REPUBLIKA NG PILIPINAS

Republic of the Philippines

PAMANTASANG NORMAL NG PILIPINAS VISAYAS
Philippine Normal University Visayas
ANG PAMBANSANG SENTRO SA EDUKASYONG PANGGURO
The National Center for Teacher Education 33E20135
LUNGSOD NG CADIZ
City of Cadiz

EVALUATION: AN INTRICATE TEACHERS’ ACCOUNTABILITY

IN THE NEW NORMAL
A Learning Module in
2ProfEd 08 – Assessment and Evaluation of Students’ Learning

By:

ELISEO P. MARPA
ALBERTO A. RICO
DENMARK L. YONSON

Second Trimester

A.Y. 2020 – 2021

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PNU VISION AND MISSION

PNU shall become internationally recognized and nationally responsive teacher education university. As the
established producer of knowledge workers in the field of education, it shall be the primary source of high-quality teachers
and education managers that can directly inspire and shape the quality of Filipino students and graduates in the country
and the world.

PNU is dedicated to nurturing innovative teachers and education leaders.

PNU QUALITY POLICY
As the National Center for Teacher Education, the Philippine Normal University commits to provide leadership in
teacher education and nurture innovative teachers and education leaders imbued with values of truth, excellence, and
service. We commit to the continual growth of the University through compliance with international Quality Standards and
statutory and regulatory requirements. We shall achieve this through our core functions of instruction, research, extension,
and production.
GOALS
The Faculty of Teacher Development promotes the University’s mission of nurturing innovative teachers and
educational leaders. It is committed to:

1. Providing the best teacher preparation and development training to produce teachers who are strong in content,
grounded in the discipline and possess the technological and pedagogical knowledge to effectively teach and lead
in the on-going educational reforms at all levels of education;
2. Promoting quality instruction by ensuring a strong philosophical and conceptual foundations for the teacher
education curriculum programs to develop graduates with the following qualities: humane and ethical educated
person, reflective and responsive specialist, critical and creative technology expert and transformative educator;
3. Advancing research in education by providing opportunities to students and faculty members of the College to
conduct research to produce and construct knowledge about teaching- learning, reflect and make meaningful
connections between theory and practice, solve problems and locate opportunities for strategic actions; and
4. Promoting a culture of sharing by extending scholarship and expertise to other educational institutions and agencies
and establishing partnerships with communities and organizations involved in education.

OBJECTIVES
The Professional Education courses are expected to develop competent teachers who demonstrate the following:
1. Apply developmentally appropriate and meaningful pedagogy grounded on content knowledge and current
research;
2. Critical understanding of the application of theories and principles to teaching-learning founded on sound
educational philosophy;
3. Establish learning environments that are safe, secure, and are responsive to learner diversity and effectively
manage behavior of learners coming from diverse backgrounds;
4. Are reflective teachers who continually improve their teaching practice, value professional growth and active
professional engagement;
5. Deep understanding of the curriculum and are able to translate them into relevant learning activities by
applying professional knowledge in planning and designing learning activities;
6. Apply variety of assessment tools and strategies in monitoring, evaluating, documenting and reporting
learners’ progress and achievement; and
7. Able to establish community-school partnership and community’s engagement in educative process.

ISO POLICY STATEMENT

PNU Visayas as the Environment and Green Technology Education Hub commits to the protection and
preservation of the environment and promotion of the renewable resources and clean energy technologies through
education. The Campus further commits to integrate environmental management into its operational and decision- making
processes, curricular programs, co-curricular activities, research and extension endeavors through compliance with
International Environment Standards.
COURSE OVERVIEW
The course focuses on evaluation as an intricate accountability of the teacher in the new normal. It highlights the
application of essential concepts and principles of assessment in the development of conventional and alternative forms
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of assessment for the improvement of the teaching-learning process. It provides pre-service teachers the opportunities for
discussion on how variety of assessment tools and strategies may be utilized in monitoring, evaluating, documenting, and
reporting learners’ needs, progress and achievement. Likewise, it allows them to go through the standard steps in the
development of assessment tools, including how assessment data is interpreted, utilized and communicated to the
learners and stakeholders. Lastly, they are expected to develop valid pen-and-paper, rubric, scale and portfolio in
measuring skills in the cognitive, psychomotor or affective domains that are congruent with the existing grading system in
the new normal.
This course, likewise, considers the development of reflective practitioners with positive outlook towards
assessment and evaluation of students’ leaning. They must develop an insight that assessment and evaluation should be
made as the foundation of sound classroom instructional decision-making.. This means that their instructional decision
should evolve from valid and reliable information. One who wants to pursue the teaching profession must internalize the
idea that assessment and evaluation require valid data analysis. This may mean that while one engages in assessment
and evaluation, he/she is guided by statistical principles and processes. At the end of the day, the data-analysis results of
changes in students’ behavior become evident. They can laugh, smile, learn and share with students’ experiences in the
class. Assessment, then, becomes the source of happiness, not a punishment. Although assessment and evauation
require multi-tasking on the part of the practitioner, rewards come in multiple forms – mostly are psychological in nature.
It is hoped that pre-service teachers pursue this course not just as a requirement but because it is an essential
professional accountability. Successful practitioners view assessment and evaluation as fun – both teachers and students
enjoy while engaging in assessment activities. They consider that assessment is not just a job but mission to carry out. As
Henry Cloud puts it “The natural response to evaluation is to feel judged. We have to mature to a situation by which we
respond to evaluation with gratitude, and love feedback”.
With this course overview, it is expected that PNU Visayas graduates are imbued with strong sense of pride of the
teaching profession in the context of national and global assessment and evaluation standards. Likewise, they are
expected to be equipped with sound educational decision-making skills that are founded on valid and reliable assessment
information. They are supposed to be passionately reflective of their high personal regard for assessment and evaluation
in the new normal..

COURSE FRAMEWORK
I. Course Description

This course focuses on the application of essential concepts and principles of assessment in the development of
conventional and alternative forms of assessment, as well as interpreting, communicating and utilizing assessment
information to improve the teaching-learning process. The course is intended to provide opportunities for discussion on
how variety of assessment tools and strategies may be utilized in monitoring, evaluating, documenting, and reporting
learners’ needs, progress and achievement. It allows the pre-service teachers to go through the standard steps in the
development of assessment tools, including how assessment data is interpreted, utilized and communicated to the
learners and stakeholders. In the end, the pre-service teachers are expected to develop valid pen-and-paper, rubric, scale
and portfolio in measuring skills in the cognitive, psychomotor or affective domains that are congruent with the existing
grading system.
II. Course Intended Learning Outcomes
1. Demonstrate knowledge and understanding about the different concepts of assessment and evaluation.
2. Analyze the guiding principles to ensure quality or high stakes assessment and evaluation.
3. Explain the importance of integrating environmental concepts, global citizenship and gender sensitivity in
assessment and evaluation.
4. Demonstrate how to develop valid and reliable test to assess the cognitive domain of learning.
5. Demonstrate how non-test instruments are developed for assessing the affective and psychomotor domains
of learning.
6. Integrate sustainability, peace education and gender sensitivity in developing valid and reliable assessment
instruments.
7. Try-out the data-gathering instrument to a group of students.
8. Organize, analyze, interpret, utilize and communicate assessment information that show sensitivity and
responsive to peace education, gender sensitivity and peace education.
9. Write a reflective essay about the importance of reliable and valid evaluation for making instructional
decisions and curricular improvement.
10. Analyze the grading system and methods of reporting grades to stakeholders of the school.
III. Entry Standards

 Every student enrolled in the class must have personal gmail account.
 All students enrolled in the course must register to the online class created by the teacher.
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 As millennial college students, one must be familiar with the use of information and communications
technology.

IV. Class Limitation

 Internet connection is slow which would limit the use of video conference, zoom, or google meet. The one-
hour schedule for synchronous meeting will be limited to the utilization of interactive sessions usin social
media, google slide with pear deck, and google forms in google classroom.
 Students with weak access online, will be deprived of the opportunity to submit assignments on time.

V. Teacher In charge and Assessors

 Eliseo P. Marpa, Alberto A. Rico and Denmark L. Yonson

VI. Teaching Facilities and Equipment

 For Faculty Members

- Laptop or Desktop or Tablet, Smart Phone for text or chat, Microphone with Head Phone or Speaker,
Camera, Internet Connection, and Online or Printed Module
 For Students
- Laptop or Desktop or Tablet or Smart Phone, Smart Phone for text or chat, and Microphone with Head
Phone or Speaker (optional)

VII. Learning Management Tools

 Google Classroom, Google Meet, Google Drive, Google Slide with Spido or PearDeck, Google Jamboard,
Google Forms, Online Sources (Print and Video), Online or Printed Module

VIII. Mode of Instructional Delivery

 Virtual Classroom (Synchronous or Asynchronous), Modular, Social Media Platforms, and Face to Face
Classes whenever normal situation is underway

COURSE OUTLINE
The course outline is forwarded in Google Classroom for students’ references. For those who do not have internet
connection may request a classmate, closer to his/her residence, to print the document or from the professor personally or
through mail.
MODULE PLAN

COURSE TIMETABLE
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ASSESSMENT PLAN

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS
Take note of the following instructions:
1. The class will be held online. Every week, the 4.5 hours will be divided into 1 hour for synchronous and 3.5
hours asynchronous one. Utilize Google Meet and Google Classroom as the major platforms.
2. Materials, assignment, and instructions will be accessed in the google classroom. Every day, check the
classroom for posted announcements and work on the assignments.
3. Aside from the major platforms, other means of communication, such as email, messenger, text messaging or
video call can be utilized. Those who want printed module, just inform the professor.
4. All assignment activities will be prepared in the Google Form. The format can either be selection or short
answer or composition form. When submitting assignments, do not forget to turn in

 After the Orientation Session, answer the Pre-test Activity entitled “Module Pretest ” posted in the
Google Classroom.

Basic Concepts and Underlying Principles in Assessment

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It has been customary in the classroom setting that at the end of a term, students receive their ratings. These
ratings mirror a combination of different forms of assessment – conducted both by the teacher and students. Teachers
and students based these ratings on variety of assessment information they gathered in order to objectively come up with
a value that truly represents students’ performance. The ratings reveal how well the students have accomplished the
intended learning outcomes in a particular subject. The process of collecting various information needed to come up with
an overall information that reflects the attainment of goals and purposes is guided by sound principles of assessment and
evaluation. The details of this process will be explained in this Unit.

Explain the basic concepts of assessment and evaluation and the principles that guide these
educational practices..

What are the basic concepts of Assessment and Evaluation?

What are the Roles of Assessment and Evaluation?
What are the Guiding Principles of Asessment and Evaluation?

 Answer the Pre-test Activity entitled “Unit 1 Test ” in the Google Classroom.

A. LESSON 1 - Basic concepts in Assessment and Evaluation

Watch the Video entitled “Basic Concepts of Assessment and Evaluation”

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z9Sz_s0v7Eo

After watching the video, answer Assignment Activity No. 1 (Reflection Paper on Basic Concepts of
Assessment and Evaluation).
To engage more with the lesson, read the basic concepts of Assessment and Evaluation below.

Introduction

The evolving views in the use of educational assessment are most probably the results of the rising demand of
an outcome-based evaluation. Classroom teachers teach in order to achieve an outcome – students’ learning. Teachers
must objectively see that their students concretely manifest the expected outcomes of instruction (instructional objectives
in the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains). These teachers can discover that the noble qualities of students
such as multiple skills and knowledge, and understanding of learning can be developed and manifested through the
integrated approach of instruction and assessment, especially in the new normal They should consider that the traditional
use of examination and summative tests are not the sole assessment approaches if they are to consider the context of
outcome-based evaluation. To master the craft of assessment and evaluation of students’ learning, one has to acquire
deeper understanding of the basic concepts of the following: test, non-test, testing, measurement, assessment and
evaluation.
1. Test
Test is a device used to indirectly measure the aspects of students’ life. This device is also used to gather
information about student’s learning progress. This compels students to give their responses. However, tests, like all other
devices, can be influenced by some factors that contribute to errors in gathering valid and reliable information. We call this
phenomenon as measurement error. For instance, the classroom teacher used a test to evaluate the outcome of
classroom instruction. He/She administered this test to students without clarifying the directions. The students failed to
follow these directions correctly. As a consequence, the students got low scores. The students got low scores not
because they do not know the content being tested, but because they did not understand test directions. In this situation,
the test results do not truly portray the actual nature of students’ learning. This can generate criticisms from parents, co-
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teachers, students and other stakeholders of the school. The source of this error is not the student, but he/she suffers the
consequences. Despite its weaknesses, test remains a potent device to indirectly assess the outcomes of instruction.
Teachers should critically analyze the way tests are prepared and administered, as well as the way test results are
interpreted.

2. Non-test
Non-tests are usually considered as non-traditional devices for assessment and evaluation. These devices do not
force students to give their responses. These are usually based on teacher’s direct observations as students perform the
assigned tasks as well as students’ self-report. For example, while students do the assigned tasks, the teacher can use
one non-test instrument to rate the quality of their learning. In short, it is the teacher who does the assessment as he
observes students act out the values and skills that are essential in the performance of a learning activity. However, there
are times that students make self-report as reflection of their learning. They are the ones assessing their own learning.
The teacher’s challenge is how to objectivize the quantification of these observations and self-reports. To make
assessment objective, the teacher should develop valid and reliable non-test instruments like observation checklist, rating
scale, semantic differential, anecdotal record, and the like.
The results of non-test instruments could supplement the information that test results provide so that the teacher
can make sound decisions. If non-test results are used to supplement the information gathered through the use of tests,
then the teacher can have a comprehensive view about the quality of students’ learning progress. By doing so, all
decisions he makes are always defensible. He can defend the issue why he fails or passes a certain student. He can
answer the question why he requires some students to stay more hours for remedial instruction. He can support his
decision of using alternative delivery systems to improve the teaching-learning process.

3. Testing
Testing is a process of administering a test to an individual or a group of students. This process involves steps
such as test preparation, test administration, and collection of test papers. There are sound principles that can guide a
teacher for test preparation and administration. In terms of preparation, the teachers can ensure that the test he prepares
is highly valid and reliable. Valid tests portray the content and behavior that the teachers wanted to measure. Although
test’s validity and reliability are requirements to ensure that a teacher has a good test, time pressure usually makes the
teacher design less valid and reliable tests.
Test administration is also one of the challenges in testing. The teachers must explain the directions clearly to the
students. Unclear understanding of test directions will reduce the capability of the test to measure what it really intends to
measure. When there is an anomaly in test administration, the reliability of test results is also sacrificed. Teachers should
not only be good in test preparation; he should also be good at test administration. The testing process ends when the
teacher has collected the test papers from the students; after which, the measurement process begins.

4. Measurement
Measurement is a process of quantifying test results. This process begins when the teacher compares student’s
responses with the presumably correct responses in the scoring key. If student’s response matches with that in the key,
then his answer is correct; if not, then wrong. The number of correct responses that each student obtained in the test is
considered as his raw score – the quantity of student’s correct responses.
A raw score in the test has no meaning. For example, if the number of correct responses the child got in the test is
9, then his raw score is 9. There is no meaning that can be attached to this raw score. There is also no qualitative value
that can be attached to the quantity “9”. To give meaning, we further measure by obtaining the ratio of the score to the
total number of items. The ratio, “9 out of 20 or 9/20”, is more meaningful than the raw score “9” alone. A teacher can infer
about the quality of student’s performance by determining the ratio of the raw score to the number of items in the test.
The quantity obtained in measurement is further analyzed to determine whether an individual’s performance meets
the pre-set criteria (criterion-referenced) or how does the this performance compare with the performances of other
members of the class norm-referenced). The quantity of performance in the test can be the basis of teacher’s evaluation
– the process of assigning a qualitative value to student’s performance. This evaluation is based on the results of
measurement.

5. Assessment
Lucas and Corpuz (2007) define assessment as a process of gathering information about students’ learning and
then analyzing and interpreting them for the purpose of making decisions. They further assert that assessment may
involve, among others, the activities such as administering different kinds of written tests, observation of behavior or
performance, examination of work samples, use of checklists, and interview.
The issue that test alone cannot measure the total development of an individual makes it imperative that the term
measurement be changed into the term assessment. This educational modification considers that classroom evaluation
should be made comprehensive. Assessment is a process of quantifying the results of test and non-test to portray the
amount and quality of student’s learning and development. The term assessment focuses on determining the amount of
learning in the three domains: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains.
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The term assessment also considers the use of alternative assessment methods like portfolio assessment where
students present a compilation of their best works, or the evidence which proves whether they master the process
required to accomplish the tasks, or proofs that they really are worthy to pass the subject they take.
One of the recent interventions for school improvement is the advocacy and practice of newer forms of
assessment. Okano (cited in Rico, 2011) stresses that assessment is being used, on the one hand, for educational
improvement, increased school effectiveness and curriculum reforms; and, on the other, for political control of teachers,
students and curricula, centralized policy making, narrow accountability, credentialism, educational selection, and the
determination of life chances in competitive markets. This makes assessment broader than measurement.

6. Evaluation
According to Lardizabal, et. al., (cited in Rico, 2011), evaluation is a process of determining the changes in the
child as a result of teaching and his experiences. It is a systematic attempt at ascertaining the amount of progress made
in child’s education directed towards the realization of objectives in education. It is an act of judging the child’ acquisition
of all forms of learning outcomes based not only on definitive data of the subject matter achievement in the learning of
facts, skills, and abilities but also of descriptive, qualitative data about his personality changes such as social attitudes,
interests, ideals, ways of thinking, work habits, and personal and social adaptability. This concept of evaluation requires
the use of all assessment tools to evaluate the total development of the child in the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor
domains of learning.
Evaluation is a process of attaching quality or value judgment to the quantity obtained through the process of
assessment. This quality is judged against the pre-set standard or on a comparison one’s performance with that of other’s
performances. This process makes the result of assessment more meaningful to educational stakeholders.
Evaluation that is based on results of assessment is more comprehensive than evaluation based on measurement.
Therefore, teachers should aspire that their evaluation is based on the proper utilization of both test and non-test in the
process of assessing student learning. With these assurances in mind the teachers can report students’ achievement to
the stakeholders of the school with utmost confidence.

Create framework in Google Slide showing the relationship of test, testing, measurement,
assessment and evaluation. Submit your work in Google Classroom

 Answer the Ten-Item Quiz in Google Classroom entitled “Lesson 1-A Quiz” (Do not forget to turn
in your assignment).

Study the framework showing the comparison between assessment and evaluation that will be
uploaded in the Google Classroom.

B. LESSON 2 - Assessment OF, Assessment FOR, and Assessment AS Learning

Watch the video entitled “Assessment FOR, AS, & OF Learning”

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q7QuQpMStS4
After watching the video, enrich your experience with the readings below.

