DIODE APPLICATIONS

Diodes are widely applied in the following ways;

• Rectifiers
• Amplifications
• Lighting
• Clippers
• Clampers
• Switching
• Many more

RECTIFIERS

A rectifier is an electronic circuit which converts an Alternating Current (AC) voltage into a
Direct Current (DC) voltage.

Almost all basic household electronic circuits need an unregulated AC to be converted to

constant DC, in order to operate the electronic device. All devices will have a certain power
supply limit and the electronic circuits inside these devices must be able to supply a
constant DC voltage within this limit. This DC supply is regulated and limited in terms of
voltage and current. But the supply provided from mains may be fluctuating and could
easily break down the electronic equipment, if not properly limited. This work of
converting an unregulated alternating current (AC) or voltage to a limited Direct current
(DC) or voltage to make the output constant regardless of the fluctuations in input, is done
by a regulated power supply circuit.

It is also known as a Direct Current Power Supply or simply, a DC Power Supply. It is

composed of four (4) stages which are shown in the block diagram below;

The basic building blocks of a regulated DC power supply are as follows:

A step down transformer

A rectifier

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A DC filter

A regulator

Step Down Transformer

A step down transformer will step down the voltage from the ac mains to the required
voltage level. The turn’s ratio of the transformer is so adjusted such as to obtain the
required voltage value. The output of the transformer is given as an input to the rectifier
circuit.

Rectification

Rectifier is an electronic circuit consisting of diodes which carries out the rectification
process. Rectification is the process of converting an alternating voltage or current into
corresponding direct (DC) quantity. The input to a rectifier is ac whereas its output is
unidirectional pulsating DC. Usually a full wave rectifier or a bridge rectifier is used to
rectify both the half cycles of the ac supply (full wave rectification). Figure below shows a
full wave bridge rectifier.'

DC Filtration

The rectified voltage from the rectifier is a pulsating DC voltage having very high ripple
content. But this is not we want, we want a pure ripple free DC

Regulation

This is the last block in a regulated DC power supply. The output voltage or current will
change or fluctuate when there is change in the input from ac mains or due to change in
load current at the output of the regulated power supply or due to other factors like
temperature changes. This problem can be eliminated by using a regulator. A regulator will
maintain the output constant even when changes at the input or any other changes occur.
Transistor series regulator, Fixed and variable IC regulators or a Zener diode operated in
the Zener region can be used depending on their applications. IC’s like 78XX and 79XX are
used to obtained fixed values of voltages at the output waveform. Hence a filter is used.
Different types of filters are used such as capacitor filter, LC filter, Choke input filter, π type
filter.

TYPES OF RECTIFIERS

HALF-WAVE RECTIFICATION
The diode analysis will now be expanded to include time-varying functions such as the
sinusoidal waveform and the square wave. There is no question that the degree of difficulty
will increase, but once a few fundamental maneuvers are understood, the analysis will be

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fairly direct and follow a common thread. For the moment we will use the ideal model
(note the absence of the Si or Ge label to denote ideal diode) to ensure that the approach is
not clouded by additional mathematical complexity.

Over one full cycle, defined by the period T, the average value (the algebraic sum of the
areas above and below the axis) is zero. The circuit of Figure above called a half-wave
rectifier, will generate a waveform vo that will have an average value of particular, use in
the ac-to-dc conversion process. When employed in the rectification process, a diode is
typically referred to as a rectifier. Its power and current ratings are typically much higher
than those of diodes employed in other applications, such as computers and
communication systems.
During the interval t = 0 to T/2, the polarity of the applied voltage vi is such as to establish
“pressure” in the direction indicated and turn on the diode with the polarity appearing
above the diode. Substituting the short-circuit equivalence for the ideal diode will result in
the equivalent circuit of Figure below, where it is fairly obvious that the output signal is an
exact replica of the applied signal. The two terminals defining the output voltage are
connected directly to the applied signal via the short-circuit equivalence of the diode.

