At,
t =
t
−
Vo e RC
= Vo e −1 = 0.368Vo
 = RC = time cons tan t

❖As t increases, the voltage decreases towards zero. The

rapidity with which the voltage decreases is expressed
in terms of the time constant.
❖The time constant of a circuit is the time required for
the response to decay by a factor of 1/e or 36.8 percent
of its value
 Solution
Example 1
Thevenin resistance at
the capacitor terminals
20  5
Req = = 4
20 + 5
 = Req C = 4(0.1) = 0.4s
t t
− −
v = v(0)e 
= 15e 0.4
V
Let vc (0) = 15V
vc = v = 15e − 2.5tV
Find vc , v x and i x for t > 0.
12 − 2.5t
vx = v = 9e V
12 + 8
vx
i x = = 0.75e − 2.5t A
12
 Example 2

The switch in the circuit above has been closed for

a long time, and it is opened at t = 0. Find v(t) for t ≥ 0.
Solution
For t < 0 the switch is closed; the capacitor is an open
circuit to dc. 9
Vc(t ) = (20) = 15 V
9+3
V (0) = Vo = 15V t0
For t > 0 the switch is opened;
Req = 1 + 9 = 10

 = ReqC = 10  20 10−3 = 0.2 sec

Thus, the voltage across the capacitor for t ≥ 0 is
t t
− −
v(t ) = vc (0)e 
= 15e 0.2
V
v(t ) = 15e −5tV
Hints
❖Know how to find Power and Energy for each circuit
components
❖Know waveform of each circuit components e.g.
current, voltage, and power
 The Source-Free RL Circuit
❖ Occurs when the dc supply is suddenly disconnected.

❖ We assume that the inductor has an initial current Io,

i.e. i(0)=Io
❖The goal is to determine the circuit response which is i(t)
since the current in the inductor cannot change
instantaneously
Applying KVL: VL+VR=0

di
But vL = L
dt and v R = iR
di
L + Ri = 0
dt
di R
+ i =0
dt L
i (t ) t
di R

I0
i
= −  dt
0
L
Rt
ln i i (t )
Io =− t
0
L
Rt
ln i (t ) − ln I o =− +0
L
 i (t ) Rt
ln =−
Io L
Rt
−
i (t ) = I o e L

L
 =
R
t
−
i (t ) = I o e 
The natural response of the RL circuit is an exponential
decay of the initial current as shown below.

t
−
The voltage across the resistor is, VR (t ) = iR = I o Re 
 Solution:
Example 3
❖When t < 0, the
switch is closed and
the inductor acts as
a short circuit to
dc. The circuit
becomes;
The switch in the circuit above
has been closed for a long
time. At t = 0 the switch is
opened.
Calculate i(t) for t > 0.
 40
i1 = = 8A 12
2+3 i (t ) = i1 = 6 A
12 + 4
Since the current through an
inductor can not change i (0) = i (0 − ) = 6 A
instantaneously;

When t > 0 the switch is open and the voltage source is

disconnected. The circuit becomes;
 Req = (12 + 4) 16 = 8

L 2 1
The time constant is = = = s
Req 8 4

Thus,
t
−
− 4t
i (t ) = i (0)e 
= 6e A
Example 4 Solution:
For t < 0, the switch is
open. The circuit
becomes;

Find vo , io and i for all time,

assuming that the switch was
io = 0
open for a long time.
10
i (t ) = = 2A
2+3
i (0) = 2, vo (t ) = 3i (t ) = 6V
 t
−
For t > 0 i (t ) = i (0)e 
= 2e −t A
We now have a source free
Since the inductor is in parallel
RL circuit
with the 6 Ω and the 3 Ω
resistors;
di
vo (t ) = −v L = − L = −2(−2e −t ) = 4e −tV
dt
vL 2 −t
io (t ) = = − e A
6 3

At the inductor terminals

RTh = 3 6 = 2
L
 = = 1s
RTh
Thus, for all time
 0 A, t  0

io (t ) =  2 −t
− e A, t  0

 3

 6V , t  0
v o (t ) =  −t
4e V , t  0

 2 A, t  0
i (t ) =  −t
2e A, t  0

The inductor current is continuous at t = 0.

