Table 1: comparison table to outline the key aspects of commonly used welding processes
Shielded Metal Gas Metal Arc Gas Tungsten
Flux-Cored Arc Submerged Arc
Process Arc Welding Welding Arc Welding
Welding (FCAW) Welding (SAW)
(SMAW) (GMAW/MIG) (GTAW/TIG)
Construction, Automotive, Aerospace, Large-scale
Typical Heavy equipment,
pipeline, repair manufacturing, pressure vessels, structures, heavy
Applications construction, repair
welding structural piping fabrication
Carbon steel, Carbon steel, Most metals,
Carbon steel, Carbon steel,
Materials stainless steel, stainless, incl. aluminum &
stainless steel stainless steel
some cast iron aluminum titanium
Inert or semi-inert Flux core or gas Inert gas Granular flux
Shielding Type Flux coating
gas (e.g., Ar, CO₂) shielded (typically Argon) covers the weld
Skill Level Moderate Moderate to low Moderate High Low to moderate
Weld Good for most Moderate, Precise, Deep, especially
Deep
Penetration thicknesses adjustable controllable for thick sections
High, often faster
Weld Speed Moderate to slow High Slow Very high
than SMAW
Possible with Good for all
Out-of-Position Limited (usually Difficult, mostly Limited to flat
practice (all positions (if gas-
Welding horizontal) flat or horizontal and horizontal
positions) shielded)
High for self-
Moderate
High (no external shielded FCAW,
Portability (requires gas Moderate to low Low
gas needed) moderate for gas-
supply)
shielded
Very stable (fully
Arc Stability Fair to good Excellent Excellent Excellent
submerged)
Low equipment Moderate High initial cost,
High equipment
Cost Efficiency cost, medium equipment, Moderate to high low consumable
cost
consumable cost medium gas cost cost
Good, with
Heat Input Good, suitable for
Moderate control adjustable Excellent Excellent
Control thicker materials
parameters
Moderate, with
Filler Metal High, continuous Very high, Low, requires Very high,
frequent electrode
Deposition feed continuous feed manual feeding continuous
changes
Slag inclusion, Spatter, lack of Slag inclusion, Lack of fusion,
Typical Defects Slag inclusion
porosity fusion porosity porosity
High productivity, Extremely high
Portable, versatile, High deposition High-quality,
Advantages good for thicker productivity,
low cost rate, minimal slag precise welds
metals deep welds
Frequent stops for Higher fume Limited to flat
Spatter, requires Slow, high skill
Disadvantages electrode changes, emission, slag to positions, high
gas supply required
slag remove setup cost
Table 2: Approximate empirical factors (k values) for various metals.
Empirical Factor
Material Notes
(k)
Carbon Steel 1.0 Standard k-value for typical carbon steels.
Empirical Factor
Material Notes
(k)
Lower HAZ due to reduced thermal conductivity compared to
Stainless Steel 0.8
carbon steel.
Aluminum 1.5 High thermal conductivity results in a wider HAZ.
Similar to aluminum but with even greater conductivity, so HAZ
Copper 1.4
spreads.
Low-Alloy Steel 1.0 Behaves similarly to carbon steel in terms of HAZ width.
Nickel Alloys (e.g., Narrow HAZ due to high heat resistance and low thermal
0.6
Inconel) conductivity.
Titanium 0.7 Narrow HAZ; titanium has low conductivity and high melting point.
Cast Iron 0.9 Relatively moderate HAZ width; can be brittle with rapid cooling.
High thermal conductivity; prone to wider HAZ, similar to
Magnesium 1.3
aluminum.
Tool Steel 0.9 Moderate HAZ, but can vary depending on alloying elements.