Introduction
The Philippine’s vision of inclusive growth and development entails investment in human capital. This vision
entails the provision of quality basic education, competitive technical vocational skills training, and relevant
and responsive higher education. The national goal entails an increased assessment and accountability to improve
student achievement, reduce the achievement gap, and align instruction to academic standards. The focus on holding
students, educators, schools, and school districts accountable for achievement is a critical element to ensuring high-
quality educational opportunities and access for each student. However, there has been tendency to rely upon a single
test score as an assessment of student performance. Heavy emphasis placed on a single test result encourages
“teaching only to the test” and “narrowing down” the curriculum. These assessment activities deny each student,
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especially high-need students, full educational experience. Recently, there is a demand for comprehensive assessment
which calls for the practices of Assessment FOR, Assessment OF, and Assessment AS Learning.
1. Assessment FOR Learning
In the recent view of educational evaluation, the emphasis shifts from summative to formative. This view has given
rise to the term “Assessment FOR Learning”. In this perspective, assessment must happen in the learning process,
often more than once, rather than at the end only. Students should understand exactly what they are to learn. They should
be aware of what is expected of them. They must be given feedback and advice on how to improve their work.
During Assessment FOR Learning, teachers use assessment as an investigative tool to find out as much as they
can about what their students know and can do, and what confusions, preconceptions, or gaps they might have. The wide
variety of information that teachers collect about students’ learning processes provides the basis for determining what
they need to do next to move student learning forward. It provides the basis for providing descriptive feedback for
students and deciding on groupings, instructional strategies, and resources.
Assessment FOR learning occurs throughout the learning process. It is interactive with teachers and students by
means of: 1) aligning instruction; 2) identifying particular learning needs of students or groups; 3) selecting and adapting
materials and resources; 4) creating differentiated teaching strategies and learning opportunities for helping individual
students move forward in their learning; and, 5) providing immediate feedback and direction to students. Teachers also
use assessment for learning to enhance students’ motivation and commitment to learning. When teachers commit to
learning as the focus of assessment, they change the classroom culture to one of student success.
The main purpose of Assessment and Evaluation is to improve the teaching and learning process. This process
starts with determining what students can do before setting up a learning activity. This requires assessment of students’
entry behavior or “schema” in a constructivist theory or in simple cognitive terms, prior knowledge. It would be a waste of
time to set a learning target on the contents or materials that students have already mastered. More so, it would be
agonizing for both teachers and students to engage in learning activities that are far beyond students’ previous
experiences. This assessment should be done before the learning activity starts (placement).
An evaluation is done to determine whether the student will be able to attain (before), is attaining (during), or has
attained (near end) the learning objectives. This view requires assessment throughout the entire learning activity
(formative). Before the learning activity, the teacher reflects whether the learning objectives are attainable based on the
result of placement assessment. The main purpose of doing this is to determine the students’ zone of proximal
development (ZPD). This is zone of development which defines what the students can learn from their prior knowledge if
supported by the teacher’s strategies, methods, techniques and materials. During the activity, the teacher observes
whether the students are moving towards the attainment of the objectives. At the near end of the lesson, the teacher
ensures whether the students are able to do the tasks with mastery through quiz, observation, or art of questioning.
There is a need for evaluation in order to determine student’s strengths and weaknesses. When students’
strengths are enhanced and weakenesses are reversed, quality of learning is guaranteed. In this view, teachers are
required to determine weaknesses through diagnostic assessment. This assessment must be done before the learning
activity (pre-test). When weaknesses are identified, it would be easy for the teacher to set attainable learning objectives.
During the learning activity, this assessment can be done through teacher observation or by providing on lesson learning
tasks. When the teacher observes that the students weak in attaining the objective, he/she can provide support or modify
or change the strategy. At the near end, when the teacher observes that weaknesses exist in some students, and
enrichment activity can be provided to the rest so he/she can focus on attending to those with lesser mastery. Therefore,
when diagnostic assessment is done throughout the learning activity, there is a sense of fullfillment on the part of students
and teachers. This is a feeling that at the end of the day, weaknesses are transformed into strengths.
Assessment for learning enables teachers to determine steps in advancing student learning. It assesses each
student progress and learning needs in relation to curriculum outcomes. It utilizes a range of methods in different modes
that make students’ skills and understanding visible. It ensures quality through accuracy and consistency of observations
and interpretation of student learning, clear and detailed learning expectation, accurate, detailed notes for descriptive
feedback to each student. It utilizes information that provides each student with accurate descriptive feedback to further
his or her learning. It initiates differentiated instruction by continually checking where eacher student is in relation to the
curricular outcomes. It provides parents and guardians with descriptive feedback about student learning and ideas for
support.

2. Assessment OF Learning
Assessment OF learning is usually considered as summative assessment. It occurs when teachers use evidence
of students’ learning and make comparative judgement of student achievement against curriculum goals and standards
(summative assessment). It is typically administered at the end of a unit or grading period and evaluate student’s
understanding in comparison with the whole class, district or nationwide benchmark standards. It is designed to provide
evidence of achievement to parents, other educators, the students themselves and sometimes to outside groups
Assessment OF Learning is the assessment that becomes public and results in statements or symbols about how
well students are learning. It often contributes to pivotal decisions that will affect students’ futures. It is important, then,
that the underlying logic and measurement of assessment of learning be credible and defensible. It should prove
accuracy, consistency and fairness of judgements based on high quality information. It should be clear, detailed learning
expectations fair and accurate summative reporting.
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In terms of teachers’ roles in Assessment OF Learning, they have the responsibility of reporting student learning
accurately and fairly, based on evidence obtained from a variety of contexts and applications. Effective Assessment OF
Learning requires that teachers provide a rationale for undertaking a particular assessment of learning at a particular point
in time, clear descriptions of the intended learning, processes that make it possible for students to demonstrate their
competence and skill, a range of alternative mechanisms for assessing the same outcomes, public and defensible
reference points for making judgements, transparent approaches to interpretation, descriptions of the assessment
process, strategies for recourse in the event of disagreement about the decisions.
The main purpose of Assessment OF Learning is to certify or inform parents or others of students’ proficiency in
relation to curriculum learning outcomes. It usually reveals the extent to which students can apply the key concepts,
knowledge, skills and attitudes related to the curriculum outcomes. It is used to justify the use of a range of methods in
different modes that assess both products and process. The information indicates each student’s level of learning. This
information provides the foundation for discussion on placement and promotion. The report is done in fair, accurate and
detailed information that can be used to decide the next steps in student’s leaning.
3. Assessment AS Learning
Assessment As Learning monitors Metacognition. It guides and provides opportunities for each student to monitor
and crically reflect on his or her learning and identify the next step to take. It assess how each student thinks about his or
her learning, what strateges he or she uses to support or challenge that learning, and what mechanisms he or she uses to
adjust and advance his or her learning. It utilizes a range of methods in different modes that elicit students’ learning and
metacognitive processes. It ensures quality through accuracy and consistency of student’s reflection, self monitoring and
self-adjustment. Likewise, it engages a student in considering and challenging his or her thinking. It allows students to
record their own learning.
The teachers’ major role in Assessment As Learning is to promote the development of independent learners
through: 1) model and teach the skills of self-assessment; 2) guide students in setting their own goals, and monitoring
their progress toward them; 3) provide exemplars and models of good practice and quality work that reflect curriculum
outcomes; 4) work with students to develop clear criteria of good practice; 5) guide students in developing internal
feedback or self-monitoring mechanisms to validate and question their own thinking, and to become comfortable with
ambiguity and uncertainty that is inevitable in learning anything new; 6) provide regular and challenging opportunities to
practise, so that students can become confident, competent self-assessors; 7) monitor students’ megacognitive processes
as well as their learning, and descriptive feedback; and, 8) create an environment where it is safe for students to take
chances and where support is readily available.
Complex skills, such as monitoring and self-regulation, become routine only when there is constant feedback and
practice using the skills. Effective feedback challenges ideas, introduces additional information, offers alternative
interpretations, and creates conditions for self-reflection and review of ideas. If all feedback provides direction for what
students need to do; that is, the feedback doesn’t refer to students’ own roles in moving forward to the next learning-they
will perpetually ask questions like “Is this right?” “Is this what you want?” Rather, feedback in assessment as learning
encourages students to focus their attention on the task, rather than on getting the answer right. It provides them with
ideas for adjusting, rethinking, and articulating their understanding, which will lead to another round of feedback and
another extension of learning.”
Assessment As Lerning provides students with accurate descriptive feedback that will help him/her develop
independent learning habits. It allows each student to focus on the task and his/her learning (not on getting the right
answer). It provides each student with ideas for adjusting, rethinking and articulating his or her learning. It provides the
conditions for the teacher and student to discuss alternatives. It gives students the opportunity to report about their
learning.

Study the table that will be posted in the classroom entitled “Comparison of Assessment FOR,
OF and AS Learning”

Answer the Ten-Item Quiz in Google Classroom entitled “Lesson 2-A Quiz” (Do not forget to
hand-in your assignment).

Write a one paragraph comparison of the terms Assessment FOR, OF and AS Learning.
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C. LESSON 3 - Roles of evaluation in the teaching-learning process

Watch the video entitled “Role of Assessment in Instructional Decisions”

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DTzfzvYN5RE
After watching the video, get ready to write a reflections paper as an assignment in the Google Classroom.

Introduction
Assessment and evaluation, as integral parts of the teaching and learning process, should not only document what
students know and can do, but also those that affect their learning and motivation. These ideas represent a change in the
way assessment is viewed - away from the concept that assessment is an isolated outcome done only after instruction is
finished, and toward the concept of integrating assessment and evaluation with instruction (Santrock, 2004). Along these
ideas, teachers must consider that assessment should be done before, during, and after instruction (pre-instruction,
during instruction, and post-instruction assessments).

Roles of evaluation in the teaching-learning process

“Why do we evaluate?” The answer or answers to this question can be one or all of the following: 1) We evaluate
because we want to determine students’ entry behavior; 2) We evaluate because we want to determine whether the
objectives are attained or not; 3) We evaluate because we want to determine student’s strengths and weaknesses; 4) We
evaluate because we want to rate students’ performance with the purpose of giving grades; and, 5) We evaluate because
we want to improve the teaching and learning process. Evaluation can be used for the following purposes: placement,
diagnostic, formative, or summative. In this section, we need to include other roles of assessment.

1. Placement
Placement is one of the roles of educational evaluation. Reganit, et. al., (2004) state that placement evaluation is
used to determine the entry behavior of students. It is also used to determine student’s performance at the beginning of
instruction. The goal of placement evaluation is to determine the position in the instructional sequence and the mode of
evaluation that is most beneficial for each student.
The placement role of evaluation focuses on determining where the students are in comparison with the curriculum
goals – student’s prior knowledge. One of the principles of teaching is that the teacher should know where the students
are. This means that the teacher should know students’ entry behavior so that he/she knows where to begin teaching. If
the teacher knows where his students are, he can design educational activities that utilize students’ prior knowledge as the
foundation of his/her present teaching. By so doing, a teacher can adjust his/her strategies and approaches based on
students’ prior knowledge. For example, upon the opening of classes, the teacher gives a test to a set of students in
Mathematics. The result shows that the students are good in subtraction without regrouping but not in subtraction with
regrouping. Through this result, therefore, the teacher knows where he would start teaching. He can design Mathematics
lesson which starts from what the students have already mastered.

2. Formative
According to Santrock (2004, cited in Rico, 2011), formative assessment is an assessment during the course of
instruction rather than after it is completed. Your on-going observation and monitoring of students’ learning while you
teach informs you about what to do next. Assessment during instruction helps you set your teaching at a level that
challenges students and stretches their thinking. It also helps you detect which students need your individual attention.
The teacher should consider the formative role of evaluation. This role focuses on the comparison of the
instructional outcome with that of the preset standard. This is considered as an evaluation for learning because the
teacher’s aim is to find means to improve his instruction. This preset standard is implicitly stated as part of the objectives
in the teacher’s lesson plan. As an example, please consider this objective: “After the 60-minute period, the pupils should
be able to solve problems dealing with addition of fractions, with 75% proficiency.” The preset standard in this objective is
75% proficiency. This phrase is not usually stated in the lesson plan because, in schools, this is the minimum standard
of performance. If after the lesson the teacher gives a test and 81% of the pupils got the passing score, then the teacher
can say that the pupils have achieved his objectives.
Evaluation is a process of determining, whether or not the teacher has achieved instructional objectives. If the
instructional objectives are achieved, then the teacher can say that his teaching is successful. However, if the result is
otherwise, then the teacher can generalize that he has not achieved the objectives of the lesson for the day. Therefore,
the decision whether to proceed to the next lesson or to re-teach the lesson depends upon the result of formative
evaluation of classroom instruction.
 12

3. Diagnostic
In the classroom, students have the tendency to display, to a certain degree, their strengths and weaknesses. The
diagnostic role of evaluation aims to determine the specific learning needs of students so that those needs can be met
through regular or remedial instruction (Santrock, 2004, cited in Rico, 2011).
To quantify these learning needs, there must be some kind of assessment and evaluation. The diagnostic role of
evaluation means that evaluation is used to determine student’s weaknesses. If these weaknesses are identified and
addressed properly, then the teacher has accomplished his task of helping students cope with their weaknesses. For
example, after the test, the teacher recognized that some students are weak in changing mixed number to improper
fraction or vice-versa. So she decides to design a remedial session with these students and focus on the least mastered
skill. After which, another test is given. If the result shows satisfactory performance, then he/she can proceed to the next
lesson.

4. Summative
Reganit, et. al., (2004) assert that summative evaluation is used to determine the mastery at the end of the
course. It is the process of making the overall assessment or decision about the program. This assessment is used to
determine the achievement at the end of instruction. It is designed to determine the extent to which the instructional
objectives have been achieved and is used primarily for assigning course grade or for certifying student master of the
intended learning outcome.
The summative role of evaluation ensures that there is holistic mastery of the lessons from the beginning up to
the end of instruction. This assessment summarizes the development of learners at a given period of time. This is known
as an evaluation of learning because it focuses on what the students have learned at a certain period. The students take
the test and the teacher gives marks or assigns grades. The result of this evaluation is usually utilized to give students
final ratings for certification and promotion or retention. The decision whether to promote to the next level or retain him in
the same level is dependent upon the result of summative assessment. In short, summative evaluation is undertaken to
determine students’ mastery of the lessons with the ultimate purpose of giving a mark or grade.

5. Other roles
There are still other purposes of evaluation worth mentioning here. Generally, the main purpose of evaluation is
to improve the teaching and learning process. Specifically, the following are the other purposes of evaluation:

 Evaluation is used determine the effectiveness of teacher’s methods, strategies, and instructional materials in
improving student’s learning. As Calderon & Gonzales (1993) put it that taking all other things equal, students
under and effective teacher score better in a test than students under an ineffective teacher . . . the efficacy of
the method, strategies, or materials may be evaluated through the use of test.
 Evaluation is used to give meaning to students’ efforts in their quest for quality learning . Calderon & Gonzales
(1993) stress that evaluation develops the effort-making capacity of the students. It has been observed that
students exert more effort to study their lessons when there is an examination coming. They review the materials
to be covered by the examination over and over again and this makes learning more permanent. Examinations
compel students to exert more effort to master their materials of study.
 Evaluation is used to justify the request and utilization of supplies, materials and equipments for school’s
operation. The result of evaluation can be the basis of making decisions as to what instructional materials should
be purchased or requested that can enhance the school function to improve student services.
 Evaluation is used to plan for and improve the next educational activities . Through survey tests, the school can
check its performance against the standard or policy set by higher educational authorities. The level of
performance can be the basis planning educational activities to improve the next school performance.
 Evaluation is used to give recognition and awards to best performing individuals in the school . Through
evaluation, the school can discover extremely bright and talented students . . . (Calderon & Gonzales, 1993). The
extremely bright students should be given awards and recognition to increase the tendency of investing more
efforts to perform much better in the future. This tendency is in line with the law of rewards and punishment in
learning.
 Evaluation is used to promote quality assurance within and outside of the school . Extremely bright students
discovered through evaluation may be sent to curricular and co-curricular competitions to promote the name of
the school as well as to motivate students to uphold educational quality within and outside of the school.

Study the Roles of Assessment in Classroom Instruction (In Slide Share) at

https://www.slideshare.net/villacorteza/james-robert-villacorteza-final-report

Answer the Quiz in Google Classroom entitled “Lesson 3-A Quiz” (Do not forget to hand-in
your assignment).
 13

Draw a framework showing the roles of assessment and evaluation. Submit your work
through the professor’s email.

D. LESSON 4 - Principles of Evaluation

Watch the video entitled “Principles of High Quality Assessment”

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VpzyHClZ02A

Introduction
Principles are lighthouses. They serve as our guides. They do not move. They are permanent. We cannot break
them. We can only break ourselves against them (Covey, 1989). Assessment and evaluation are also guided by sound
principles. They serve as our lighthouses - references as we perform our function of evaluating the outcomes of the
teaching and learning process. The following are the guiding principles:

1. Clarity of Learning Targets

Teachers make daily lesson plans. These plans serve as their guides as they perform their teaching tasks. In their
plans, they are required to state their objectives clearly – in behavioral terms. Specific objectives are specific, measurable,
attainable, result-oriented, and time-bound (SMART). They should use infinitives which specifically denote the behaviors
that students are expected to manifest after instruction. These objectives serve as bases for constructing and using
assessment instruments to assess students’ learning. The expected behaviors are somehow related to either of the
following, but not limited to: 1) knowledge; 2) reasoning; 3) skills; 4) products; or, 5) affects.
 Knowledge. Knowledge refers to the cognitive activities which include memorizing,
recalling of facts, understanding of concepts and meanings, analyzing the relationship of related facts, synthesizing of
related facts and principles, and evaluating the outcomes of the relationships of concepts and principles.
 Reasoning. Reasoning is a behavior which refers to the cognitive activities which
require the use of logical presentation, justification, and rationalization of the existence of facts, concepts, theories, and
principles.
 Skills. Skill is defined as the ability to use one’s knowledge effectively and readily in the
execution or performance of a specific task. This behavior refers to psychomotor activities which require the use of the
abilities of manipulation, application, and operation of facts, concepts and principles in real life situations
 Products. Product refers to psychomotor activities which show the end result of using
the abilities to manipulate, apply, and operate facts, concepts, and principles in real life situation.
 Affects. The term “affects” refers to the activities that show values, morals, ethics,
ideals, and standards in life.

2. Balance
A balanced assessment is an assessment system where tools, methodologies and data systems inform decision-
makers such as administrators on learning decisions. It would normally include formative, benchmark and summative
assessments. It encourages and supports learning by helping students and professors see that their efforts will result in
success.It mixes periodic, standardized testing with day-to-day classroom assessments. It aims to provide information on
student achievement and learning outcomes to students, teachers and local, policymakers. In this system, a number of
assessments interacts in order to improve the overall educational experience for students.

3. Appropriateness
Evaluation procedures and techniques should be selected in terms of the clearly stated. The clearer the objectives
are in the teacher’s mind, the greater is the chance of making a wise decision to choose appropriate assessment
procedures and techniques in assessing students’ learning. The suggested general formats are the following:
 Objective test. Objective tests are those that require one and only one correct answer
and no other possible answers. The types are: 1) supply type; 2) matching type; 3) alternate-response type; 4) labeling; 5)
enumeration; and, 6) multiple-choice.
 Subjective tests. Subjective tests are evaluated by giving an opinion about the issue,
concept, ideas, and the like.
 14

 Performance test. When the objective of the lesson requires that at the end of the
lesson the students are required to perform in an activity, the appropriate test to measure the achievement of this
objective is a performance test. This test is appropriate when the teacher wants to determine whether students have
acquired the necessary skills to do the tasks in the learning activity.
 Oral Reasoning. When the instructional objective states that “at the end of the lesson,
the pupils orally defend their stand on the issue”, then, an oral reasoning test is appropriate. This type of test is used
to determine students’ critical thinking and other meta-cognitive processes in oral presentation.
 Observation. Reed and Bergemann (2001) observation is one effective means of
learning…how students respond to classroom environment. This assessment method can be done by the teacher, co-
student, or even parents. Observation checklists or rating scales are examples of assessment instruments that can be
utilized to determine students’ performance, behavior, skills, values, and achievement. These are considered as non-test
assessment instruments.
 Self-Reports. Students may be required to write personal opinions, journals, and
reflections about a learning activity. From these self-made reports, the teachers evaluate whether or not these students
have learned the concepts taught in the classroom. Teachers, who practice this method for classroom assessment,
comply with the requirement that “evaluation should allow students to evaluate themselves” (ipsative assessment).