For the period T/2 to T, the polarity of the input vi is as shown in Figure below and the
resulting polarity across the ideal diode produces an “off” state with an open-circuit
equivalent. The result is the absence of a path for charge to flow and vo = iR = (0)R = 0 V for
the period T/2 to T. The input vi and the output vo were sketched together in Figure below
for comparison purposes. The output signal vo now has a net positive area above the axis
over a full period and an average value determined by;

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PIV (PRV)
The peak inverse voltage (PIV) [or PRV (peak reverse voltage)] rating of the diode is of
primary importance in the design of rectification systems. Recall that it is the voltage rating
that must not be exceeded in the reverse-bias region or the diode will enter the Zener
avalanche region. The required PIV rating for the half-wave rectifier can be determined
from Figure below which displays the reverse-biased. Applying Kirchhoff”s voltage law, it is
fairly obvious that the PIV rating of the diode must equal or exceed the peak value of the
applied voltage. Therefore,

FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION: Bridge Network

The dc level obtained from a sinusoidal input can be improved 100% using a process called
full-wave rectification. The most familiar network for performing such a function appears in
Fig. 2.52 with its four diodes in a bridge configuration. During the period t = 0 to T/2 the
polarity of the input is as shown in Figure below. The resulting polarities across the ideal
diodes are also shown in Figure below to reveal that D2 and D3 are conducting while D1
and D4 are in the “off” state. The net result is the configuration of Figure below with its
indicated current and polarity across R. Since the diodes are ideal the load voltage is vo = vi,
as shown in the same figure.

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For the negative region of the input the conducting diodes are D1 and D4, resulting in the
configuration of figure below. The important result is that the polarity across the load
resistor R is the same as in Figure above, establishing a second positive pulse, as shown in
Figure below. Over one full cycle the input and output voltages will appear as shown in
Figure below.

Since the area above the axis for one full cycle is now twice that obtained for a half-wave
system, the dc level has also been doubled and

PIV
The required PIV of each diode (ideal) can be determined from Figure below obtained at
the peak of the positive region of the input signal. For the indicated loop the maximum
voltage across R is Vm and the PIV rating is defined by;

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FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION: Center-Tapped Transformer
A second popular full-wave rectifier appears in Figure below with only two diodes but
requiring a center-tapped (CT) transformer to establish the input signal across each section
of the secondary of the transformer. During the positive portion of vi applied to the primary
of the transformer, the network will appear as shown in Figure below D1 assumes the
short-circuit equivalent and D2 the open-circuit equivalent, as determined by the
secondary voltages and the resulting current directions. The output voltage appears as
shown in Figure below.

During the negative portion of the input the network appears as shown in Figure below,
reversing the roles of the diodes but maintaining the same polarity for the voltage across
the load resistor R. The net effect is the same output as that appearing in Figure below with
the same dc levels.

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PIV
The network of Figure below will help us determine the net PIV for each diode for this full-
wave rectifier. Inserting the maximum voltage for the secondary voltage and Vm as
established by the adjoining loop will result in;
PIV = Vsecondary + VR
= Vm +Vm

Problem 1
(a) Sketch the output vo and determine the dc level of the output for the network of Figure
below.
(b) Repeat part (a) if the ideal diode is replaced by a silicon diode.
(c) Repeat parts (a) and (b) if Vm is increased to 200 V and compare solutions.

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Problem 2
An a.c. supply of 230 V is applied to a half-wave rectifier circuit through a transformer of
turn ratio 10 : 1. Find
(i) the output d.c. voltage and
(ii) (ii) the peak inverse voltage.
Assume the diode to be ideal.