STEP RESPONSE OF FIRST ORDER CIRCUITS
 Singularity Functions
❖ Singularity functions (or switching functions)are
functions that either are discontinuous or have
discontinuous derivatives.
❖For this course we are interested in three singularity
functions; the unit step function, the impulse function
and the unit ramp function.
❖Make it easier to understand response of first order
circuits to a sudden application of an independent dc
voltage or current source.
❖Good approximation to the switching signals that arise in
circuits with switching operations
 Singularity Functions

The unit step function u(t) is 0 for negative values of t

and 1 for positive values of t. Mathematically expressed
as

0, t  0
u (t ) = 
1, t  0
 Singularity Functions
If the abrupt change occurs at t = to (to > 0) instead of t = 0
the unit step function becomes u(t − t o )
This is the same as saying that u(t) is delayed by to seconds,
as shown below mathematically and graphically

0, t  t o
u (t − t o ) = 
1, t  t o
 Singularity functions
• If the change is at t=-to, the unit step function
becomes 0, t t
u (t + to ) =  o
1, t to
Meaning that u(t) is advanced by to seconds as
shown
u(t +to)
1

to 0 t
We use the step function to represent an abrupt
change in voltage and current
For example the voltage;
 0, t  t o
v (t ) = 
Vo , t  t o
In terms of unit step function it is expressed as
v(t ) = Vo u (t − t o )
If we let to=0, then v(t) is simply Vou(t)

Circuit for v(t)=Vou(t) equivalent circuit

A circuit for a current source of I o u (t ) and its equivalent
are represented as shown below. Note that for t<0, there
is an open circuit (i=0) and that i=Io flows for t>0

its equivalent circuit

 Step Response of RC Circuit
❖ When the DC source of an RC circuit is suddenly
applied, the voltage or current source can be
modeled as a step function, and the response is known
as a step response. The step response is the response
of the circuit due to a sudden application of a DC
voltage or current source.
Consider the circuit Which can be replaced by
Vs is a constant DC voltage source. We assume an initial
voltage Vo on the capacitor.
Since the voltage of the capacitor can not change
instantaneously v(0 − ) = v(0 + ) = Vo
Applying KCL to the circuit above we get

dv v − Vs u (t )
C + =0
dt R
dv v Vs
+ = u (t )
dt RC RC

For t >0, u(t)=1

dv v Vs
+ =
dt RC RC
dv dt
=−
v − Vs RC

v (t ) t
dv dt

Vo
v − Vs
= −
0
RC

t
ln( v − Vs ) = −
v (t )
Vo
t
0
RC
v − Vs t
ln =−
Vo − V s RC
 Taking the exponential of both sides
v − Vs
t
−
= e  , = RC
Vo − Vs
t
−
v − Vs = (Vo − Vs )e 

t
−
v(t ) = Vs + (Vo − Vs )e  , t  0

 Vo , t0
v(t ) =  −
t
Vs + (Vo − Vs )e  , t  0

This is known as the complete response (total response) of the RC

circuit to a sudden application of a dc voltage source, assuming the
capacitor is initially charged
If we assume that the capacitor is uncharged initially ,we
set , Vo=0 so that v(t) becomes:

Vo = 0
 0, t  0
v(t ) =  −
t
Vs (1 − e  ), t  0

−t 
v(t ) = Vs (1 − e )u (t )
The current through the capacitor is obtained by

dv V
s −t 
i (t ) = C = e u (t )
dt R
Consider the expression below t
−
v(t ) = Vs + (Vo − Vs )e  , t  0

v = v f + vn
−t
−
v f = Vs (1 − e −t 
) vn = Vo e 
❖ The natural response vn is is a temporary response that will die
out with time (it is due to the stored energy).
❖ The forced response vf is produced by the circuit when an
external force (in this case voltage source ) is applied. It
represents what the circuit is forced to do by the input excitation.
The complete response of the circuit is the sum of the natural
response and the forced response.

❖The complete response is the sum of the transient

response and the steady state response
❖The transient response is the circuit’s response that will
die out with time.
❖The steady state response is the behavior of the circuit
along time after an external excitation is applied
The general equation for complete response may be
written as
v(t ) = v() + v(0) − v()e −t 

Where
v(t ) is the complete step response of the RC circuit,
v(0) is the initial capacitor voltage at t = 0 +
v() is the final or steady-state value of the
capacitor voltage.
If the switch changes position at time t = t o
instead of t = 0, there is a time delay in response so
that the complete step response equation becomes.
( t −t o )

v(t ) = v() + v(t o ) − v() e

−


Where
v(t o ) is the initial capacitor voltage at time t = t o+
Example 5:
The switch in the circuit below has been closed for
along time and is opened at t = 0. Find i and v for all
time.
Solution:
It is better to find
v and then obtain i
from v. By
definition of the
unit step function

 0, t  0
30u (t ) = 
30, t  0
For t <0, the switch is closed and 30u(t)=0, so that the 30u(t)
voltage source is replaced by a short circuit and should be
regarded as contributing nothing to v. Since the switch has been
closed for long time, the capacitor voltage has reached steady
state and the capacitor acts like an open circuit. Hence the circuit
becomes as shown below.
10 i
+
+
20  - 10V
-