4. Continuity
Continuous Assessment is listening closely to students, observing students as they are engaged in learning, as
they are engaged with materials, and trying to understand what they understand. Every day, you, as teachers everywhere
do, observe your students, listen to their conversations, and talk with them about their ideas, writings, and drawings.
Always striving to understand and expand students’ thinking and skills, you use the daily input you gather to decide what
next steps you’ll take to support their growth. When these things are done in a purposeful way, they become a kind of
formative assessment we refer to as “continuous” assessment or “everyday” assessment. The best way I can describe
continuous assessment is the process of learning to be with children in such a way as to understand their thinking so that
you can continually expand, challenge, and scaffold each child’s experiences.

5. Validity
Validity refers to the extent to which the test serves its purpose or the efficiency with which it measures what it
intends to measure. Evaluation should utilize appropriate and efficient assessment instruments. Validity is the degree to
which assessment instrument can gather accurate data. Validity can be established through any or all of the following:
 Face Validity. Face validity pertains to whether the test “looks valid” to the examinees
who take it. The validators must provide their judgment whether the appearance of the assessment instrument is
desirable.
 Content Validity. Content validity is related to how adequately the content of the test
samples the domains about which inferences can be made. This means that, through this method, the validators have to
ensure that the contents taught, as stated in the objectives, are similar with the contents portrayed by the assessment
instruments.
 Construct Validity. This type of validity involves a systematic examination of the test
content to determine whether it covers a representative sample of the behavior domain to be measured. Through this
method, the validators provide information about the capacity of the assessment instrument to portray the expected
student’s behavior.
 Predictive Validity. Predictive validity refers to how well the test predicts some future
behavior of the examinee.. The appropriate criterion to be used for establishing validity is students’ previous
performance. If the result of an assessment instrument matches with students’ previous performance, then the test is
valid; hence, it can predict future performances.
 Concurrent Validity. Concurrent validity refers as to whether the test is closely related to
other measures such as . . . scores on another test with already known validity. The criterion usually used to establish this
type of validity is the “result of a valid assessment instrument”.

6. Reliability
Reliability refers to the consistency of scores obtained by the same person when retested by the same test or by
an equivalent form of the test. There are three types of consistency: 1) consistency over time; 2) consistency over test;
and, 3) internal consistency. These consistencies can be tested through the following methods:
 Test of Stability. This is often called as test-retest estimate of reliability. It is obtained by
administering the test to a group of individuals, re-administering the same test to the same group of individuals at a later
date, and correlating the two sets of scores.
 15

 Test of Equivalence. The equivalent forms estimate of reliability is obtained by giving

two forms (with equal content, means and variances) of a test to the same group of individuals on the same day and
correlating these results. This method is used to establish consistency over test.
 Test of Internal Consistency. The estimates of internal consistency are really indices of
the homogeneity of the items in the test or the degree to which the item responses correlate with the total test scores.
There are two methods of establishing internal consistency. These are the split-half method and the Kuder-Richardson
Formulae 20 and 21.

7. Fairness
Evaluation should be used judiciously. This principle ensures that teachers should set aside personal bias and
give way to fairness in the assessment of student’s learning. In the classroom, the process of conducting evaluation of
students’ learning is in cognizance of the psychological concept and theory of individual differences. If there are no
individual differences or if all students have the same qualities, there is no need of classroom evaluation. With this
concept, educators have considered classroom performance and achievement as variables. The amount of learning as a
result of the quality of teaching varies among students; hence, can be subjected to assessment.
The teacher should be cautious in dealing with individual differences so that his judgment is sealed with fairness.
To ensure fairness in the evaluation of students, the following should be the guiding principles:
 Students should have knowledge of learning targets and assessment.
 Students should be provided equal opportunity to learn.
 The students should have acquired prerequisite knowledge and skills.
 The teachers should refrain from stereotyping.
 The teachers should avoid bias in their assessment tasks and procedures.

8. Positive Consequences
Evaluation should develop positive behavior among students and teachers. Oftentimes, we hear and see
students sigh in distress when the teacher says “Get a piece of paper. We will have a quiz.” In this classroom scenario, we
observe negative behavior towards evaluation. Most probably, the development of this negative attitude among students
begins from the feeling of the punitive value of tests. They feel that they are punished by getting low grades because they
get low in the test.
 On students. It is a common classroom scenario that students display phobia towards
test. The teachers usually observe students expressing their feeling of dismay when the administration of a test is
announced. Most probably, this is the result of the punitive effect of evaluation. Students develop fear because evaluation
is so rigidly based on test results alone. Students should be given the chance to evaluate their own learning.
Students are expected to positively express their feelings and thoughts towards evaluation if they realize that,
through this process, they are given a better chance to learn more. Their motivation is not anymore directed toward
grades, but towards further learning.
 On teachers. Teachers usually cram when evaluation is announced especially when the
evaluation is directed towards determining their instructional performance. If teachers fully internalize assessment and
evaluation, they are given an opportunity to look inward or to introspect and examine their own performance. The result of
evaluation can provide information about the area of instruction which the teacher needs to improve. This is an
opportunity for continuous professional development. The only stumbling block of this direction is that majority of our
teachers, as human beings, are delighted to hear about their strongest points but refuse to acknowledge their own
weaknesses.

9. Practicality and Efficiency

Practicality and efficiency is one principle which states that evaluation should be finished in a specific period of
time and applicable in a particular educational setting. Teachers should not experience difficulty in the conduct of the
assessment instrument. There should also be ease in the interpretation of results. The evaluation process succeeds only
if the teachers find assessment and evaluation practical and efficient. For practicality and efficiency, here are some
suggestions to follow: 1) The teacher should be familiar with the assessment method; 2) Evaluation should be finished in
a specified time required; 3) Teachers should avoid the complexity of administration procedures; 4) Ease of scoring; 5)
Ease of interpretation; and, 6) Cost

10. Ethics
The principle of ethics is stated directly as evaluation should be used judiciously. The teachers should prevent
themselves to exercise personal biases when evaluating students’ performances in the classroom. The bias can result to
unethical gathering, recording, and reporting data.
 Gathering Data. In the gathering data, the ethical standard should be considered.
 Recording Data. The teachers should be extra careful when recording information about
students’ life.
 16

 Reporting Data. The teachers should realize that there are standard forms used to
report students’ scholastic data.

Study the contents in a Slideshare entitled “Basic Concepts of Assessment” @

https://www.slideshare.net/jarry03/basic-concept-in-assessment

Write a reflective essay about the basic concepts and principles of assessment and
evaluation. Submit your essay in the google classroom.

 For online students, Access the Assessment Activity entitled “Unit 1 Test ” in the Google
Classroom.

References:

Reganit, A. R. R., Marquez, B. R., Reyes, M. Z., & Baciles, R. M. (2004). Measurement and Evaluation in Teaching
and Learning. Valenzuela City, Phils.: Mutya Publishing House.
Rico, Alberto A. (2011) Assessment of Students’ Learning: A Practical Approach. Mandaluyong City: Anvil
Publishing
Sadker, M. P, & D. M. Sadker. (2003). Teachers, Schools and Society. Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education
Santrock, John W. (2004). Educational Psychology. Boston, Mass.: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.

Development and Evaluation of Valid and Reliable Assessment

Tools in Various Domains of Learning

This Unit deals with test development. Its main focuses of attention are the test accuracy and consistency. There
are guidelines for test development to be followed. Teachers must internalize these guidelines so that they avoid
constructing test items haphazardly. The items in the test should undergo item analysis to determine the difficulty level
and their ability to recognize individual differences. Valid and reliable tests are considered good. The development of good
tests is easier said than done. Students and other stakeholders of the school usually clamor about the quality of tests
used to assess students’ learning.

Develop valid and reliable test and non-test assessment tools.

Demonstrate skills in the utilization of portfolio as alternative assessment strategy.
.

How are valid and reliable assessment tools developed?

 17

 Access the Assessment Activity entitled “Unit 2 Test ” in the Google Classroom.
.

A. LESSON 1 - Developing Pen-and-Paper Tests

Watch the video entitled “How to Construct Test Questions in all Classifications of
Thinking”
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jl5w4fOQmKs

he 21st century teaching

focuses on teaching standards
or standards of
teaching practice (Beck et al.,
2002; CEPPE, 2013) which
define what teachers and
school leaders should be able to
do (Chung & Kim, 2010; CEPPE,
2013). Therefore,
teachers are placed at the
center of the school in the
teaching standards (Beck, et
al.,
2002). Moreover, teaching
quality is widely recognized as
the single most important
 18

factor affecting student learning

outcomes (CEPPE, 2013).
Hence, the attributes of
highly effective teaching must
be aimed to produce a common
point of reference for
effective practice in teaching
and learning (Rasool, et al.,
2017).
The 21st century teaching
focuses on teaching standards
or standards of
teaching practice (Beck et al.,
2002; CEPPE, 2013) which
define what teachers and
school leaders should be able to
do (Chung & Kim, 2010; CEPPE,
2013). Therefore,
teachers are placed at the
center of the school in the
 19

teaching standards (Beck, et

al.,
2002). Moreover, teaching
quality is widely recognized as
the single most important
factor affecting student learning
outcomes (CEPPE, 2013).
Hence, the attributes of
highly effective teaching must
be aimed to produce a common
point of reference for
effective practice in teaching
and learning (Rasool, et al.,
2017).
The 21st century teaching
focuses on teaching standards
or standards of
teaching practice (Beck et al.,
2002; CEPPE, 2013) which
define what teachers and
 20

school leaders should be able to

do (Chung & Kim, 2010; CEPPE,
2013). Therefore,
teachers are placed at the
center of the school in the
teaching standards (Beck, et
al.,
2002). Moreover, teaching
quality is widely recognized as
the single most important
factor affecting student learning
outcomes (CEPPE, 2013).
Hence, the attributes of
highly effective teaching must
be aimed to produce a common
point of reference for
effective practice in teaching
and learning (Rasool, et al.,
2017).
Introduction
This Lesson deals with test development. Their main focuses of attention are the test accuracy and consistency.
There are guidelines for test development to be followed. Teachers must internalize these guidelines so that they avoid
constructing test items haphazardly. The items in the test should undergo item analysis to determine the difficulty level
and their ability to recognize individual differences. Valid and reliable tests are considered good. The development of good
 21

tests is easier said than done. Students and other stakeholders of the school usually clamor about the quality of tests
used to assess students’ learning. In this lesson, a concept map for test development will be presented to guide
understanding of the test development process.

Steps in Developing Pen-and-Paper Tests

(In this section of the Unit 2, the professor will present the lesson through the use of concept map of Test Development Process in
virtual meetings)

a. The Planning of a Test

A teacher should have a plan for test development so that he will be guided as he chooses the contents from
which the items will be drawn as well as the behavior that he needs to assess. The principle of clarity should be in the
teacher’s mind before he begins writing the test. Clear objectives can guide him when he decides as to what content and
behavior he needs to assess. The same objective should be the basis of selecting appropriate test item formats.
 Identifying test objectives. An objective is defined as the statement of the expected
behavior that the students should display after the teacher has taught the content or subject matter. The teacher should
identify the objectives to be assessed. The objectives should be clearly stated in terms of the cognitive, affective, or
psychomotor domains of learning. Therefore, in test development, the teacher should see to it that the test assesses
specific domains of learning.
 Preparing a table of specification. For test construction, the teacher is like an engineer
who is building a structure. An engineer is guided by a blueprint which specifies the materials to be used, the dimensions
to be followed, and the craftsmanship to be considered. A teacher must also be guided by a blueprint from which he
bases the contents and behaviors to be measured, and the type of item formats to be constructed. This blueprint is called
a table of specification. A table of specification is test blueprint which serves as a teacher’s guide as he constructs the
test.
Basically, a table of specification contains five elements. These are the: 1) content or subject matter; 2) behavior
criteria; 3) item placement; 4) number of items; and, 5) percentage of items. By just looking at a table of specification, one
can judge whether the test has covered all the topics that were taught, or whether all contents and behaviors are well-
represented. A table of specification can either be one-way or two-way. A two way table of specification has totals of items
for the rows (contents) and for the columns (behavior criteria). (The table of specification will be presented in virtual
session).
 Selecting test format. After developing a table of specification, the teacher should make
decision as to the type of item formats that will be constructed. The choice of the item format should be based on clearly
stated objectives. If the objective requires the enumeration of important facts, then the test item format should be
enumeration. There are guidelines for constructing different test item formats. As soon as the table of specification is
developed, the teacher is ready for test construction.

b. Constructing a Multiple Choice Test

In this section, we will discuss the construction of a multiple choice test. A multiple choice test item format can
assess multiple skills and can be constructed in different forms. A teacher who possesses the skills required for
constructing multiple choice tests finds it easy to construct the rest of item formats. In every step of test construction, the
teachers are directed by the rules and guidelines for test construction.
 Item writing. When teachers write the test for the first time, they should consider that it is
just a simple draft; it deserves a second or even a third checking, especially when the test item format is a multiple choice.
What makes the construction of a multiple choice test item format tough and challenging? The answer to this question can
be generated after the discussion of the process of test construction.
A multiple choice item format is composed of two parts; 1) the stem, and 2) three or more alternatives. The use
of test for assessment is influenced by the psychological theory called stimulus-response. Thorndike stresses that when
the stimulus is strong enough, it can elicit a better response. Test would require a very strong stimulus so that students
are forced to give appropriate responses. In a multiple-choice test, the stem serves as a stimulus; the alternatives are the
possible responses. With this in mind, the teacher can construct good items by examining whether the stem for each test
item is strong enough to elicit a correct response. (The guides for constructing a good stem and alternatives will be
discussed in virtual session).
 22

c. Evaluating the Test

Tests should be evaluated in terms of difficulty, discriminating power, and strengths of the alternatives to be
chosen as a response. The test should be tried out to a group of students for the purpose of an item analysis. The result
of the process of item analysis is the basis of deciding whether the item should be retained, revised, or rejected. There are
two processes of item analysis. The choice of one depends upon certain situation. For a quiz, the teacher can utilize the
analysis similar to frequency of error. For a sophisticated item analysis, the teacher can utilize the U-L Index Method.

 Item try-out. After the development of a multiple choice test, it can be tried out for an item
analysis. For practical purposes, the administration of a quiz is an opportune time for a simple item analysis. This is the
process of identifying the difficulty level of the items. Items recognized as having average difficulty index should be
compiled in the item bank. A more complex item analysis can be conducted later as soon as the teacher has compiled
enough number of items in the item bank. Items in long test can be selected from the items that were conducted in
quizzes for the period. Some revisions can be done. After a long test is administered to a group of student, a more
sophisticated item analysis can be done.

 Item analysis. Item analysis is a process of determining the plausibility of alternatives,

difficulty index, and discriminating index of a test. For practical purposes and for ease of undertaking this process, a
simple item analysis can be done for quizzes and shorter tests.

a. Simple Item Analysis (Analysis of Difficulty Index)

For short quizzes, this item analysis can be done by checking the test papers. After which, the test papers should
be returned to the owner. The teacher asks the students to raise their hands if they got correct in the item. The teacher
records the data on a tally sheet. After the recording of data, a simple analysis can be done and the difficulty index is the
basis of deciding whether to retain, or reject the item. Only average items are retained; the very easy and very difficult
items are rejected. (The sample item will be presented in virtual meeting).

b. The U-L Index Method of Item Analysis

The new test items in the test bank, analyzed in terms of difficulty level during quizzes, can be subjected to a
thorough item analysis to determine the plausibility of alternatives, difficulty index, and discriminating index. Plausibility of
alternatives means that this analysis determines whether the alternative in a multiple choice test have the capability to be
chosen as a response. Difficulty index is a value (ranging from 0 to 1.0), which gives an information whether the item is
very easy, average, or very difficult. Discriminating index is a value (ranging from -1.0 to +1.0), which gives an information
whether the item can recognize the bright from the poor performing students in the class. (The sample item analysis will
be discussed in virtual session).

d. Establishing Reliability

Reliability is defined as the consistency of test results. This means that the test should gather consistent data.
The reliability of the test can be established through finding out the degree of consistency. The degree of consistency can
be expressed in terms of the coefficient of correlation.
The consistency of test results can be determined through a test-retest method, split-half method,
equivalent/parallel form method, or Kuder-Richardson formulae. Not all of these methods should be used to verify the
validity of one test. A teacher may choose one of these based on practicality and efficiency. The discussions that follow
will give teachers the bird’s eye view of the process and how they can be estimated through the use of computer.
Test-Retest Method. For example, we utilize the test-retest method to establish consistency over time. This
method is done by means administering the test to one group of students, twice – the first and the second administration.
There should be sufficient gap between the two administrations so that the element of recalling or forgetting does not
influence the results. Normally, the suggested interval of time is one week.
Equivalent/Parallel Form Method. This method establishes consistency of results over test. The teacher
constructs two forms of a test – the items may be similar but not identical. The two forms of test are conducted to one
group of students. The results can be correlated through the use of Pearson Product-Moment of Correlation. A computer
can be utilized to easily generate the coefficient of correlation.
Split-Half Method. A split-half method of establishing reliability looks into the consistency of the test within the
test. The process is done through conducting the test to one group of students, once only. The test is split into two halves
– odd and even numbered items. The scores of students for the odd-numbered items as well as those for the even-
numbered items should be recorded. The scores for the odd-numbered items are entered in the column for X and the
even-numbered items in the column for Y. The table below shows the computer generated coefficient of correlation.
However, this process has generated the reliability of one-half of the test only. To compute the total reliability, the
generated coefficient of correlation will be further analyzed through the Spearman-Brown Prophecy Formula.
 23

Kuder-Richardson Formulae. The Kuder-Richardson measures internal consistency. The analysis is feasible if
the test has undergone an item analysis, especially when the number of students who got correct in every item is
available. The teacher administers the test to one group of students, once only. The result is analyzed by determining the
number of students who got correct for every item. The consistency can be established by comparing the ratio of correct
responses for each item with that of the ratios of the other items. If the ratios are consistent, then the test has internal
consistency.
e. Establishing Validity

According to Linn (1993), validity is critical to anyone who attempts to attach meaning to assessment results or
make decisions based on them. Validity refers to the degree of accuracy which means that the test assesses what it really
intends to assess. This is in line with the principle of appropriateness. This ensures that the test assesses the contents
and behavior stated in the instructional objectives. Answers to the following questions can assure teachers and
administrators about the accuracy of the assessment tools. If the answer to these questions is “yes” then there is a high
probability that the assessment instrument is valid.
There are methods of establishing the validity of a test. One method is through the assistance of colleagues,
superiors, and experts in the field of specialization. The colleague or a co-teacher has an inherent tendency to spot errors
in other’s work. If the teacher just opens his heart and mind, this colleague can be a judge to give feedback about the
strengths and weaknesses of the test. Superiors, through their experience in classroom supervision, have the capability to
judge whether the test is valid or not. Experts in the field of specialization have all what it takes to see rooms for test
improvement. For evaluation as a cooperative endeavor, all of them should have the say in the tests that are used to
evaluate students’ performance. Their judgment ensures the content, construct and face validity of the test.
The second method is through the use of some criteria from which the interpretation of the degree of accuracy is
based. This method is called the criterion-related validity. A statistical method is used to provide empirical data about the
degree of accuracy. As a criterion-related validity, this method utilizes criterion measures as bases to assume test validity.
The two kinds of criterion-related validity are 1) predictive validity; and, 2) concurrent validity.
Predictive validity utilizes students’ previous performance, ratings, or grades as the criterion. The logical
justification of the predictive method is: If the present test results match with the previous rating or previous performance
(criterion), then it can be used to predict future performances. The table and computation that follow show how predictive
validity is established.
The process of establishing the concurrent validity of the test uses the result of valid test as criterion. If the result
of the newly developed test matches with the result of the test that is already valid, then the new test is valid. The same
worksheet can be used to determine the coefficient of correlation between the result of a valid test (criterion) and result of
the new test.

Construct ten-item test and submit the same for editing by the professor. After editing, revise the
items based on professor’s suggestions. Then encode the test items in google form.

Get ready to administer the test to a group of 30 online participants. Request them to answer the
test questions. After which, a simple item analysis will be done.