Problem 3
A crystal diode having internal resistance rf = 20Ω is used for half-wave rectification. If the
applied voltage v = 50 sinωt and load resistance RL= 800Ω, find:
(i) Im, Idc, Irms (ii) a.c. power input and d.c. power output (iii) d.c. output voltage (iv)
efficiency of rectification.
Problem 4
A half-wave rectifier is used to supply 50V d.c. to a resistive load of 800 Ω. The diode has a
resistance of 25 Ω. Calculate a.c. voltage required.
Problem 5
A full-wave rectifier uses two diodes, the internal resistance of each diode may be assumed
constant at 20 Ω. The transformer r.m.s. secondary voltage from centre tap to each end of
secondary is 50 V and load resistance is 980 Ω. Find : (i) the mean load current (ii) the
r.m.s. value of load current.

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Problem 6
In the centre-tap circuit shown in Fig. 2, the diodes are assumed to be ideal i.e. having zero
internal resistance. Find :(i) d.c. output voltage(ii) peak inverse voltage (iii) rectification
efficiency.

Problem 7
In the bridge type circuit shown in Fig. 3, the diodes are assumed to be ideal. Find : (i) d.c.
output voltage (ii) peak inverse voltage (iii) output frequency. Assume primary to
secondary turns to be 4.

Problem 8
Fig. (i) and Fig. (ii) show the centre-tap and bridge type circuits having the same load
resistance and transformer turn ratio. The primary of each is connected to 230V, 50 Hz
supply. (i) Find the d.c. voltage in each case. (ii) PIV for each case for the same d.c. output.
Assume the diodes to be ideal.

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 FILTER CIRCUITS

CAPACITOR FILTER
A very popular filter circuit is the capacitor-filter circuit shown in Figure below. A capacitor
is connected at the rectifier output, and a dc voltage is obtained across the capacitor. The
Figure below shows the output voltage of a full-wave rectifier before the signal is filtered,
whereas Figure below shows the resulting waveform after the filter capacitor is connected
at the rectifier output. Notice that the filtered waveform is essentially a dc voltage with
some ripple (or ac variation).

Figure below shows a full-wave bridge rectifier and the output waveform obtained from
the circuit when connected to a load (RL). If no load were connected across the capacitor,
the output waveform would ideally be a constant dc level equal in value to the peak voltage

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(V m) from the rectifier circuit. However, the purpose of obtaining a dc voltage is to provide
this voltage for use by various electronic circuits, which then constitute a load on the
voltage supply. Since there will always be a load on the filter output, we must consider this
practical case in our discussion.

Output Waveform
Figure below shows the waveform across a capacitor filter. Time T 1 is the time during
which diodes of the full-wave rectifier conduct, charging the capacitor up to the peak
rectifier voltage V m . Time T 2 is the time interval during which the rectifier voltage drops
below the peak voltage, and the capacitor discharges through the load. Since the charge–
discharge cycle occurs for each half-cycle for a full-wave rectifier, the period of the rectified
waveform is T /2. The filtered voltage, as shown in Figure below, shows the output
waveform to have a dc level V dc and a ripple voltage Vr (rms) as the capacitor charges and
discharges.
Some details of these waveforms and the circuit elements are considered next.

Ripple Voltage Vr (RMS)

The ripple voltage can be calculated from;

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DC Voltage Vdc
From Appendix C , we can express the dc value of the waveform across the filter capacitor
as;

Filter Capacitor Ripple

Using the definition of ripple, with Vdc = Vm, we can obtain the expression for the output
waveform ripple of a full-wave rectifier and filter capacitor circuit:

Problem 9
(i) Using a dc and ac voltmeter to measure the output signal from a filter circuit, we
obtain readings of 25 V dc and 1.5 V rms. calculate the ripple of the filter output
voltage.
(ii) A dc voltage supply provides 60 V when the output is unloaded. When connected to
a load, the output drops to 56 V. Calculate the value of voltage regulation.
(iii) Calculate the ripple voltage of a full-wave rectifier with a 100-mF filter
capacitor connected to a load drawing 50 mA.
(iv) If the peak rectified voltage for the filter circuit of Example 15.3 is 30 V,
calculate the filter dc voltage.
(v) Calculate the ripple of a capacitor filter for a peak rectified voltage of 30 V, capacitor
C = 50 mF, and a load current of 50 mA.