From this circuit we obtain v

v = 10V , i = − = −1 A
10
Since the capacitor voltage cannot change instantaneously;
v(0) = v(0− ) = 10V
For t>0, the switch is open and the 10-V voltage source
is disconnected from the circuit. The 30u(t) voltage
source is now operative, so the circuit becomes
10 i

+
30V
+
- 20  1
4 F
-
For t > 0

20
v ( ) = (30) = 20V
20 + 10
10  20 20
RTh = 10 20 = = 
10 + 20 3
20 1 5
 = RTh C =  = s
3 4 3
t
v(t ) = v() + v(0) − v()e
−


3t
v(t ) = 20 + 10 − 20e
−
5
= 20 − 10e −0.6tV
i is the sum of the currents through the 20Ω resistor
and the capacitor.
v dv
i= +C
20 dt
= 1 − 0.5e −0.6t + 0.25(−0.6)(−10)e −0.6t = 1 + e −0.6t A

Therefore
 10V , t  0
v= − 0.6 t
 20 − 10 e V ,t  0

 − 1A, t  0
i= − 0.6 t
1 + e A, t  0
Step response of an RL circuit
Our goal is to find the inductor current i as the circuit
response.
Consider the circuit Which may be replaced
by
 Step response of an RL circuit
❖Let the response i be the sum of the natural response in
and the forced response if, that is
i = in + if
❖ We know the natural response is always a decaying exponential
that dies out .
❖ At that time the inductor becomes a short circuit and the voltage
across it is zero. The entire source voltage Vs appears across R.
❖ The forced component is the value of the current long after the
switch is closed
 Vs Step response of an RL circuit
if =
R
t
−
i n = Ae 

L
 =
R
t
Vs −
i= + Ae  A is a constant
R
i (0 + ) = i (0 − ) = I o
Vs
Io = A +
R inductor current cannot change instantaneously
Vs
A = Io −
R
The complete response of RL circuit is
Vs  Vs  −
t
i (t ) = +  I o − e
R  R
The complete response of RL circuit may be written as
t
i (t ) = i () + i (0) − i ()e
−


If the switching takes place at t = to instead of t = 0,

( t −t o )

i(t ) = i () + i (t o ) − i()e

−


The voltage across the inductor is: −t −t

di L 
v(t ) = L = Vs e = Vs e  u (t )
dt R
Example 6:
For the circuit below, at t = 0 switch S1 is closed
and switch S2 is closed 4 s later. Find i(t) for t >0.
Calculate i for t=2 and t=5 sec

Solution:
For t < 0
i=0
i(0 − ) = i(0) = i(0 + ) = 0
Both switches S1
and S2 are open.
QUIZ 1
For 0 ≤ t ≤ 4 S1 is closed so that 4Ω and 6 Ω
resistors are in series.
40V
i ( ) = = 4A
(4 + 6)
RTh = 4 + 6 = 10
L 5 1
= = = s
RTh 10 2
t
i (t ) = i () + i (0) − i ()e
−


i (t ) = 4 + (0 − 4)e − 2t = 4(1 − e − 2t ) A,0  t  4

For t ≥4, S2 is closed , the 10V source is connected
and the circuit changes. This sudden change does
not affect the inductor current because the inductor
current can not change abruptly. The initial current
is i(4) = i(4 − ) = 4(1 − e −8 )  4 A
Let v be the voltage at node P, then
40 − v 10 − v v 180
+ = v= V
4 2 6 11
v 30
i ( ) = = = 2.727 A
6 11
4 2 22
RTh = 4 2 + 6 = +6= 
4+2 3
L 5 15
= = 22 = s
RTh 3 22
 (t −4)
i (t ) = i () + i (4) − i ()e
−

,t  4
(t −4)
− 15
i (t ) = 2.727 + ( 4 − 2.727 )e 22

−1.4667 ( t − 4 )
i (t ) = 2.727 + 1.273e ,t  4

 0, t  0

i (t ) =  4(1 − e − 2t ),0  t  4
2.727 + 1.273e −1.4667 ( t − 4 ) , t  4

 Problems
Problem 1: The switch in the figure below has been in
position A for long time. At t=0, the switch moves to B.
Determine v(t) for t>0 and calculate its value at t= 1 s
and 4 s [Ans: v(t)= (30-15e-0.5t) V, 20.902 V, 27.97 V)

Problem 2: The switch in figure below has been closed

for a long time. It opens at t=0. Find i(t) for t>0
[Ans: (2+e-10t) A, t>0 ]
Assignment:
Problems 7.14, 7.15,7.16 – Pages
282-285
Alexander and Sadiku