 Answer the Ten-Item Quiz in Google Classroom entitled “Lesson 1-B Quiz” (Do not forget to
hand-in your assignment).

Write a reflection paper on the test development process.

 24

B. LESSON 2 - Affective Assessment. Its purpose, types, procedure, and guidelines

Watch the Video entitled “The Differences Between Traditional and Authentic
Assessment”
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XOupbmSx27A
In the group chat, share your idea about the difference between traditional and authentic assessment

Introduction
This lesson deals with the roles of student’s self-report and teacher’s observation for the assessment of students’
qualities in the affective domains of learning. Through self-reports and teacher’s observation, the classroom teacher can
see how the students feel before, during and after the teaching and learning process. Student’s affective qualities can be
noticed in the eyes and actions of the learners. Teachers must shift their mindset from the sole use of cognitive-based
assessment alone towards a comprehensive assessment which includes affective characteristics at its core. While
educators strongly believe that affective qualities are the key factors that contribute to learning success, in actual
classroom practices, they feel that the assessment of these qualities is easier said than done. Most teachers realize that
poor affective qualities are the causes why students fail in their academic performance; yet, minimal efforts are somehow
directed towards the assessment of the affective domain of learning. Teachers must pay enough attention to the
assessment of students’ affective qualities because they affect, to some degree, the quality of learning.

The Affective Domain of Learning

McNeil, et.al (1999), cited in Rico (2011), defines affective domain as a learning domain which deals with
interests, attitudes, appreciations, values, and emotional sets or biases. Affective behaviors are related to students’
willingness to respond (i.e., to do what the teachers ask them to do). Most teachers, if not all, consider affective behaviors
as important as cognitive behaviors. They agree that they need to see or feel that students demonstrate the expected
affective behaviors. But affective objectives, most likely, have been given lesser amount of articulation as an explicit
purpose of classroom assessments.
If teachers really want their students to actually achieve affective objectives, they must design learning
experiences that permit them to display affective behaviors. Once the affective objectives are defined, it is relatively easy
to provide instructional activities. The assessment of whether students have demonstrated mastery of the objectives is
facilitated through the use of affective instruments.
Students’ interest, attitude, appreciations, and emotional sets do not lend themselves to traditional pencil and
paper tests. There must be a separate method, approach, or technique to assess behaviors in the affective domain.
Affective assessment tools must be constructed depending upon the demands of a particular classroom situation. This
assessment must be done separately from cognitive assessment. Although the assessment of the affective behavior is
separately done, during the computation of student’s final grades, there is a need to incorporate ratings from the other
domains of learning. This mechanism can ensure a comprehensive process of evaluation.
Teachers must realize the role of affective assessment in making comprehensive evaluation of students’
learning. They should understand the underlying reasons why affective behaviors must be given equal attention with the
other domains of learning. The section that follows discusses the purpose of affective assessment.

The Purpose of Affective Assessment

There are many purposes of gathering data on students’ affective characteristics. At a minimum, affective
assessment can help determine which students are likely to succeed in a particular subject, even if they fall short of the
pre-set criteria on a cognitive assessment instrument. Certain affective characteristics can indicate that these students are
likely to succeed if they are provided with tutoring, supplemental instruction, emotional support, or other support services.
At a maximum, affective information can be useful for the development of mechanisms for incorporating a variety
of educational services at the national and local level. The combination of students’ cognitive and affective characteristics
can provide enough information to make the educators design educational programs that respond to the pressing needs
of the students. Regardless of how it is used, the assessment, advising, and placement process for students can only be
improved through the addition of more data on students’ affective characteristics.
Assessing the affective domain of the learners will help teachers understand their behavior. Since students’
behavior is often affected by their attitude, teachers will know how to deal with them. This assessment also help teachers
plan of what activities they should make so that student values are developed.
 25

Motivation is also important so that learners will pay attention in the class, encourage learning things, ideas, and
developing skills, exert effort to achieve something and be competent learners. Teachers should initiate and sustain
motivation on the learners. To sustain motivation, teachers must allow students to evaluate themselves (likes and
dislikes). In this strategy, teachers are guided on what techniques or methods of teaching they are going to use to enable
learners to learn your lessons even if they dislike it. Teacher evaluations might change based on their effectiveness in
teaching. Through this process, their negative behavior can be affected and changed into positive one. The section that
follows presents the different affective assessment instruments.

Types of Affective Assessment Instruments

a. Likert Scales. A Likert Scale, developed by Rensis Likert, is one of the attitude scales with the basic
assumption that it is possible to discover attitudes by asking individuals to respond to a series of statements of preference
(Fraenkel & Wallen, 1993). The pattern of responses is viewed as an evidence of one or more underlying attitude.
According to Choppin (1977), Likert Scales consist of a set of statements that are either favorable or unfavorable to the
particular individual’s behavior that need to be assessed. Respondents simply choose where on a five-point scale (from
“strongly agree” to “strongly disagree”) their attitude falls. (An example of a Likert Scale will be presented in a virtual
session).

b. Semantic Differential. A semantic differential is similar to Likert method; the respondent indicates an attitude
or opinion between two extreme choices. This method usually provides the individual with a 7-point scale with two
adjectives at either end of the scale, such as good-bad, unhealthy-healthy, clean-dirty. The respondent is asked to rate a
group, individual, or object on each of these bipolar scales. Osgood's (1957) semantic differential was designed to
measure the connotative meaning of concepts. The respondent is asked to choose where his or her position lies, on a
scale between two bipolar adjectives. The semantic differential is a scale used for measuring the meaning of adjectives.
The difference of the meaning of the two opposite adjectives can be quantified from 1 – 7. (An example of this will be
presented during virtual meeting).

c. Behavior Rating Scales. Behavior rating scales are used to assess those aspects of complex attitude that do
not lend themselves to objective testing procedures. This assessment tool is used for teacher’s observation. The teacher
observes and rates students’ behavior as they perform the tasks such as oral report, laboratory experiment, theme writing,
and the like. The focus of this assessment tool is to determine the extent or degree to which the students manifest certain
behavior as they perform the assigned tasks. The teacher can design his own rating scale depending upon the need for
classroom instruction. The best professional who can construct behavior rating scale for classroom use is the teacher who
handles the subject. He is the one who knows what he wants to assess. He has the duty to know who his students are.
(An example of a behavior rating scale will be presented in a virtual meeting).
d. Checklists. According to Reed & Bergemann (2001) a checklist is a simple structured tool to use while
observing in the classroom. It serves the function of limiting the observation to the items on the list and allows the
observer simply to mark when the task has been completed. Checklist does not always evaluate; it usually
documents.The key to developing a good checklist are: 1) knowing the purpose of the checklist, and 2) developing items
that help the observer determine whether the items looked for are found. Based on these concepts, we realize that it is the
classroom teacher who knows the purpose of the checklist and what affective behavior he expects to see during the
activity. (An example of a checklist will be presented in a virtual meeting).

e. Ranking or Rank Order. According to Burton, et. al. (2008), rank order is useful for identifying orders of
importance or priority from a range of options provided. For example, in the classroom, the students cherish the values
and behaviors to some extent or degree of priority. An instrument can capture these affective characteristics through
ranking method. Ranking can gather data through student’s self-report. The analysis of the data gathered through this
instrument is very simple. Through simple observation, we will see that individual student may prioritize one value or
behavior over the others. However, when taken together as a group, we need simple addition. If we sum up all the ranks
of the whole class for every value or behavior, we will see the norms of the group. The lowest sum of the ranks is the first
in the order of prioritized value of the group. (An example of Ranking instrument will be presented in a virtual meeting).

f. Alternate-Response. An affective assessment tool that uses an alternate response format consists of two
opposing options, such as true to me/not true to me, yes/no, good/bad, or favorable/unfavorable. When answering an
alternate response question, the student must choose between the two options. In an objective test, true/false is the best
known type of alternate response. In an affective assessment using alternate-response format, the most common
student’s self report requires answer in the yes/no format. (An example of a Alternate Response will be presented in a
virtual meeting).

g. Open-ended Questions. Students behave and act in certain ways based on their own attitudes and
approaches. If teachers clearly understand student’s attitudes and behaviors, they can work effectively with the students.
Open-ended questions require students to communicate their own ways of acting and behaving in certain situations. This
 26

method can provide teachers with valuable information necessary for making decisions for behavior modification.
Although open-ended questions provide superior method than rating scale or alternative response questions because
guessing is minimally allowed, they take longer time to construct and more difficult to assess. However, when students
write their answers, the real behavior or attitude is revealed as they fluently come from within the individual student.

h. Journals. A journal is a tool for self-discovery, an aid to concentration, a mirror for the soul, a place to
generate and capture ideas, a safety valve for the emotions, a training ground for the writer, and a good friend and
confidant (Ron Klug, 2002, cited by Smith, 2006). I really agree with Klug’s description of a journal. As a tool for self
discovery, journal leads towards understanding the process a student engages in a learning activity. Learning is defined
as the change in students’ behavior as a result of instruction. When we require students to write their own journal, we can
see the patterns of change in students’ behaviors and attitudes towards their own learning.

i. Rubrics. A rubric is a coherent set of criteria for students' work that includes descriptions of levels of
performance quality on the criteria. Rubrics can be used to evaluate, but the operating principle is you match the
performance to the description rather than "judge" it. Thus rubrics are as good or bad as the criteria selected and the
descriptions of the levels of performance under each. Effective rubrics have appropriate criteria and well-written
descriptions of performance.

If you are bored reading the module,watch the video entitled “Common Affective
Assessment Tools”
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FEou4iH9nc4

 In the classroom, answer the Ten-Item Quiz entitled “Lesson 2-B Quiz” (Do not forget to
hand-in your quiz).

Construct one affective assessment tool and submit your output through the professor’s
email.

 LESSON 3 - Portfolio Assessment: Its definition, purpose, principles, types and processes

Watch the video entitled “Creating Effective Porfolio Assessment”

C. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kTClSU_md10
After watching the video,write a personal reflection about using portfolio for classroom assessment.

Introduction
The demand for comprehensive evaluation calls for creating one alternative form of assessment – portfolio. In
this lesson portfolio is defined. Its puposes, principles, types and processes are presented. Creating effective portfolio
assessment for instructional use is guided by sound principles. These principles serve as a guide as teachers utilize
authentic assessment methods to supplement the results of traditional testing methods of assessment. Classroom
teachers should internalize the following principles in the use of portfolio assessment.

Definition of Portfolio Assessment

 27

One principle reiterates the comprehensiveness of evaluation – that evaluation should cover all aspects of
students’ life. To make evaluation comprehensive the focus its attention are the three domains of learning – cognitive,
affective, and psychomotor. Evaluation should avail of the use of portfolio assessment to complement the results of
traditional assessment. The following are the definitions of the term “portfolio” which become the bases for formulating the
meaning of portfolio assessment.
Sadker & Miller (2003) posits that portfolio is a more comprehensive assessment tool, which includes student
artifacts (papers, projects, videotapes, exhibits) that offer tangible examples of student’s learning. Cohen, et.al. (1997)
considers portfolio as a collection of pieces of students’ work, which indicate accomplishments over time and context,
which may be used to represent their best achievements as they contain samples of the best works and best represent
their development. Santrock (2004) defines portfolio as a systematic and organized collection of students’ work that
demonstrates skills and accomplishments. It is a purposeful collection of work that tells the story of the students’ progress
and achievements (Minzes, et.,al., 2001). Haladyna (1997) posits that a portfolio is simply a collection of samples of
students’ work over time. Yancey (1992) states that portfolios can be defined variously as cultural artifacts, as collection
devices, as instruments of process, as assessment tools, as means of education reform, as resources for teachers, as
pictures and guides for curriculum. Simon and Forgette-Giroux (2000) define portfolio as a cumulative and ongoing
collection of entries that are selected following a given framework, and reflected upon by the student, to assess his/her
development of a specific but complex competency. It is a record of the child’s process of learning that portrays the
learner’s style of thinking, questioning, analysis, production, creation, and the like (Grace, 1992).
From the above-cited definitions of the term portfolio, Rico (2011) defined portfolio assessment as follows: Portfolio
assessment is a sensible strategy for systematically collecting, organizing, and analyzing the contents of portfolios
(artifacts or evidence that include drawings, photos, video or audio tapes, writing or other work samples, computer disks,
and copies of standardized or program-specific tests) to determine the amount and quality of learning in classroom
activities. The result of this assessment forms part of the comprehensive evaluation of students’ scholastic achievement.
To sum up the meanings presented above, portfolio assessment draws a more reliable and realistic assumption
about the learning process and the amount and quality of student learning. It uses various methods and strategies of
assessment. Student portfolios, as they increase in volume, through classroom activities, narrate a story of learning
process in an educational context. They validate the process of student learning based on both process and product.
They necessitate coherent criteria that can assess the realistic performance of the learner. Portfolio assessment improves
the relationship between the teacher, students and stakeholders. It makes classroom a worthy learning environment that
helps the learner to be capable of transforming himself into a productive citizen.

The Roles of Portfolio Assessment

The purpose of meaningful assessment is to improve instruction by providing information about student
learning. This information can then be used to provide direction for planning further instruction. Assessment should
occur in authentic contexts that allow students to demonstrate.”
Fortunately, with the introduction of portfolios into our classrooms, we can provide students with opportunities for
reflection that have not previously been available . By using portfolio assessment, the students can engage in simple and
non-threatening forms of reflection. It can provide ample support and help build a climate of trust.
Portfolios can serve many purposes. In the classroom, the following roles of portfolio assessment are worth
considering, if the teachers and students aim to improve the teaching and learning process.
1. Students can collect, construct, and preserve their work portfolios as evidences for future use. They can utilize
these evidences to describe the nature of classroom learning as well as students’ scholastic achievement.
2. Teachers can utilize portfolios as alternative evaluation method. During PTCA conferences and meetings,
parents and teachers may review student portfolios for possible collaboration with the aim to improve students’
scholastic achievements.
3. Classroom teachers can continuously collect children’s work in portfolios, and evaluate and discuss both with the
child and with his parents.
4. Student can utilize portfolio assessment to direct all his efforts towards his or her individual needs and goals.
5. Students and teachers are provided information that gives meaningful insight into behavior and related change.
Portfolio assessment emphasizes the process of change or growth at multiple points in time; it is easier to see
patterns.
6. Students, teachers, parents and other stakeholders of the school are assured of transparent communication and
accountability.

Principles that Guide the Instructional Use of Portfolio Assessment

 28

1. Portfolio assessment should provide the learners with an opportunity to think about their own thinking. It helps
create a connection between instruction and assessment. Portfolio helps the learner to reflect upon the
instructional tasks. It helps the learner to identify the degree of understanding about his/her own understanding.
2. Portfolio assessment should reflect a series of communication between teacher and learner. It can be an
evidence for appraising the learning process. It gives a map of the impact of what happens inside the classroom.
It also promotes a live communication between parents, teacher and students by means of portfolio-conferences,
exhibitions, and portfolio exchange. Effective student-teacher communication helps promote the instructional
power that can minimize the possibility of gap between teacher and learner.
3. Portfolio assessment should reflect the three major aspects of instructional process: connections of curriculum
framework, teacher’s priority, and student learning (Clarke & Wilson, 1994). While teachers develop a set of
criteria for portfolio construction, it is generally determined through teacher and student conferencing. Their
intention is to translate the complex performances into process, product and the both forms of learning within the
curriculum framework.
4. Portfolio assessment should establish the connection among the learning process, content, techniques and
assessment. When conceptual as well as pedagogical and instruction connections are established, students can
be engaged in more thoughtful classroom activities
5. Portfolios assessment should serve as a source of motivation for learning. Through the use of portfolio learners
are encouraged to enhance their learning through the continuous process of selection, reflection and
enhancement. Quick and continuous feedback makes them motivated to become more creative to perform
outstanding task.
6. Portfolio assessment should determine how students and teacher can be involved in selecting items needed for
the portfolio, and in formulating reflections. Through the use portfolio assessment there is a notion that learning is
constructing and sharing that underlines an active involvement of learners as they construct their own portfolio.
7. Portfolio assessment should set performance criteria. Teachers should clarify what makes-up effective learning
in a learning outcome; the necessary performance level; the activities that will be undertaken; and, the objectives
to be met.
Certain characteristics are essential to the development of any type of portfolio used for assessment. According
to Barton and Collins (1997):
1. Portfolios should be Multi-sourced. Multiple data sources include both people (statements and observations of
participants, teachers or program staff, parents, and community members), and artifacts (anything from test
scores to photos, drawings, journals, & audio or videotapes of performances).
2. Portfolios should be Authentic. The items selected or produced as evidence should be related to program
activities, as well as the goals and criteria. If the portfolio is assessing the effect of a program on participants or
communities, then the "evidence" should reflect the activities of the program rather than skills that were gained
elsewhere. For example, if a child's musical performance skills were gained through private piano lessons, not
through 4-H activities, an audio tape would be irrelevant in his 4-H portfolio. If a 4-H activity involved the same
child in teaching other children to play, a tape might be relevant.
3. Portfolios should be Dynamic. An important feature of portfolio assessment is that data or evidence is added at
many points in time, not just as "before and after" measures. Rather than including only the best work, the
portfolio should include examples of different stages of mastery. At least some of the items are self-selected.
This allows a much richer understanding of the process of change.
4. Portfolios should be Explicit. The students or program participants should know in advance what is expected of
them, so that they can take responsibility for developing their evidence.
5. Portfolios should be Integrated. Participants should be asked to demonstrate how they can apply their skills or
knowledge to real-life situations.
6. Portfolios should be Based on Ownership. The portfolio assessment process should require that the
participants engage in some reflection and self-evaluation as they select the evidence to include and set or
modify their goals. They are not simply being evaluated or graded by others.
7. Portfolios should be Multi-purposed. A well-designed portfolio assessment process evaluates the effectiveness
of your intervention at the same time that it evaluates the growth of individuals or communities. It also serves as
a communication tool when shared with family, other staff, or community members. In school settings, it can be
passed on to other teachers or staff as a child moves from one grade level to another.

The Types of Portfolio

 29

There are many genres of portfolios that can be useful for sharing purposes of both instruction and assessment.
Generally, portfolios fall into three main categories: 1) working portfolio; 2) showcase portfolio; and, 3) record-keeping
portfolio (Koca & Lee, 1998). The working portfolio, which is also known as process and teacher-student portfolio,
generally includes the sample of learner’s task that shows his/her progress over a certain period. It also depicts the story
of student growth in performance. For instance, in a process of writing portfolio task, the learner can include the earlier
draft, improved and final version of his/her task. Moreover, this type of portfolio also includes the self-reflection upon, and
self-assessment of, the accomplished task that helps assess how the learner has progressed over time, and estimate the
limitation of his/her learning as well as the constraints that shape his/her learning process.
The product or showcase portfolio (Family Education Network Inc., 2002; Koca & Lee, 1998) is the collection of
such tasks that the learner considers his/her best among the accomplished and representative ones. Despite its limitation
in incorporating developmental tasks, it helps motivate the learner to demonstrate outstanding performance. Generally,
student-led exhibitions have many elements of product-oriented portfolios. Even students can publish magazines and
books and develop projects and other educational materials which all serve the purpose of product-oriented portfolios.
The record-keeping portfolio (Koca & Lee, 1998) is also called teacher alternative portfolio, which includes all the
items that are scored, ranked, graded or evaluated. To some extent, this portfolio is similar to product-oriented portfolio,
which is prepared by the teacher for each student. This portfolio takes some task of the product oriented and
developmental portfolios.
The Process of Assembling Portfolios
The process of assembling portfolios has the potential to encourage critical thinking, problem solving, and
independent thinking among students. As means for integrating instruction and assessment, a portfolio gives the
classroom teacher an opportunity to objectively analyze students’ performance, and the most importantly, assessments
focus on the learning experiences of these students.
To some teachers, a portfolio is just a folder which contains a student's work. Recently, many teachers consider
a portfolio as a folder that contains a variety of a student's work for particular purpose – to show evidences of students
learning. Some portfolios aim to show students’ progress over time; for this purpose, students’ best work over time would
be included. There are portfolios whose purpose is to show how students go about the learning process; all activities,
drafts, etc. would be included. Other portfolios are assembled with the purpose of instruction; then all drafts would be
included. In addition to using portfolio systems for instruction, assessment, and communication with parents, other
purposes include celebration of what has been accomplished, providing information to the next teacher, grading, and
scholastic certification.
Portfolios take different types and formats. In assembling these portfolios, it is important that teachers decide
what it is they are trying to assess before they make decisions as to what should contained in a portfolio. The questions
that may come to the teachers’ mind are “Is the portfolio a means of showing learning progress?” or “Is the portfolio
intended for evaluating students’ best works?”
The heart of a portfolio is the inclusion of student self-evaluation or self-reflection. This makes portfolio attractive
to teachers because, students become actively involved in the assessment process. The self-reflection justifies why a
particular piece of student’s work is included in a portfolio. Teachers, however, should orient students how to objectively
reflect on their own work.
In portfolio assessment, a student takes control as to which pieces of his work should be included in the portfolio.
However, his selection should be done in collaboration with the teacher. Both the teacher and students should agree on
an indicator system to be used. An indicator system is a listing of items that are required to be collected by each student
as part of his or her portfolio. The criteria or guidelines for selection of what should be included may vary from situation to
situation.
Criteria for evaluation are the critical component of any portfolio system. The students should be well-informed as
to what criteria should be used for assessing students’ learning. The clarity of these criteria makes students value their
learning performances and expectations.