RC FILTER
It is possible to further reduce the amount of ripple across a filter capacitor by using an
additional RC filter section as shown in Figure below . The purpose of the added RC section
is to pass most of the dc component while attenuating (reducing) as much of the ac
component as possible. Figure below shows a full-wave rectifier with capacitor filter
followed by an RC filter section. The operation of the filter circuit can be analyzed using
superposition for the dc and ac components of the signal.

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DC Operation of RC Filter Section
Figure below shows the dc equivalent circuit to use in analyzing the RC filter circuit of
Figure above. Since both capacitors are open-circuit for dc operation, the resulting output
dc voltage is;

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AC Operation of RC Filter Section
Figure above shows the ac equivalent circuit of the RC filter section. Due to the voltage
divider action of the capacitor ac impedance and the load resistor, the ac component of
voltage resulting across the load is;

For a full-wave rectifier with ac ripple at 120 Hz, the impedance of a capacitor can be
calculated using;

where C is in microfarads and X C is in kilohms.

Problem 10
(i) Calculate the dc voltage across a 1kΩ load for an RC filter section (R = 120 Ω, C = 10
mF). The dc voltage across the initial filter capacitor is Vdc = 60 V.
(ii) Calculate the dc and ac components of the output signal across load R in the circuit
of Figure below. Calculate the ripple of the output waveform.

VOLTAGE REGULATOR USING A ZENER DIODE

The Zener diode behaves just like a normal general-purpose diode consisting of a silicon
PN junction and when biased in the forward direction, that is Anode positive with respect
to its Cathode, it behaves just like a normal signal diode passing the rated current.
However, unlike a conventional diode that blocks any flow of current through itself when
reverse biased, that is the Cathode becomes more positive than the Anode, as soon as the
reverse voltage reaches a pre-determined value, the zener diode begins to conduct in the
reverse direction.
This is because when the reverse voltage applied across the zener diode exceeds the rated
voltage of the device a process called Avalanche Breakdown occurs in the semiconductor
depletion layer and a current starts to flow through the diode to limit this increase in
voltage.

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The current now flowing through the zener diode increases dramatically to the maximum
circuit value (which is usually limited by a series resistor) and once achieved, this reverse
saturation current remains fairly constant over a wide range of reverse voltages. The
voltage point at which the voltage across the zener diode becomes stable is called the
“zener voltage”, (Vz ) and for zener diodes this voltage can range from less than one volt to
a few hundred volts.
The point at which the zener voltage triggers the current to flow through the diode can be
very accurately controlled (to less than 1% tolerance) in the doping stage of the diodes
semiconductor construction giving the diode a specific zener breakdown voltage, (Vz) for
example, 4.3V or 7.5V. This zener breakdown voltage on the I-V curve is almost a vertical
straight line.

Zener Diode I-V Characteristics

The Zener Diode is used in its “reverse bias” or reverse breakdown mode, i.e. the diodes
anode connects to the negative supply. From the I-V characteristics curve above, we can see
that the zener diode has a region in its reverse bias characteristics of almost a constant
negative voltage regardless of the value of the current flowing through the diode.

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This voltage remains almost constant even with large changes in current providing the
zener diodes current remains between the breakdown current IZ(min) and its maximum
current rating IZ(max).
This ability of the zener diode to control itself can be used to great effect to regulate or
stabilise a voltage source against supply or load variations. The fact that the voltage across
the diode in the breakdown region is almost constant turns out to be an important
characteristic of the zener diode as it can be used in the simplest types of voltage regulator
applications.
The function of a voltage regulator is to provide a constant output voltage to a load
connected in parallel with it in spite of the ripples in the supply voltage or variations in the
load current. A zener diode will continue to regulate its voltage until the diodes holding
current falls below the minimum IZ(min) value in the reverse breakdown region.