Search some portfolio assessment rubrics from the internet. Download one and make your
critical analysis of the coherent set of criteria for students' work that includes descriptions of
levels of performance quality on the criteria.

 In the classroom, answer the Ten-Item Quiz entitled “Lesson 3-B Quiz” (Do not forget to hand-
in your quiz).
 30

Start assembling your portfolio on test development.

References:

Reganit, A. R. R., Marquez, B. R., Reyes, M. Z., & Baciles, R. M. (2004). Measurement and Evaluation in Teaching
and Learning. Valenzuela City, Phils.: Mutya Publishing House.
Rico, Alberto A. (2011) Assessment of Students’ Learning: A Practical Approach. Mandaluyong City: Anvil
Publishing
Sadker, M. P, & D. M. Sadker. (2003). Teachers, Schools and Society. Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education
Santrock, John W. (2004). Educational Psychology. Boston, Mass.: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.

Gathering Organizing, Analyzing, and Interpreting

Assessment Information

This Unit deals with the organization of data gathered through the use of assessment instruments in order to
shed light to teacher’s presumptions of the amount and quality of classroom performances. The manner by which
teachers organize data of students’ performances can help him/her make wise and responsive decisions with the main
purpose of improving the teaching and learning process.
Education students and classroom teachers must understand the practical ways of presenting, analyzing, and
interpreting educational data. It is a must that a teacher understands the numerical data at hand as well as the levels of
measurement of these data. The presentation of data can be in a form of graph, tables, or paragraph. However, for daily
classroom evaluation, the teacher doesn’t need to construct a graph, or a table, or write a paragraph. He can do some
 31

mental calculations in order to picture-out these data in his/her mind. By then, he can make an outright decision. Although
this estimate is mental in nature, the understanding of the type of data and how these data can be organized in
meaningful fashion contribute to the dependability and defensibility of this approximation. Through this process, the
teachers can make an outright and dependable classroom decision-making.

Organize, analyze, interpret, utilize and communicate assessment information that show sensitivity
and responsive to peace education, gender sensitivity and peace education.

How are assessment tools utilized to gather educational data?

How are assessment information organized, analyzed, interpreted, utilized and communicated?
What is the importance of reliable and valid evaluation for making instructional decisions and curricular
improvements?

Access the Assessment Activity entitled “Unit 3 Test” in the Google Classroom

 LESSON 1 – Types of Data and their Levels of Measurement

Watch the video entitled “Analyzing and Interpreting Data”

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HykHndglwwE

After watching the video, prepare an answer to the question, “How are qualitative and quantitative data analyzed and
interpreted?”
Study the reading material below and prepare for the quiz at the end of Lesson 1.

Introduction

In the classroom, the teacher is flooded with volumes of data - numerical and categorical. From the number of
students in the class, number of daily absences, number of drop-outs, number of daily late-comers to student’s scores,
ranks, ratings, and grades classroom teachers gather numerical data. From teacher observation, students self-reflection
to writing reflective essays and journals, the teachers gather categorical data.
Numerical data are, traditionally, the most widely used indicators of student achievements. If teachers do not
understand the type of numerical data that he has at hand, he cannot think of an appropriate method of presentation. For
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example, he/she has obtained the number of drop-outs for the year. To present the data in a meaningful fashion, he
should convert it in the form of percentage. Someone who observes such presentation will easily understand what the
numerical data is all about. In this lesson, pre-service teachers will be introduced to various types and levels of
measurement of educational data.
However, there are also opportunities that categorical data can be gathered in the classroom. If both categorical
and numerical data are well-organized, a more comprehensive information can be utilized for making instructional
decisions. The figure below simply illustrates the types of data which teachers may be able to deal with.

 Types of Data

Educational Data can be classified into Categorical and Numerical. Categorical Data are qualitative
information. The most widely used in the classroom are data on sex, grade level, citizenship, ordinal position,
residence, and the like. Numerical data are quantitative in nature. For example, students’ grades, age, height,
weight. These data directly lend themselves to statistical computations.
Categorical data can either be nominal or ordinal. Nominal data simply names a category. For example
sex is categorized into male or female. The term “male” is a name of the category of sex. While ordinal data
describes a category in an implied order. For example, ordinal position has an ordinal data, the first born child
comes to life ahead of the second born child.
There are two types of numerical data: 1) discrete data; and, 2) continuous data. Discrete data is an information
that can be categorized into certain classifications. According to Mendenhall, et.al. (1999, cited in Rico, 2011) discrete
data can assume only a finite or countable number of values. For example, the information about student population. The
number of students in the school are discrete numerical data. It is based on counts. Only a finite number of values are
possible and the values cannot be subdivided meaningfully. Data on population is discrete because people are generally
counted and put into various categories such as gender, age, and race. When the data set is called discrete, the values in
the batch are usually whole numbers. They cannot be represented by a decimal number. The following are few examples
of discrete data in the classroom:

1. number of absences in a class each day

2. sizes of new entrants each year
3. number of students who got correct in the item
4. number of chairs in the classroom
Discrete numerical data can be presented and analyzed in a manner that is different from the presentation of a
continuous numerical data. A discrete data such as number of absences can be presented in the form of frequency. To
make these data more meaningful, they should be converted into percentage. The Mean, as a measure of central
tendency, cannot be used to analyze discrete numerical data.

Continuous data, on the other hand, is information that can be measured on a continuum or scale. Mendenhall,
et.al. (1999), stress that continuous data can assume the infinitely many values corresponding to the point on a line
interval. For example, the data about a dimension, length; this data can be quantified by using a scale (e.g., a pull-push
rule or a meter stick). The numerical data obtained in this process is considered continuous. It can have almost any
numeric value and be meaningfully subdivided into finer and finer increments, depending upon how precise the
measurement system is. It can be recorded at many different points in a continuum (i.e., length, size, width, time,
temperature, cost, etc.). It can be measured and broken into smaller values and still can have meaning. It can be
represented in a decimal number. In the classroom, scores are the most abundant data – continuous. The following are
some examples of continuous data in the classroom:

1. age of students at the start of the school year

2. height and weight of students
3. student’s scholastic rating in a specific subject
4. floor area of the classroom

 Levels of Measurement of Data

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The data gathered in the classroom can be categorized into different levels of measurement. This means that the
numerical data representing the values in different levels of measurement may be the same number but they represent
different information; hence, different meaning. For example, score 5 is not necessarily 5% of the number of items in a
test; or Score 90 is not always given the equivalent rating of 90%. This is because the data they represent do not have the
same level of measurement. The four levels of measurement; nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio were advanced by the
work of Stevens (1951), cited in Rico (2011)..
Nominal. Nominal scales embody the lowest level of measurement. It is the lowest because it just names an
observation. The can be represented by numerical data but these numbers simply names. No mathematical computation
can be made except counting. For example, in the classroom we can name the chair 1 up to 50. Chair No. 1 is distinct
and separate from Chair No. 6. The same is true with students Flory and Cherry; Flory is distinct and separate from
Cherry although they sit side by side in the class. The numerical data measured at this level is considered discrete. They
cannot be represented in decimal numbers.
In the Class Record and School Register, the teacher writes the names of students in the boy/girl or male/female
category as well as name of contact persons and address (for Form 1 only). These data are classified in the nominal level
of measurement. These documents are very important tools for teachers, especially in Form 1, because in case of
emergency or untoward incident that may happen in the school, it will be easy to trace the student’s address; the parents
can immediately be informed.
A variable measured on a nominal scale does not have any evaluative distinction. When a nominal scale is used,
the teacher simply names or categorizes an observation. In the school, there are data on gender, handedness, religious
denomination, name of students, number of chairs, grade levels, and number of teachers. Let us say for example that the
variable is gender is categorized male or female. When the teacher observes that one student is a female, he/she
classifies her into the female category; there is no middle ground. In terms of handedness, the category is either left or
right handedness. When the teacher observes a child using left hand to write or do something, he/she calls this child as
left-handed. The numerical data (0 or 1) representing these variables are considered discrete.
The nominally-scaled variables do not allow themselves to so many statistical computations such as mean and
standard deviation; these statistics have no meaning for these variables. If the teacher understands that the level of
measurement of his data is nominal, then he will not grapple for choosing the statistical tools to be used for data analysis.
However, if these data remain at this level of measurement, the teacher cannot present them in a meaningful fashion.
Nominal level can be elevated into ordinal or ratio level but not into an interval level. For example, if 40 students in the
class got correct in item No. 1, what does this data mean to the teacher, principal and students? This nominal data lacks
meaning. There is no way of making acceptable conclusion about the data. However, if the data is presented in this
manner; 40 out of 50 students or 80% of the students got correct in item No. 1, then there is so much meaning that can be
attached to it. Anybody who observes the data organized in this manner will really understand. This is because the data in
the nominal level is elevated into ratio - the highest level of measurement.
Ordinal. Ordinal level of measurement ranks an observation based on a certain magnitude. This level of
measurement indicates an approximate ordering of observations. Any observation that is measured on an ordinal scale
has evaluative connotation. This means that one has greater magnitude than the other. For example the First Honors,
whose final rating is 93.02, can be evaluated as higher than the Second Honors with a final rating of 92.96.
The teacher’s Class Record and Form 1, as mentioned above, contain name of students. Students’ names are
arranged alphabetically, from A to Z. These data in the nominal level, arranged in alphabetical order, is elevated into an
ordinal level of measurement. This strategy is employed to lessen teacher’s time and effort locating the name of students
when other data are to be recorded in these forms. The alphabetical arrangement of these names can be done manually
or electronically.
Ranking of students based on scholastic performance is another process of converting data into an ordinal level
of measurement. Let us say for example, the top 5 in the class will be determined from among the 50 students. Ratings
will be used to identify the ranking. Ranks 1-5 are those who got the highest ratings in the class. The data obtained in this
process is in the ordinal level of measurement.
In the ordinal level of measurement, there is no assurance that the difference in terms of magnitude between
consecutive ranks is the same. For example, the distance between the first and second honors is 0.06. There is possibility
that the distance between ranks 4 and 5 is not the same as that of the first two ranks.
There are data in the classroom that can be ranked based on magnitude. These are some of the examples: (1)
name of students arranged in alphabetical order; the data obtained through a nominal scale is ordered in ascending order
from A to Z; (2) students’ scores, obtained through a test, are arranged from highest to lowest; and, (3) ranking of top-ten
students based on final rating.
Interval. Originally, the interval level of measurement does not only have classification and ordering of
observations, but it also specifies that the differences between consecutive integers are equivalent along the scale. This
means that the main distinction between ordinal and interval levels of measurement is the fixedness of values in between
values. For example, in the ranking of top-ten (ordinal) students, the difference between the first and second honors
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is .05; however, the gap between the fourth and fifth honors is .08. This shows unequal distance between consecutive
ranks. In case of student’s temperature (interval), the difference between 30 and 40 is 10 degrees Celsius; so is from 20
to 30 degrees.
The data obtained through an interval scale, has no absolute zero or the zero point is arbitrary. This means that
any zero observation doesn’t mean absolutely zero. In the classroom, the most abundant data obtained through an
interval scale is a student’s score. Score is the total number of correct responses in a test. Test scores are classified in the
interval level of measurement because the interval between score 4 and 5 is the same as the interval between 6 and 7.
This data has no absolute zero because zero in a test doesn’t mean that the student who got a “0” score has zero
knowledge of the topic taught. It can probably be that what he studied did not come out in the test. The interval level of
measurement allows for the use of statistical measures such as central tendency, variability and correlation. And when
presented in a graph, a histogram rather than a bar graph is more appropriate for students’ scores in a test.
Ratio. Ratio is the highest level of measurement. It is the most informative scale. It has the characteristics either
of an interval, an ordinal, or a nominal scale; however, there is an absolute zero point to start from. Like a nominal scale, it
provides a name or a category for each object. Like an ordinal scale, the observations are ordered based on magnitude.
Like an interval scale, the same difference at two places on the scale has the same meaning. By elevating the other three
levels of measurement to ratio level, the teacher is making his findings and conclusions more meaningful, dependable and
defensible.
For example in the classroom, when one student obtains the score of 29 (interval level), the teacher cannot give
meaning to it until he measures it against a ratio scale. When a ratio data is presented, there is more meaning to it (i.e.,
29/30). The conversion of scores into percentage rating through the process of transmutation is one of the means of
elevating the level of measurement from an interval into ratio.
 Prepare a google form that contains a 10-item quiz or a non-test instrument for a set of 50
students enrolled in the school in your community.
 Conduct the test/non-test online and gather the results in google sheet.
 Make a three paragraph description of the type of data that you have gathered.

 Answer the Ten-Item Quiz in Google Classroom entitled “Lesson 1-C Quiz” (Do not forget to
turn in your assignment).

LESSON 2 - Frequency Distribution and Graphical Representation of Educational Data

Watch the video entitled “Methods of Data Presentation”

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tnri5p7HibU
Exit Ticket: Before leaving the classroom, illustrate what your have learned in this Lesson.
1. Create a presentation of your data collected through test or non-test instrument.
2. Share the result of your interview with the class during the synchronous session.

Introduction
Good data presentation skills are to data-based analysis what good writing is to literature, and some of the same
basic principles apply to both. More importantly, poor graphical and tabular presentations often lead to both readers and
writers to draw erroneous conclusions from their data and obscure facts that better presentations would reveal. Some of
these practices involve deliberate distortions of data, but more commonly they involve either unintentional distortions or
simply ineffective approaches to presenting numerical evidence (Klass, 2008).
 Methods of Presenting Data
According to Klass (2008), just plain data analysis is simply compiling, evaluating, and presenting numerical
evidence… There are three tasks and skills involved in doing plain data analysis that teachers need to focus on: finding,
presenting, and interpreting numerical data. In finding data, classroom teachers should gather them by using appropriate
assessment tools intended for the three domains of learning. These data should be presented in meaningful fashion, such
as tabular, graphical, or in the form of a paragraph. In terms of interpretation, the teachers should be familiar with the
simplest or plain data analysis that can be done mentally, manually or electronically (Rico, 2011).
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The teachers’ class records are made in the form of tables where data are organized to facilitate data analysis
and interpretation. Data presentation can be in the form of a table, a graph, or a paragraph. In the classroom, paragraph
presentation is the least utilized data presentation; the most common are tabular and graphical presentations.
 In a Table
The tabular presentation of data simplifies the system of organizing data in columns and rows. By just looking at
the data in a table, the reader can easily see the nature and pattern of the data. In the classroom there are many
instruments that organize data in a table. For example, the teacher’s class record is considered as a teacher’s tool
presented in tabular form.

A class frequency distribution of students’ scores in a test.

At a glance, the observer can see that the scores are distributed from the lower to the highest class. A keen
observer can see that in the column for tally, a picture of a distribution is clearly represented by means of the clustering of
tallies within classes.
Obviously, we observe that most of the scores clustered at class 30-32. Without computation, we can mentally
manipulate that most probably, the measure of central tendency lies within the class. If the teacher gave a 50-itme test, he
can think of a 5-point scale for a 50-item test and compare his observation with the scale below:

40.01 – 50.00 - Very High

30.01 – 40.00 - High
20.01 – 30.00 - Average
10.01 – 20.00 - Low
0 – 10.01 - Very Low
If the teacher tries of observe the data on the table, the average of the scores can be located at the mid-point of
the class 30-32, which is 31. The mean (31) falls within the range of 30.01-40.00. Therefore, he can conclude that the
performance of the group of students in the test is High. This test result can make the teacher decide to proceed to the
next unit or to include this test result for the computation of students’ grades.
To make this activity a very simple one, the teacher can ask the students to raise their hands if their scores fall
within the range. The highest frequency is the measure of central tendency which will reveal the level of group’s
performance. The teacher can use some mental calculations and make an outright decision.
However, if the teacher wants to make it more empirical in nature, an electronic device such as calculator or
computer, can serve as an aid for the computation of the measures of central tendency. The result can be compared with
the scale presented above. The level of group’s performance in the test can be determined through this process.

 In a Graph
While it is possible to present numerical data in tabular form, it is far more effective if these data are presented in
a graph. There are several types of graphs to choose from; however, the choice is always guided by one’s understanding
about the levels of measurement of data to be represented by a graph.
For classroom purposes, when the most abundant data in the teacher’s class record are in the form of test
scores – data considered to be in the interval level of measurement, the graph that is most appropriate for their
presentation is a histogram. Histogram is a graphical display of tabulated frequency.

10
8
6
4
2
0 18-20 21-23 24-26 27-29 30-32 33-35
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A Histogram Presenting the Distribution of Students’ Scores

When data on a table is supported by a graph, the reader can see a clear picture of the data under
consideration. Take note that it is easy to understand the pattern that they portray. We can simply say that the distribution
pictures out an approximately normal distribution. We can discern further that most of the scores clustered at the middle.
The highest frequency lies at the class 30-32.
By means of presenting data in graphical form, the readers gather information visually, and they can easily attach
meaning to the information presented in a graph. They exert lesser effort because they do not focus more on the printed
information but on the pattern they see in a graph.
However, for the purpose of reporting research data, the presentation should be done in tabular form, graphical
form as well as in paragraph form. This gives way to the need of different types of readers. There are those who would
prefer to see data in tabular form; there are those who would prefer in graphical form; and others in the form of a
paragraph.

 In a Paragraph (Textual)

For documentary purposes, it is necessary that the description of the data presented should be organized in a
paragraph form. The paragraph must be an explanation of the data which includes the verbal interpretation of the patterns
and trends of the data presented in a table or in a graph.
A paragraph is a tool of organizing the material and research data in a more comprehensible way. If the writer
has a very valuable material, but is not able to present it in a table or a graph, then he can avail of the use of a paragraph.
In this form he can logically inform the readers what his data is all about.
The major user of classroom data is the teacher himself. It is his task to utilize the easiest method that facilitates
the speedy interpretation of data. The teacher can utilize mental calculations to expedite interpretation and classroom
decision-making. This method can be applied for formative evaluations which aim to determine whether the objectives of
the lesson for the day are accomplished or not. Then decisions whether to proceed or re-teach depend upon the speed
and accuracy of teachers’ mental calculations. The mental calculations are bed-rocked on the type of distribution pictured
out by the data gathered in the classroom. The normality or skewness of distributions has enough information that can
help the teacher understand the nature of students’ learning and scholastic performances.

 The Types of Distribution

When a test is administered to a group of students, because of individual differences, there are those who will
get the highest or lowest scores. Most of the scores may cluster somewhere at the middle of the distribution. This can
result to different forms of distribution. The distribution can either be normal or skewed.
The abstract idea of the types of distribution should be concretized in the mind of every teacher whose aim is to
improve the teaching and learning process. No teacher can make very sound decision unless he has in his mind a
framework to work on. This framework is the basis of interpreting the data he gathers every time he gives a quiz,
periodical test, or achievement tests. Whether the test’s purpose is formative, placement, diagnostic or summative, this
framework serves as the basis of interpretation.

 Normal Distribution

According to Santrock (2004) a normal distribution is symmetrical, with a majority of the scores falling in the
middle of the possible range of scores and few scores appearing toward the extremes of the range. A normal distribution
is a theoretical curve from which teachers can base their interpretation of student’s scores concretely presented in a table
or even if that scores are just the teachers’ mind. It is very important for the teachers to understand the basics of statistics
so that they can grasp the information that is shown by frequencies of normally distributed scores. The figure below
(Figure 7.2) shows a normal distribution of students’ scores.

A Normal Distribution Curve Representing Students’ Test Scores

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Characteristics of a Normal Distribution. Normal curves have varying areas, heights, or widths; however, in all
cases, these characteristics are observed:
1. The measures of central tendency (mean, median, and mode) lie at exactly the same point in a continuum;
usually at the highest point of the distribution. In case of a normal distribution, the most appropriate measure of
central tendency to use is the Mean.
2. The distribution looks like a bell or the distribution is bell-shaped.
3. The normal distribution is symmetrical. There is a balanced curve formed in a normal distribution of scores.
4. A normal distribution is asymptotic. This means that the tails of the distribution do not touch the baseline (x-axis
or abscissa). This curve is appropriate to use for students’ scores because these data are classified in the
interval level of measurement and have no absolute zero.
5. The normal distribution is bilateral. In a bilateral distribution, the area in a negative side is equal to that of the
positive side.
6. In a normal distribution, 68.2% percent of the scores fall within the range of one standard deviation below (-1s) to
one standard deviation above (+1s) the Mean (0s).
7. All scores fall within the range of three standard deviations below (-3s) to three standard deviations above the
mean (0s)

It is important to point out that no naturally measured variable, such as test scores, is normally distributed in the
real sense of the word. All other distributions can only approximate the normal distribution curve. The closer the
distribution of scores to the featured characteristics of a theoretical normal curve, the better it is to use the parameters or
statistic like the mean and standard deviation. With this view, it is justifiable that classroom teachers should internalize the
practical use of the normal distribution curve.
The first reason why a normal distribution is important for classroom teachers is that all educational variables are
distributed approximately normal. When a group of 50 students in the class is tested, their scores are distributed from the
highest to lowest in an approximately normal manner. Only a few gets high or low and most of the scores cluster at the
middle of the distribution. With this framework in mind, the teacher can mentally approximate the nature of students’
performance in a test.
The second reason why the normal distribution is important for classroom teachers because it is the basic
theoretical framework for interpreting student’s score in comparison with the scores of other students in the class. It is
easy to interpret individual’s or group’s performance based by using a normal distribution curve. For example, we observe
that the child’s score falls within the range of one standard deviation below the Mean; in this situation we can say that the
child is within the average group of learners.
The third reason is that, if the mean and standard deviation of a normal distribution are known, it is easy to
convert raw scores to percentiles, and vice-versa. These concepts will be discussed in the succeeding chapters.
In order to understand why estimates based on a normal distribution can be made, teachers should review the
topic on Central Limit Theorem which states that “if we randomly take a sample from a population, the sample mean, in
the limit, tend to be normally distributed with the same mean as that of the population and with its variance equal to that of
the population’s variance.”
In some instances, the distribution does not approximate a normal distribution. In this case, it is more problematic
if the teacher uses the same interpretation made through the use of a theoretical normal distribution curve. In this
particular situation, the interpretation can be made in terms of a Skewed Distribution.

 Skewed Distribution

A skewed distribution does not meet the 7 characteristics of a normal distribution. In this particular case, the
teacher cannot make use of the parameters, such as mean and standard deviation, to describe group’s performance in
the test. It is necessary that a teacher understands the term “skewness.”
Skewness is a measure of asymmetry of a probability of a distribution. In a simple sense, by observation,
skewness is the tapering-off of one tail of the distribution towards a specific side. A skewed distribution has one tail longer
than the other. Practically, this can be noted by the small frequency of the scores either on the lower (negative) or the
higher (positive) side of the distribution. The teacher can easily note down skewness by means of the number of students
who got the scores in a quiz. In a skewed distribution, there is always an extreme score on a specific side of the
distribution. If the extreme score is on the lowest side, then the distribution is skewed to the left or negatively skewed. If
the extreme score is one the highest side, then the distribution is skewed to the right or positively skewed.
Negatively Skewed Distribution. A distribution is negatively skewed if the scores to occur toward the upper end of
the continuum or in the side of the highest, while increasingly fewer scores occur toward the lower end. The long tail is on
the negative side. To give more interpretation, we can say that more of the scores cluster at the positive side; to say it
clearly, more students got high scores.
In a skewed distribution, the three measures of central tendency do not fall at the same point in a continuum –
the mean, median, and mode are not equal. The location of every measure of central tendency gives the teacher a clue of
the distribution’s skewness. Observe the figure below.
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A Negatively Skewed Distribution Representing Students’ Test Scores

As shown in the figure, the Mean is the lowest among the three measures of central tendency. The Mode is the
highest. The Median always remains at the middle of their locations. The Mean usually falls towards the direction of
skewness because the extreme score is found in the negative side. The Mean is very sensitive to extreme score in the
distribution. This makes the Mean meaningless for a skewed distribution; therefore, its use is indefensible.
A post test that that pictures out a negatively skewed distribution is a result of ideal teaching ad effective teaching
methodology. In an experimental research, the researcher conducts pretest and posttest. If the posttest scores result to a
negatively skewed distribution, then the he can generalize that the change of students’ scores is the result of the
treatment variable.
Positively Skewed Distribution. A positively skewed distribution shows that students’ scores tend to cluster
toward the lower end of the continuum or the negative side and fewer scores are observed on the upper end. Its tail
tapers-off towards the positive side. It can be noted in the figure below that the longer tail is on the positive side of the
distribution.

If we observe further the locations of the three measures of central tendency, the Mean is the Highest and Mode
is the lowest. The Median is at the middle. The mean is situated towards the direction of an extreme score. In this
distribution, extreme score is in the highest side or the positive side.
In an experimental research, ideally, pretest result is expected to be positively skewed. This means that most of
the students are expected to get lower scores. This information can make the teacher think of some interventions to make
the students learn. So a treatment is done after pretest.
If the posttest result pictures out a negatively skewed distribution, then the teacher can say that the treatment is
effective for a specific teaching-learning process.

 Kurtosis

Kurtosis is a measure of whether the distribution of data is peaked or flat relative to a normal distribution. That is,
data sets with high kurtosis tend to have distinct peak near the mean, decline rather rapidly, and have heavy tails. Data
sets with low kurtosis tend to have a flat top near the mean rather than a sharp peak. A uniform distribution would be the
extreme case (NIST/SEMATECH, 2006).
The kurtosis of a normal distribution is three. For this reason, the formula for kurtosis is:

∑i=1 (Y i−Y )
N 4

Kurtosis = ( N−1 ) s −3

This definition is used so that the standard normal distribution has a kurtosis of zero. In addition, a positive
kurtosis indicates a “peaked” distribution; a negative kurtosis is a “flat” distribution. The distributions that follow show the
three kinds of kurtosis.
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This distribution shows “flatness” which results from the data being less concentrated around the mean, due to
large variations within observations. This is called platykurtic or a data set having flatter peak around the mean, which
causes thin tails within the distribution. For a platykurtic distribution, the statistical value of kurtosis is negative. In a
classroom setting, when the teacher observes a platykurtic distribution, it is a signal that he is handling a heterogeneous
group. Classroom decisions can be made immediately as to what group dynamics can be done to respond to the varying
needs of the students.

In case of a very large group, a mesokurtic distribution can be noted. This distribution has a kurtosis which is
similar or identical to the kurtosis of a normally distributed distribution. The difference is however is that there is a
tendency for a flatter peak around the mean.

Leptokurtic distributions have higher peaks around the mean compared to normal distributions, which leads to
thick tails on both sides. There are lesser variations within observations. The statistical value of the distribution’s kurtosis
is positive. In the classroom, when the teacher observes a leptokurtic distribution, he should be aware that he is dealing
with a homogeneous group – a group with lesser variations. The students have almost the same capabilities to learn.

1. Write a reflection paper on Data Presentation.


 Answer the Ten-Item Quiz in Google Classroom entitled “Lesson 2-C Quiz” (Do not forget to
turn inWatch
your assignment).
the video entitled “Norm & Criterion-Referenced Grading”
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sgJDXawTnj8

After watching the video, write a reflection paper, “The Brilliant Light of Newness in Me”
Study the reading material below and prepare for the quiz at the end of Lesson 3
Learn how to gather and organize data in Google Sheet

LESSON 3 - Ways of Interpreting Data (Criterion- & Norm-referenced Interpretation)

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Introduction
A frame of reference is required to interpret assessment evidence.There are two distinct approaches to interpreting
assessment information. Norm referenced assessment compares student’s expected performance against that of the
peers within a cohort with similar training and experience. Criterion referenced assessment focuses on the student’s
performance on the task against an set of criteria related to the knowledge, skills, or attributes that the student is
developing. Without a frame of reference, a raw score by itself does not tell us how much a student knows or what he or
she can or cannot do within a content area.

Ways of Interpreting Scores

A test score must be referenced or compared against something to give meaning to it. That something can be a
preset criterion or the performance of other members of the class. For example, a student receives a score of 88 on a test
with no other information provided. Some questions that may come to the student’s mind are:
 What is the highest score in the class?
 How did I do as compared with that of others in the class?
 Is it a percentage or a raw score?
 Is it an improvement from my previous test?
To answer the aforementioned questions, there is a need to have a clear mindset about ways of interpreting the
scores obtained through the use of assessment instruments. Ways of interpretation is known as referencing. This means
that the interpretation is referenced on a certain basis of comparison. One of the bases can be the norm or comparison is
referenced to the performance of the whole members of the class (norm-referenced interpretation). The other basis can
be the pre-set standard of comparison (criterion-referenced interpretation). The figure below guides our conception about
the differences between these two ways of interpretation.

The Norm-referenced Interpretation

Figure 1 presented above shows that when the teacher intends to monitor students’ growth and makes relative
comparisons with other members of the group or class, he/she aims to use norm-referenced interptetation. Norms may be
used to compare the performance of an individual or group with that of other individuals or groups. In the class, students’
raw scores are converted into standard scores. To compute standard scores, norms should be determined first. Let us
make it specific in the classroom setting. When the teacher administers a 50-item test, it is expected the he/she obtains
raw scores. When his/her intention is to make a comparison of every student’s performance with the performance of
others, he/she has to think of the basis for comparison. The comparison can be done with reference to the performance of
the whole group. The group’s performance can be defined by norms of the class. In this case, the teacher may refer the
interpretation from norms of the class/group – Mean and Standard Deviation.
For example, in the teacher’s test, Student A obtains a score of 40 out of 50 items. The teacher intends to
compare student’s performance with the norms of the group. With this objective in mind, he/she computed the Mean and
Standard Deviation – the norms. The computation showed that the Mean is 35 and the standard deviation is 4.5. With
these data, he/she can interpret the location of student’s score (40) in the distribution by looking at “how many Standard
Deviation(s) is the score of 40 away from the Mean of the group”. The standard score that specifies the distance of a
particular score from the mean of the distribution and that distance is expressed in terms of standard deviation units is
called zscore (score minus mean, divided by standard deviation or z score =(40-35)/4.5). The result of computation is z score =
 41

+1.11. The sign is positive which indicates that the score is located at the positive side or above the mean of the
distribution. Based on the normal distribution curve, the interpretation is stated as: “The score (40) is located 1.11
standard deviation above the Mean of the group”.
In a norm-referenced interpretation, student scores indicate how he/she compares with the norming population
(comparing individual’s score with the score of others). The interpretation relies on relative standing with less emphasis on
absolute amount of knowledge or skill. When the teacher’s intention is to use norm-referenced, his/her assessment
instrument should be designed in such a manner that it could make distinction among individuals. Extremely easy and
extremely difficult items are not included in the assessment instrument, though items tend toward the difficult end of the
spectrum. After the raw scores are obtained, they are expressed as standard scores of grade equivalent. Teachers need
to look very carefully at the norming sample when interpreting results. For example, if Lucy’s score of 39 is equal to the
Mean of the group, then Lucy is the norming sample. To interpret Remy’s score of 41, the teacher has an idea that
Remy’s score is above the Mean. So every time the test is administered, the teacher is expecting that Remy will perform
higher than Lucy.
Norm-referenced interpretation does not utilize criteria or preset standards. Right at the start of test
administration, the teacher does not have any basis for interpreteing student scores. Only after the Mean and Standard
Deviations are computed that the teacher determines the bases of interpretation. Through this interpretation, the teacher
cannot help but compare one student with other students in the class. This kind of mindset sometimes develops a notion
that one is better than the other. Teacher’s mindset may have direct or indirect influence on student competition in the
class. While this competitive behavior seem to be healthy at first glance, it would be damaging to socialization in the class
in the long run. Hence collaborative learning is sacrificed. Therefore, the teacher has to exercise so much caution of
comparing one student with other students in the class.

Criterion-Referenced Interpretation
In the same Figure it is shown that when the teacher intends to gather information whether students achieved the
outcomes of instruction, he/she aims to utilize criterion-referenced interpretation. The criterion is the preset standard
implied in the statement of objectives (75% proficiency). This means that students’ scores are interpreted based on this
preset standard. To track student readiness, a criterion-referenced interpretation is likewise utilized. If the student’s score
is beyond the preset standard, then he/she is ready; if not, then non-readiness is manifested. In terms of converting
scores to percentage rating, a criterion-referenced interpretation can also be applied. In this transmutation, the teacher
may think of preset standard. He/she decides on what equivalent rating shall be given to the highest possible score (HPS)
and that of the lowest possible score (LPS). The usual standard that is used in the field is: for the HPS, the equivalent
rating is 100; for the LPS (0), the rating is 50. This means that a zero score is transmuted as 50%. This is attributed to the
concept that test score is in the interval level of measurement. A zero score doesn’t mean that the student has no
knowledge of what has been taught.
For example, in the teacher’s test, Student A obtains a score of 40 out of 50 items. The teacher intends to
compare student’s performance with the preset standard (75% proficiency). With this objective in mind, he/she wanted to
see whether students’ transmutted rating is lower or higher than the standard. The transmutation is done in this manner.
Initially, the decides whether to use the standard rating of 100% for HPS and 50% for LPS or lower than this standard.
Next, he/she determines the range (distance) of the HPS and LPS which is equal to 50. Afterwhich, the range (50) is
divided by the number of items (50). The result is expressed in a ratio, equivalent to 1.00. Then, the ratio is multiplied with
the score (40) which results to 40%. Lastly, this result is added to the lowest possible rating (50%). The student’s final
rating is 90%. This rating is compared with the preset standard (75% proficiency). Notably, student rating is higher than
the standard. Therefore, the interpretation can be stated in this manner: “The student score of 40 in a 50 item test is
higher than 75% proficienty level; hence, he/she passes the test”.
In a criterion-referenced interpretation, individual scores are compared with the standard of performance or
criterion (proficiency level), not with the scores of other students. The score is usually expressed in percentage with the
interpretation of passed or failed (as illustrated in the example above). This kind of interpretation focuses on what an
individual can do. In the classroom setting when the teacher administers a 20 item test and the child gets the score of 10,
then the interpretation is that only 50% of the items are answered correctly. But when transmutted to percentage rating,
the score (10) is interpreted as 75% level of proficiency. This interpretation is effective for a diagnostic assessment. It
determines who among the students have weaknesses and interventions can be designed to strengthen such
weaknesses. This kind of referencing does not pay attention to how the student performs in comparison with other
students.
In terms of alternative assessment methods, criterion-referenced interpretation can be applied. When rubrics are
used, the criteria or standards of performance are specified in the essential elements of the task. Judgement about
performance can be made against the standards specified in the rubrics. The rater can score student’s output based
these standards. The main focus of this interpretation is on the mastery in achieving the tasks representing the maximum
and minimum level of performance. What is nice about alternative assessment is when the task is assigned, together with
the rubrics, the students work on the task and self-evaluate along the way. Their self-evaluation may focus on whether
their process they use and outcomes the achieved, have met the preset standards of performance or not.
 42

1. Make acan
A good teacher table of comparison
inspire, between
hope, ignite norm-referenced
the imagination and instilland criterion-referenced
a love of learning. interpretation.
2. Brand Henry
3. Teachers of 21
4. st
5. century have to take in account the needs of their students, prepare them to meet the challenges
6. of future. Teacher’s work is considered complex and demanding. For creating a high quality professional
7. teaching force, it is important to have high quality professional teacher’s development program. The
8. developmental program must incorporate use of technology integration in teaching.
9.
10. 3.1. Learner-Centered Classroom and Personalized Instructions
11. The days of spoon-feeding have ended now, as students have access to any possible information. It is
desirable
12. to give personalized instructions to students as they differ in personalities, goals, aims, needs etc. By
allowing
13. students to choose on their own their intrinsic motivation increases and make more efforts to learn on their own.
14.
15. 3.2. Students as Producers
16. These days students are treated as digital natives and producers of any digital content. Students are laced
with
17. recent and best tools, although they seldom use it beyond communicating with family & friends. Every
student
18. has expensive devices which have capabilities to produce blogs, infographics, tutorials. Students are still
asked
19. to switch off these devices and work on handouts. When students are given opportunity, they can make creative
20. blogs, stories and feel proud to share with others.
21.
22. 3.3. Project-Based Learning
23. These days’ students conduct their research, contact experts, create final projects and share all using devices in
24. hand. They only need guidance from teachers. Students compare information from different sources,
give
25. feedback to peers, convey own ideas so on.
26.
27. 3.4. Learn New Technologies
28. The main requirement for providing quality education is the integrating technology with teaching to
create
29. learning environment which fulfill the needs of a group of students. It is useful for students to have own hand on
30. experience. As technology is developing day and night, learning a tool once for all is not an option. The
ne

CHARACTERISTICS OF 21ST
CENTURY TEACHER
A good teacher can inspire,
hope, ignite the imagination
and instill a love of learning.
Brand Henry
Teachers of 21
 43

st
century have to take in
account the needs of their
students, prepare them to meet
the challenges
of future. Teacher’s work is
considered complex and
demanding. For creating a
high quality professional
teaching force, it is important
to have high quality
professional teacher’s
development program. The
developmental program must
incorporate use of technology
integration in teaching.
3.1. Learner-Centered
Classroom and Personalized
Instructions
The days of spoon-feeding
have ended now, as students
 44

have access to any possible

information. It is desirable
to give personalized
instructions to students as
they differ in personalities,
goals, aims, needs etc. By
allowing
students to choose on their own
their intrinsic motivation
increases and make more
efforts to learn on their own.
3.2. Students as Producers
These days students are
treated as digital natives and
producers of any digital
content. Students are laced
with
recent and best tools,
although they seldom use it
beyond communicating with
family & friends. Every student
 45

has expensive devices which

have capabilities to produce
blogs, infographics, tutorials.
Students are still asked
to switch off these devices and
work on handouts. When
students are given opportunity,
they can make creative
blogs, stories and feel proud to
share with others.
3.3. Project-Based Learning
These days’ students conduct
their research, contact experts,
create final projects and share
all using devices in
hand. They only need
guidance from teachers.
Students compare information
from different sources, give
feedback to peers, convey own
ideas so on.
 46

3.4. Learn New Technologies

The main requirement for
providing quality education is
the integrating technology
with teaching to create
learning environment which
fulfill the needs of a group of
students. It is useful for
students to have own hand on
experience. As technology is
developing day and night,
learning a tool once for all is
not an option. The ne

 Answer the Ten-Item Quiz in Google Classroom entitled “Lesson 3-C Quiz” (Do not forget to
turn in your assignment).