The Zener Diode Regulator

Zener Diodes can be used to produce a stabilised voltage output with low ripple under
varying load current conditions. By passing a small current through the diode from a
voltage source, via a suitable current limiting resistor (RS), the zener diode will conduct
sufficient current to maintain a voltage drop of Vout.
We remember from the previous tutorials that the DC output voltage from the half or full-
wave rectifiers contains ripple superimposed onto the DC voltage and that as the load value
changes so to does the average output voltage. By connecting a simple zener stabiliser
circuit as shown below across the output of the rectifier, a more stable output voltage can
be produced.

Zener Diode Regulator

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Resistor, RS is connected in series with the zener diode to limit the current flow through the
diode with the voltage source, VS being connected across the combination. The stabilised
output voltage Vout is taken from across the zener diode.
The zener diode is connected with its cathode terminal connected to the positive rail of the
DC supply so it is reverse biased and will be operating in its breakdown condition.
Resistor RS is selected so to limit the maximum current flowing in the circuit.
With no load connected to the circuit, the load current will be zero, ( IL = 0 ), and all the
circuit current passes through the zener diode which in turn dissipates its maximum
power. Also a small value of the series resistor RS will result in a greater diode current
when the load resistance RL is connected and large as this will increase the power
dissipation requirement of the diode so care must be taken when selecting the appropriate
value of series resistance so that the zener’s maximum power rating is not exceeded under
this no-load or high-impedance condition.
The load is connected in parallel with the zener diode, so the voltage across RL is always the
same as the zener voltage, ( VR = VZ ). There is a minimum zener current for which the
stabilisation of the voltage is effective and the zener current must stay above this value
operating under load within its breakdown region at all times. The upper limit of current is
of course dependant upon the power rating of the device. The supply voltage VS must be
greater than VZ.
One small problem with zener diode stabiliser circuits is that the diode can sometimes
generate electrical noise on top of the DC supply as it tries to stabilise the voltage. Normally
this is not a problem for most applications but the addition of a large value decoupling
capacitor across the zener’s output may be required to give additional smoothing.
Then to summarise a little. A zener diode is always operated in its reverse biased condition.
As such a simple voltage regulator circuit can be designed using a zener diode to maintain a
constant DC output voltage across the load in spite of variations in the input voltage or
changes in the load current.
The zener voltage regulator consists of a current limiting resistor RS connected in series
with the input voltage VS with the zener diode connected in parallel with the load RL in this
reverse biased condition. The stabilised output voltage is always selected to be the same as
the breakdown voltage VZ of the diode.
Problem 11
A 5.0V stabilised power supply is required to be produced from a 12V DC power supply
input source. The maximum power rating PZ of the zener diode is 2W. Using the zener
regulator circuit above calculate:
a). The maximum current flowing through the zener diode.
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b). The minimum value of the series resistor, RS
c). The load current IL if a load resistor of 1kΩ is connected across the zener diode.
d). The zener current IZ at full load

DIODE CLIPPERS
Clippers are networks that employ diodes to “clip” away a portion of an input signal
without distorting the remaining part of the applied waveform.
There are two general categories of clippers: series and parallel. The series configuration is
defined as one where the diode is in series with the load, whereas the parallel variety has
the diode in a branch parallel to the load.
Series
The response of the series configuration of Figure (a) below to a variety of alternating
waveforms is provided in Figure (b) below. Although first introduced as a half-wave
rectifier (for sinusoidal waveforms), there are no boundaries on the type of signals that can
be applied to a clipper.

Parallel
The network of Figure (a) below is the simplest of parallel diode configurations with the
output for the same inputs of Figure (b) below. The analysis of parallel configurations is
very similar to that applied to series configurations, as demonstrated in the next example.

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Examples of Clippers

DIODE CLAMPERS
A clamper is a network constructed of a diode, a resistor, and a capacitor that shifts a
waveform to a different dc level without changing the appearance of the applied signal.

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Clamping networks have a capacitor connected directly from input to output with a
resistive element in parallel with the output signal. The diode is also in parallel with the
output signal but may or may not have a series dc supply as an added element.

Examples on clampers

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