Create a video explaining the difference between norm-referenced and criterion referenced
interpretation.
 47

Lesson 4 - Measures of Central tendency: their procedures, use and interpretation

Watch the video entitled “Properties of the Mean and Median”

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-BBMRaI_XFA
After watching the video, search from the Net “The Central Tendency Song”
Study the reading material below and prepare for the quiz at the end of Lesson 4

Introduction

Classroom situations dictate the ways of interpreting students’ scores by using the measures of central tendency.
Kubiszyn and Borich (2000) assert that since there are three measures of central tendency, it may occur that each is more
or less applicable in different situations. There are practical ways of speedily estimating the measures of central tendency.
The different measures can be determined easily and efficiently depending upon the need of the time. For example, when
the teacher feels that the distribution is skewed, he must decide to use median rather than the mean to describe the
measure of central tendency. Education students as well as classroom teachers should be acquainted with estimating and
actual computation of these measures. In this chapter, the practical ways of estimating the measures of central tendency
are presented to determine the quality of students’ performances through test and non-test results.
Educational data, such as test results, can be organized, analyzed, and interpreted through the use of simple
statistical measures – measures that can easily reveal the quality of students’ performance. As Santrock (2004) puts it, a
measure of central tendency is a number that provides information about the average or typical score in a set of data. It
has been an established fact, that when a group of students is tested, the distribution of scores portrays a picture so that
only very few students get high or low scores; most of the scores have the tendency to cluster at the middle or at the
center. The point where the scores cluster in the distribution is known as the measure of central tendency. This is where
the density of scores of the examinees lies or the point of central location of the group (Reganit, et.al., 2004).
The tendency of students’ scores to cluster at a certain point in a distribution is valuable to teachers. This
tendency can reveal the quantity and quality of group’s performance. Basically, when a teacher teaches six subjects every
day, and conducts six formative tests, he will be dealing with six sets of data. His time will be wasted if the computation of
measures of central tendency is done through a strict statistical method. He cannot give ample time to some other equally
important tasks such as material preparation and the like. If he wants to utilize this golden opportunity of using this
information to improve the teaching and learning process, he must do quick mental calculations of these measures. By
doing so, decisions can be made and implemented right away.
The clustering of scores at a certain location in the distribution shows group’s performance in the test. Teachers
can interpret individual score as below, above, or within the measure of central tendency. Their interpretation depends
upon their needs. For formative assessment, where an outright decision to re-teach or proceed is to be made, an estimate
of the mode would suffice. The Mode is the simplest measure and very easy to calculate.

The Mode. The mode is stressed in the Central Tendency Song as the “most cram” or the most frequent score in
the distribution. This is done through examining the most common score obtained by the students in the test. In this
strategy, there is no computation required. Simple counting and tallying are the strategies of organizing this data. The
table where the data are tallied gives the information where the scores clustered in the distribution of scores from highest
to lowest. The quantitative value where most of the scores cluster is considered as the measure of central tendency. In
this case, we call this measure as the Mode of the distribution. This Mode is a measure which can provide sufficient
information about the quality of students’ mastery of learning objectives.
The mode has the advantage of being easy to determine, but is the least stable measure of central tendency
(Kubiszyn & Borich, 2000). For instance, in the classroom, the teacher gave a ten-item test. After checking the test, he
just determined the most frequent score (Mode) as a measure of central tendency. If the mode is within or above the 75%
proficiency level, then he can say that his teaching is successful; if otherwise, then it is a failure. Although the mode is a
crude estimate, it can be the teacher’s basis for deciding whether to proceed to the next lesson, re-teach, or conduct
remedial instruction. Further interpretation can be done as to whether the individual’s score is within, below, or above the
mode.
To illustrate the practical application of this measure for classroom purposes, here are the steps: 1) let the pupils
check, score the papers; 2) return the papers to the owner; 3) call first the highest possible score and let the students,
who got the score, raise their hands; 4) record the number of students who got a certain score; 5) determine the highest
frequency and consider that score as the Mode of the group; 6) compare that mode with the preset performance level;
and, 7) if the Mode is within or above the preset performance level, then proceed to the next lesson; if not, then re-teach
or conduct remedial instruction.
 48

In this process, we can simplify the application of the Mode, as the measure of central tendency. This is the
fastest way of making daily decisions for the improvement of teaching and learning process. We should bear in mind that
if practical and efficient ways are introduced in teaching, we can do more tasks than what we had done in the past. This
process will not consume most of our time and we can focus more attention on the improvement of methods and
strategies rather than dwelling on the data and get stacked because we don’t have a calculator or a computer to
determine the measures of central tendency in an efficient and effective way.

The Median. There are instances that assessment results may require the use of median as measure of central
tendency. When data set has extremely small or extremely large observations, the sample mean is drawn toward the
direction of the extreme measurement. If the distribution is strongly skewed by one or more extreme value, the use of
median rather than the mean as measure of the center is called for (Mendenhall, et.al., 1999).
The median is the position in a distribution above and below which half of the frequencies fall. It splits a
distribution into two equal parts… in short, is halfway ‘along’ a distribution (Blaikie, 2003). This means that median is a
point which divides the distribution into two equal parts – 50% of the distribution is above the median and 50% is below it.
Results of long tests, like unit test or any summative test, from which the teacher wants to determine students’
performance level, necessitates the calculation of a Median. For practicality sake, an estimate of the median can be done
by means of just counting from highest to lowest or from lowest to highest. The teacher just locates the middle-most
paper. The score of this paper can represent as the group’s median. This estimated median is compared with the set of
criterion or the scale for interpretation. To estimate the median, the following steps can serve as a guide:

1) arrange the papers from the highest to the lowest scores (e.g., 45 – 33);
2) count the number of papers (e.g., N = 46);
3) compute N/2 (e.g., 46/2 = 23, which means that in the 23rd paper lies the group’s calculated median);
4) locate the 23rd paper from the highest to the middle – the score is the group’s median;
5) if the median is 39, then consider this as the indicator of group’s performance;
6) then compare the median (39) with the scale of interpretation shown below (for a 50-item test).

The Mean. According to Blaikie (2003), the mean is the most commonly used measure of central tendency. It
can only be calculated with interval and ratio level of measurement of data. The mean is rather more complex than that of
the mode and median. It is procedurally defined as “the sum of a set of values divided by the number of values in the
set.” It is the numerical data computed by adding all the scores and then dividing by the number of scores. The mean
often is a good indicator of the central tendency of the group of scores (Santrock, 2004).
For the sake of accuracy and strict adherence to statistical principles, the computation of the Mean, as a
measure of central tendency, is necessary. The Mean is considered as the most reliable measure of central tendency. It is
the arithmetic average of a distribution. The mean is more meaningful for continuous data, when presented along with the
variance or standard deviation. The teacher should be cautious with the use of the Mean to represent group’s
performance. For a distribution that contain an extreme score or an outlier (skewed distribution), the Mean is not the best
measure of central tendency. In this situation, the Median is the most preferred measure.
The process of determining the mean is quite tedious; however, with the advent of recent technology, such as
calculators or computers, teachers can expedite its computation. The computation can be done by adding all the raw
scores and then dividing the sum by the number of scores under consideration. The table below shows the process of the
manual computation of the Mean.
 49

The Electronic Computation of the Mean

Teachers who have the thorough knowledge of the use of spreadsheet possess a competitive edge over those
who do not have. An electronic spreadsheet is a Microsoft Program we call MS Excel. When the capability of this program
is utilized to the fullest, the teacher does not need a more sophisticated program to be used for data analysis.
The MS Excel is a powerful MS Office which converts the computer into an electronic spreadsheet. This
spreadsheet, which is composed of columns and rows, seems like an office columnar pad used to tabulate data and to
clearly represent their patterns and relationships.
In this program, there are several statistical tools that can be utilized to expedite the computation of the desired
statistics for data analysis. The MS Excel is presented below:

Formula Bar

Figure 7.1: The Microsoft Excel

The electronic spreadsheet is shown in Figure 7.1. There are several toolbars shown in this spreadsheet. The
most important toolbar for determining the Mean electronically is the formula bar. There is a need to encode the group of
scores from which the Mean or the Average shall be determined. The following steps should be followed:
1. Encode the scores in the desired columns or rows; the most ideal is by columns;
2. Click the cell where the Mean or Average be contained;
3. In the Formula Bar, click the fx button; a function dialog box will appear;
4. In the Function Dialog Box, double click the desired function (Average); the Argument Dialog Box will appear.
5. In the Argument Dialog Box, enter the range of scores (i.e., B6:B20); then click the OK button;
6. Automatically, the Mean or the average is shown in the cell defined in step 2.

If the teacher wants to determine the Median of the group of scores, the same process can be utilized except that
the function to be chosen in the Function Dialog Box is Median instead of Average. The same is done with the Mode.
In this process, the teacher is relieved of the tedious manual computation of the Measures of Central Tendency.
The recent technology can help ease teachers burdens and errors of computing these measures and they can make
immediate and sound decisions to improve the teaching and learning process. (The use of Data Analysis Toolpak will
presented during Synchronous Session)
 50

Lesson 5 - Measures of Variability and Relative Position: their procedures, use, and interpretation.

Watch the video entitled “Measures of Variability”

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ec09fdZq0xw

Study the reading material below and prepare for the quiz at the end of Lesson 6

Introduction
There are three important measures of variability (range, quartile deviation, and standard deviation), as there are
three measures of central tendency (mode, median, and mean). When respectively paired with one another, they can
provide high quality information that can be utilized for making sound classroom decisions. These decisions must be
geared towards the improvement of the teaching and learning process.

The Range
The range is defined as difference between the highest and the lowest scores in a distribution. Mendenhall, et.al.
(1999) defined range as the difference between the largest and smallest measurement. It is the measure of data spread
or variability that is easy to calculate mentally. It is equally useful with the other three measures of variability, although it is
the most crude among them. In data analysis, Mode and Range are paired in order to present the data in a meaningful
fashion. They can describe the characteristics of the group and can be compared with the standard or with that of the
performance of other groups. For an efficient classroom decision-making, the teacher can easily utilize the Range.
As stressed in the Chapter VIII, that for short quizzes, the teacher may decide to utilize the Mode to easily
estimate a measure of central tendency. In this case, he can avail of the easiest estimate of the measure of variability –
the Range. Range is the difference between the highest and the lowest scores. It is the easiest method of estimating
variability, because it can be calculated by subtracting the lowest score from the highest score (R = HS – LS). The value
of the range determines how homogeneous or heterogeneous one group is compared with another group. One group is
homogeneous if the value of its Range is smaller than that of the other.
As a measure of central tendency, the mode gives information about the level of performance of the group. Two
or more groups may have the same level of performance because they have the same Mode. Their modes may show
high levels of performance; however, these groups may differ in terms of their range. For instance, in a fifty-item test, the
modes of Groups A, B, and C are similar (38). They all have the same level of group’s performance (high). Through an
analysis of the Range, it shows that group A has 7; B has 9; and, C has 10. These data show that Group A is more
homogeneous than Groups B and C.
Further analysis can give way to the interpretation of the normality or skewness of the distribution. From the
Mode, a teacher can measure the distance to the highest score. Compare it with the distance to the lowest. If the
distances are equal, then the distribution is normal; if not, then it is skewed. If the distance of the highest from the Mode is
smaller than the distance of the lowest to the Mode, then the distribution is skewed to the left; if otherwise, then the
distribution is skewed to the right. For example:
 51

There are instances that the differences from the Mode to the highest and to the lowest are equal. This shows
that the distribution is approximately normal. The table below further illustrates this estimate.

The Quartile Deviation

Like the Range, Quartile Deviation, otherwise known as Semi Inter-Quartile Range, is not based on all
observations. It is a positional measure of variability. It does not show scatters of all scores in the distribution. It shows the
position of the scores in relation to the positions of the Third Quartile (Q3) and the First Quartile (Q1) in the distribution.
The semi-interquartile range or quartile deviation compensates for the sensitivity of the range to extreme scores
by preventing extreme scores from influencing its computation. Quatile deviation is determined by the middle 50 percent
of the scores in a distribution (Kubiszyn & Borich, 2000).
Basically, Quartiles can be located in the distribution of scores in an easy way. Quartiles are the points in the
distribution which shows location when the total distribution is divided into four. There is a need of arranging the scores
from highest to lowest. For example, a group of fifty (50) students was tested in English. Every student submits his own
paper. These papers are checked and scored. These test papers are arranged according to their scores. The highest
should be at the top and the lowest at the bottom.
To determine the quartiles, the teacher just computes 50/4 = 12.5. The third quartile or Q3 is located at the 13 th
paper from the top. The score of this paper is considered the value of the group’s third quartile. The second quartile or Q2
or Median is located at the 25 th paper. The score of this paper is the group’s Median. The first quartile or Q1 is the 13 th
paper from the bottom. It is as easy as counting from the one to fifty or vice-versa. This is a simple but meaningful
manipulation of scores for classroom decision-making. How then, is the quartile deviation determined?
Quartile Deviation is defined as the average of the Inter-quartile range or the distance from Q1 to Q3. The
average of this distance is called quartile deviation. As mentioned in Chapter VIII, Median is more appropriate measure of
central tendency for a skewed distribution. In the illustration above, in a skewed distribution, the differences from the
Mode to the highest score and the lowest score are not the same. In a skewed distribution, the difference of Q3 from the
Median is not equal to the difference of Q1 to Median. The average of these differences can serve as a measure of
variability of the group’s quartiles.
For the sake of appropriateness of the use of Quartile Deviation as a measure of variability, it should be paired
with the Median as a measure of central tendency. They are both applicable for a normal or skewed distribution. Examine
how these data can be analyzed and evaluated in comparison with some standards or groups’ performance in a fifty-item
test. All groups are composed of fifty students each.
 52

To provide an interpretation of the result of the computation of quartile deviation, the teacher can state that the
Median of Group A is 40; the group’s performance is high. At average, its quartiles deviate 5.5 points away from the
Median. The difference from Median to Q3 is 4; from Median to Q1 is 7; therefore, the distribution is skewed to the left.

The teacher can formulate a conclusion for this computed quartile deviation as: “The Median of Group B is 40;
this shows high group performance in the test. At average, its quartiles deviate 5 points away from the group’s Median.
The difference of Q3 and Median is 6; for Q1 and Median is 4; therefore, the distribution is skewed to the right.

For Group C, the conclusion can be stated in this manner. The Group’s Median is 40; its level of performance is
high. At average, the group’s quartiles deviate 5 points away from the Median. The differences of both quartiles from the
Median are equal (5); therefore, the distribution is normal.
This analysis is very important to make decision whether the interpretation of student scores will be a criterion-
referenced or norm-referenced. For a skewed distribution, a norm-referenced interpretation is not applicable. This
interpretation is only applicable for an approximately normal distribution. With this information, the teacher must possess a
thorough knowledge of determining whether the distribution is normal or skewed. The calculation of the group’s quartiles
can be very useful for this purpose.

Standard Deviation
It was discussed in the previous chapter that among the measures of central tendency, the Mean is the most
reliable. It is an acceptable fact among educators that of the three measures of variability, Standard Deviation is the most
reliable. With their similar characteristics, it is but fitting and proper that for data analysis, these two measures must be
paired so as to give more meaningful interpretation of group’s performance in a test.
According to Oriondo and Antonio (1989), standard deviation is a measure of dispersion among all scores in the
distribution rather than through extreme scores. Technically, standard deviation is defined as the square root of the mean
squared deviation (variance); the square of standard deviation is variance. Among these two measures of variability,
standard deviation is more appropriate to be paired with the Mean in the distribution of scores as long as the distribution is
approximately normal.
The easiest way to estimate standard deviation mentally, is to find the range of scores {(HS-LS) +1} and then
divide the range by 6. The result more or less represents the standard deviation of scores from the Mean of the
distribution. The result of this estimate is really correct when the distribution is perfectly normal. The degree of skewness
will increase the difference in the computed and estimated value. Try to evaluate the presentation below:
 53

Figure 9.1 shows that the highest score is 68 and the lowest score is 20. The range of scores is 48. If this range
is divided by 6, the standard deviation is 8. It is really true for a perfect normal distribution as shown in the illustration.
However, in a real sense of classroom assessment, a perfect normal distribution is very remote to happen. Therefore, for
estimating standard deviation in this manner, the teacher should expect that the computed value is always greater than
the estimated value because of some degree of skewness in a distribution. The difference however is not so big enough
to have negative impact on classroom assessment.
One description of the data can be stated this way: score 28 deviates 2 standard deviation below the mean; or
score 52 deviates one standard deviation above the mean. There are a lot of meanings that can be attached to the data
when we refer to the two parameters – the Mean and Standard Deviation.
There are times that standard deviation should be computed to describe the real characteristic of group’s
performance in a test and should be reported as the actual data for further analysis. If there is an absence of electronic
devices such as calculator and computer, this can be computed manually. The manual computation of standard deviation
is through the use of the table presented below and the formula that follows:

√ x
2
Σ
sd=
The formula for the computation of standard deviation is for N less than 30. For N that is greater
N −1
than or equal to 30, there is no need for subtracting 1 from N because the error becomes lesser when the distribution
approximates normality.

The Group’s Mean is 44.00; its standard deviation is 8.00. This means that scores in the distribution spread
around the mean in this manner.
 54

Standard Scores
Standard scores indicate the number of standard deviation units a raw score falls above or below the mean.
They can be converted into percentile. They have equal units that are comparable. However, persons who have little
training in statistics find difficulty in using standard scores (Oriondo & Antonio, 1989).
Standard scores can be used for norm-referenced assessment in order to compare a specific student’s
performance in a test with the performance of other members of the class or with that of the performance of other children
of his age. They can be used as estimates whether a student’s score falls above, within, or below average as compared
with the scores of his peers. The most widely used standard scores are the following:
 z-scores: The scores are scaled on a number line ranging from -4 to +4 with 0 at the middle of the scale. On this
scale, zero is considered the average. The positive sign on the scale signifies above average; the negative sign
connotes that the scores are below average.
The z-score is a very useful statistic because (1) it can be used to calculate the location of a particular score within
the normal distribution and then compare this location with that of others’ scores; and, (2) it can be utilized for comparing
the scores of one student from different normal distributions. To understand this concept better, please refer to Figure 9.1.
For example:
1. Score 60 is located 2 standard deviations above the mean, while score 48 is located 2 standard deviations below
the mean.
2. We cannot immediately say that when Peter got similar scores of 60 in Mathematics, Science, and English, he
has the same relative position in a normal distribution of scores. Try to solve the z-score of his particular scores
using the formula below:
X −X
z score = σ

Interpretation:
Peter’s score in Mathematics is located 1.84 standard deviations above the group’s Mean; in Science, 1.63; and,
in English, 1.46. The location of his score in Mathematics is higher than the location of his scores in Science and English;
therefore, he performs better in mathematics than in the other two subjects.
When a norm-referenced interpretation of scores is called for, z-score is most valuable. The transmutation of
scores to percentage rating can be done by using the formula presented below:

 T-scores: The scores are scaled within the range of 10 – 90 in the intervals of 10 points. T-score 50 is the
average on this scale.
 Stanines: The stanine is called as the standard nine scales. The scores are scaled from 1 – 9 with 5 considered
to be the average. Scores below 5 are below average; scores above 5 are above average.

According to Best and Kahn (1998) a stanine is a standard score that divides the normal curve into nine parts,
thus the term stanine from sta- of standard and nine. The 2 nd to 8th stanines are each one-half standard deviation unit.
Thus, stanine 5 includes the center of the curve and goes on-quarter (.25) standard deviations above and below the
mean. Stanine 6 goes from the top of stanine 5 to .75 standard deviations above the mean; whereas, stanine 4 goes from
the bottom of stanine 5 to .75 standard deviations below the mean and so on. Stanine 1 encompasses all scores below
stanine 2; while stanine 9 encompasses all scores above stanine 8. See the figure that follows:
 55

The most common standard scores utilized for analyzing students’ scores in a test are z-scores and t-scores.
Even in statistically-based researches, these two standard scores are widely used to analyze data in meaningful fashion.
There is another standard score that awaits teachers’ attention and can easily be used to explain the location of scores in
relation to other scores in a distribution – the stanine.
Like z-scores and t-scores, stanine can also indicate one student’s position in a group relative the other students
that have been tested by the same test. If we know one student’s stanine score, we can understand whether his score is
near the group’s mean, above the group’s mean, or below the group’s mean.
The main difference of the three standard scores, is the way these standard scores are expressed. The z-scores
are expressed either in a negative or positive decimal number (e.g., z = 1.75); t-scores are expressed in a two-digit
positive whole numbers (e.g., t = 75); and stanine scores are expressed in a one-digit positive whole number from 1-9
(e.g., stanine = 8. A student is said to be “average” in his performance if his stanine score is a 4, 5, or 6. Stanines 7 and 8
are usually interpreted as indicating an “above average” performance. Stanine score of 9 reflects “outstanding”
performance. Stanine scores of 2 or 3 are usually interpreted as “below average”, while stanine score of 1 is a “very low”
performance.
As shown in the figure above, each stanine represents a certain percentage of a normal distribution. 4% belongs
to stanine 1; 7% for stanine 2; 12% for stanine 3; 17% for stanine 4; 20% for stanine 5; 17% for stanine 6; 12% for stanine
7; 7% for stanine 8; and, 4% for stanine 9. One hundred percent of the distribution is scattered among stanines in this
proportion.

Lesson 6 - Measures of Correlation: their procedures, use, and interpretation

Watch the video entitled “Coefficient of Correlation”

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=11c9cs6WpJU
After watching the video, list down classroom variables that can be correlated.
Study the reading material below and prepare for the quiz at the end of Lesson 6

Definition

Measures of correlation can be defined as the measure of co-variation of two or more variables. We can easily
observe and see when one thing varies. For example, temperature can be increased or decreased. The increase or
decrease of temperature can be determined through the use of a thermometer. The change of thermal measurement
across time is considered variation in temperature.
Educational variables, especially those of student, vary in time and space. Their variations inevitably affect or are
affected by other variables. When one variable changes as a result of the change of the other variable, then former is
dependent upon the latter; the latter affects the former. For example, one student variable is age and the other is height.
The increase (change) of student’s age has a subsequent increase (change) in height. These changes are considered to
have co-variation. The type of co-variation is determined by a measure of correlation across cases (e.g., time). The
measure of correlation is expressed in terms of a coefficient of correlation. According to Kaplan & Saccuzzo (2001) a
 56

coefficient of correlation is a mathematical index that describes the direction and magnitude of a relationship of data. The
Table below shows the co-variation of age and height.

YEARS
VARIABLES 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015
Age 6 years 8 years 10 years 12 years 14 years 16 years
Height 3’9” 4’7” 4’11” 5’2” 5’4” 5’6”

The table shows that student variables (age and height) co-vary across time (case). As time increases, age also
increases. Time is considered as the case. In this case height (dependent variable) may co-vary with age (independent
variable). In this presentation, we see that there are corresponding changes in the observations across time. However, the
degree of co-variation between age and height remained to be measured. Therefore, the teacher must utilize a measure
of correlation in order to determine the coefficient of correlation.
Blaikie (2003) posits that establishing patterns in data is just an elaborate form of description. Distributions tell us
about the characteristics of single variable, while measures of association tell us about the connections between
variables. Measures of association establish what is commonly referred to as correlations.
We recognize the fact that we perceive co-variation between and among things that are different. However, the
process of determining common units between or among these things is beyond the teachers’ capabilities and skills. Yet,
the teachers’ tasks include determining the extent to which these variables relate with one another, if they must make
sound and justifiable decisions. Therefore, it is the premise of this presentation that education students as well as
classroom teachers must acquire knowledge and skills in relation to the practical application of the different types of
measures of correlation for classroom decision making.

Types of Correlation
When two variables co-vary, there are three possibilities. The first possibility is that the change in one variable is
concomitant with the change in the other variable. In terms of magnitude, when one variable is high, the other variable is
also high; when one variable is low, the other is low. In this case, the two variables change together positively. This
situation denotes positive co-variation or positive correlation.
The second possibility is that the change in one variable is inversely or oppositely proportional to the change in
another variable. That is, in terms of magnitude, when one variable is high, the other is low; when one variable is low, the
other is high. In this case, we indicate a negative co-variation or negative correlation.
The last possibility is that there are cases when the pattern of the co-variation of two or more variables is not
established. In this situation, there is no clear direction of their co-variations. This connotes a zero correlation or no
correlation.
The following illustrations show the pattern of co-variations between two variables. In a Cartesian plane, we see
the coordinates of co-existence of paired observations in the table. The paired observations are students’ scores in
Science and Mathematics. The teacher’s concern is to determine the type of correlation between mathematics and
science performance of students. In a Cartesian plane, the teacher can plot the spread of their co-variations.

1. Positive Correlation

2. Negative Correlation
 57

3. No Correlation

With the three presentations, we can conclude that the correlation between:

1. mathematics and science performances is positive;

2. the number of absences and mathematics performance is negative; and,
3. the ordinal position and mathematics performance is no correlation.

The Statistical Tools to Establish Reliability and Validity

The consistency and accuracy of educational assessment tools can be established through the use of the
measures of correlation. An assessment tool can be considered good if it generates consistent and accurate results. It is
important to prove that the test gives consistent and accurate result because of the evaluation’s principles of reliability and
validity, respectively. Reliability refers to the consistency of assessment results. If the assessment tools provide accurate
results, then they are valid.
To prove that the assessment tools provide consistent and valid results, the teacher can utilize available
statistical tools. However, the appropriateness of the choice of these tools is dependent upon the teachers’ understanding
of the following elements: 1) the nature of the problem; 2) the variables under consideration; and, 3) the levels of
measurement of data gathered.
The choice of statistical tools for computing the measures of correlation should be based on the nature of the
problem. The problem must be stated in this manner: “What is the degree of the correlation of the results of the first
and second administration of the assessment tools?” This problem focuses on the correlation between two variables;
therefore, the statistical tool to be chosen should be intended for problems on correlation.
Another element for the choice of the statistical tools is the type of variable the teacher is dealing with. Variables
can either be discrete or continuous variable. According to Mendenhall, et.al., (1999) discrete variables can assume only
a finite or countable number of values. Continuous data, on the other hand, is information that can be measured on a
continuum or scale. They further stress that continuous variable can assume the infinitely many values corresponding to
the point on a line interval. The teacher cannot decide on the statistical tool to be chosen unless he has the full grasp of
the nature of variables under consideration.
The last element is on the level of measurement of data gathered during the dry-run of the assessment tools.
The levels of measurement are: 1) nominal; 2) ordinal; 3) interval; and, 4) ratio. In the interview which I had conducted to
a group of classroom teachers, majority of them cannot recognize the levels of measurement of classroom data. For
example, one teacher was asked: “Do you record students’ daily attendance?” The 97.89% of the responses is a
“Yes”. It is a good indicator of efficiency because recording of students’ attendance is one of the main functions of the
teacher. But when asked, “What level of measurement does data on attendance have?”, only 33.55% has answered
correctly (Nominal). This means that majority of the teachers, most probably; could not recognize the levels of
measurement of data at hand. This is the reason why most of classroom data are not fully utilized so that more
meaningful interpretations are attached to it.
The main propose of this section is to present the statistical tools and their corresponding utility and limitations.
With this, teachers can have guide for choosing appropriate statistical tools to establish the validity and reliability of their
assessment tools based on the three elements stated above. The following are the statistical tools to measure the degree
of correlation between and among the results of the dry-run of the assessment tools.

1. The Pearson Product-Moment of Correlation(PPM)

The Pearson Product-Moment of Correlation is a statistical tool that can be used to answer problems of
determining the coefficient of correlation between two variables. These two variables under consideration should be
continuous; they can assume the infinitely many values corresponding to the point on a line interval. The data that can be
gathered during the dry-run of these assessment tools and in the interval level of measurement. With these basic
assumptions, the Pearson Product-Moment of Correlation can be appropriately used to determine the degree of
consistency or accuracy of the assessment instruments through test-retest method.
 58

Establishing Test Reliability

Consistency Over Time

The reliability of an assessment tool can be established by calculating the degree of consistency of its results
over time. This means that one test is conducted to one group of students, twice – test as the first administration and then
retest as the second administration. The results of the first and second administrations are subjected to the test of
correlation. In case of test scores, in the interval level of measurement, the Pearson Product Moment of Correlation (PPM)
is more appropriate. This is so because the problem is about correlation between two variables (X=results of the first
administration and Y=results of the second administration); the two variables X and Y are continuous variables because
they are both test results; and, the data that can be gathered during the dry-run of the assessment tool is in the form of
scores – in the interval level of measurement.
Examine the table which is electronically generated from the MS Excel Worksheet presented below:

The coefficient of correlation (rxy) can be computed manually. The following formula can be used:

∑ xy
r xy =

√(∑ x ) (∑ y ) To interpret the calculated rxy, use the scale

2 2
∗ presented below:

r xy =
604 .1
√ ( 634 . 55 )∗( 688. 2 ) 0.901 – 1.000 = very high degree of consistency

0.701 – 0.900 = high degree of consistency

r 604 .1
xy = √ 436697 . 3 0.301 – 0.700 = moderate degree of consistency

0.101 – 0.300 = low degree of consistency

r 604 .1
xy = 660 . 83 0.000 – 0.100 = very low degree of consistency

r xy =0 . 914

Consistency Over Test

The Pearson Product-Moment of Correlation can be utilized for establishing consistency over test. This is done
by developing a parallel form of the test. The two forms of the test can be similar but not identical. For example, if item
number 1 in Form A is stated in this manner; “What is the sum of 436 and 394?”, then for Form B, the item number 1 can
be “What is the result if 436 and 394 are added?”
The expected answer is 830. If the students’ answers to the items are the same in both forms of the test, then
there is consistency of results. This consistency is considered consistency over test. The same table and formula
presented above can be utilized for the computation of the coefficient of correlation between the results of Test Forms A
and B.

Internal Consistency (split-half)

 59

To establish the internal consistency through split-half method, the teacher can use the Pearson Product-
Moment of Correlation. The three required elements are satisfied so that this statistical tool can be used. In a split-half
method of establishing reliability the test is conducted to one group of students, once only. The results of the odd and
even-numbered items are compared. The coefficient of correlation is computed and compared with the same scale above.
By using the same table presented above, the column for X contains the data for the number of students who got
correct responses in the odd-numbered items; column for Y contains the number of students who got correct in the even-
numbered items. The calculation of the coefficient of correlation can be done through the table and the formula presented.
The computed coefficient of correlation (rxy) represents the reliability of one half of the test only. To determine the reliability
of the whole of the test, the coefficient of correlation of the total test (r tt) can be computed with the use of the Spearman-
Brown Prophecy Formula below:
Where:
r 2
r = hh

1+ r
tt
hh
r tt = the coefficient of correlation of the total test

Establishing Test Validity

The Criterion-Related Validity

The Pearson Product-Moment of Correlation can be used to establish the Predictive Validity and Concurrent
Validity of the test. These are the criterion-related types of validity. They are called criterion-related validity because the
assessment whether the newly constructed test is valid or not is based on its capacity of the results to match with those of
the existing valid criteria.
In terms of predictive validity, the criterion that is used is students’ previous performance. Students’ previous
performance is a valid criterion because it features the acceptable measures of what the students had done in the past.
This is done by conducting If the present result of the newly constructed test matches with that of previous performance,
then the test can be utilized in the future – hence, predictive validity.
Concurrent validity, on the other hand, uses a valid test as a criterion. In this case, there is already an empirical
data which proves the validity of the test used as a criterion. This validity is established by conducting the newly
developed test and the test that is already valid to one group of students. If the results of the newly developed test
matches with that of the test which is already valid, then the new test is also valid.
For the two criterion-related validities, the coefficient of correlation can be computed by using the Pearson
Product-Moment of Correlation. The three required elements are satisfied for the use of PPM (problem on correlation;
variables are continuous; and, data are in the interval levels of measurement).

2. The Kuder-Richardson Formula 20

Internal Consistency (Kuder-Richardson Formula)
Kuder and Richardson (1937), cited in Kaplan and Saccuzzo (2001) greatly advanced reliability assessment by
developing methods for evaluating within a single administration of a test. Kuder-Richardson technique avoids the
problem of splitting test items into halves.
This method of establishing the reliability of the test is more applicable, if the test undergoes, item analysis.
Consistency within the test is the main focus of this method. For the split-half, the consistency of the responses for the
odd- and even- numbered items are compared; for Kuder-Richardson, the consistency of the percentage of correct and
wrong responses for all items is determined. If there is consistency in the percentage of correct and wrong responses,
then there is internal consistency. For example, if in item No. 1, there are 45 students who got correct and 5 got wrong,
then the ratio is .90 and .10, respectively. The ratio for all items in the test should be closer to each other so that we can
say that there is internal consistency.
For purpose of providing empirical evidence to show the degree of internal consistency the formula below can be
applied.

References:
Reganit, A. R. R., Marquez, B. R., Reyes, M. Z., & Baciles, R. M. (2004). Measurement and Evaluation in Teaching
and Learning. Valenzuela City, Phils.: Mutya Publishing House.
 60

Rico, Alberto A. (2011) Assessment of Students’ Learning: A Practical Approach. Mandaluyong City: Anvil
Publishing
Sadker, M. P, & D. M. Sadker. (2003). Teachers, Schools and Society. Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education
Santrock, John W. (2004). Educational Psychology. Boston, Mass.: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.

Grading System and Reporting of Grades in the New Normal

A knowledge of the legal system provides you, as education students, a foundation from which they can begin to
understand and apply the principles of constitutional, administrative and judicial laws in preparation for the practice of the
teaching profession. Unit 4 of this module deals with the Legal Bases of the Professionalization of Teaching and Related
Laws in the Practice of the Teaching Profession. Undeniably, global forces have influenced radical reforms on the
Philippine Educational System, thereby contribute to reforms of policies and guidelines in the practice of the teaching
profession.
Review of literature of the Philippine Educationl System has shown that teaching and teacher education have a
long history of mutual impairment. Teacher education, for quite a long time, has been intellectually weak. This had further
eroded the prestige of an already poorly esteemed teaching profession. It had encouraged many inadequately prepared
people to enter into teaching. Gloomily, teaching long has been an underpaid and overworked occupation. This scenario
had made it difficult for universities to recruit good students to teacher education. Most of the students who enrolled for
teacher training have not taken it seriously for they were just forced by life circumstances such as financial incapacity,
parental decisions, and the like.
Recently, the government has recognized that teachers should be accorded a high professional status in society
commensurate with their professional responsibilities, qualifications and skills, and the contribution which their profession
makes to the development of society. Therefore, laws were passed as the nation’s attempts to professionalize teaching
and consider teachers as professionals. Notably, teacher education has already drawn some of the top ten graduates of
secondary schools. The promulgation of the Universal Access to Quality Tertiary Education Act has drawn poor but
deserving students to Philippine Normal University – the National Center for Teacher Education. Optimistically, its
graduates will turn out as catalyst of educational quality at the local, national and global communities.

Cite the legal bases for the practices in the teaching profession.

What laws were promulgated to professionalize teaching? What relevant laws influence the
practice of the teaching profession?

Access the Assessment Activity entitled “Unit 4 Test” in the Google Classroom
 61

 Lesson 1: Legal Bases of the Professionalization of Teaching

Before the start of this lesson, you will be assigned to do online interview of one teacher
(take note if he/she became a teacher before 1978; or in 1978 – 1994; or after 1994.
Then, ask him/her the following questions:
1. What license/eligibility did you possess when you started practicing the teaching profession?
2. What did you feel as a professional, that time, as compared with those in other professions?
Share the result of your interview with the class during the synchronous session.

Prior to the promulgation of laws to professionalize teaching, teachers were hired because they a degree from a
teacher training institution. There were those who graduated with two-year Teacher Certificate. They were hired because of
the scarcity of teacher applicants. There were those who had passed the Competitive Examinations. Passers of this
examination were issued eligibility which would qualify them for permanent appointments. Those who failed were appointed
on a Provisional status because they lacked eligibility requirements. As provided for in R.A. 4670, after a specified number
of years in the service, teachers hired on a probational status were qualified for permanency. The following are the
legislative initiatives which have advanced the professionalization of teaching and considered teachers as professionals.

a. Presidential Decree No. 1006 – Teacher Professionalization Decree of 1976

Description: This Decree was promulgated in 1976 by President Marcos, Providing for the Professionalization of Teachers,
Regulating their Practice in the Philippines and for other Purposes.

Rationale: The 1973 Constitution provides that “All educational institutions shall be under the supervision of; and subject to
regulation by, the State”, and requires that “the State shall establish and maintain a complete, adequate and
integrated system of education relevant to the goals of national development”. The issuance of this decree was
in recognition of the vital role of teachers in nation-building and as an incentive to raise the morale of teachers,
it is imperative that they be considered as professionals and teaching be recognized as a profession. As a
matter of policy, the state declared it a policy that teacher education shall be given primary concern and
attention by the government and shall be of the highest quality, and strongly oriented to Philippine conditions
and to the needs and aspirations of the Filipino people even as it seeks enrichment from adoptable ideas and
practices of other people.

Salient Features of this Decree: (refer to PD 1006 @ https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1976/09/22/presidential-decree-no-1006-s-1976/)

1. It defined the word “Teaching” as a profession primarily concerned with the classroom instruction, at the
elementary and secondary levels, in accordance with the curriculum prescribed by National Board of Education,
whether on part-time or full-time basis in the public or private schools.
2. Likewise the word “Teachers” refers to all persons engaged in teaching at the elementary and secondary levels,
whether on a full-time or part-time basis, including guidance counselors, school librarians, industrial arts or
vocational teachers and all other persons performing supervisory and/or administrative functions in all schools in
the aforesaid levels and legally qualified to practice teaching under this Decree.
 62

3. It created the “National Board for Teachers” which promulgates rules and regulations, and exercise such other
powers, functions and duties as may be necessary to carry into effect the purposes of this Decree. It Looks from
time to time into the conditions affecting the practice of the teaching profession, adopt such measures as may be
deemed proper for the enhancement of said profession, and/or maintenance of the professional standards and
ethics;
4. It mandates the conduct of Professional Board Examination for Teachers (PBET) that is regulated by the
National Board for Teachers.
5. Teachers who have passed examinations given by the Civil Service Commission or jointly by the Civil Service
Commission and the Department of Education and Culture shall be considered as having passed the board
examinations for teachers. The Board may consider their certificates of rating as certificates of eligibility or issue
an entirely new certificate upon registration of the teacher and payment of the corresponding fees.
6. The Civil Service Commissionl, as an arm of the Board, registers holders of Professional Teacher Certificate
which registration shall evidence that the registrant is entitled to all the rights and privileges of a Professional
Teacher until and unless the certificate is suspended or canceled by the Board for just cause.

b. Republic Act 7836 – The Philippine Teachers’ Professionalization Act of 1994

(refer to R.A. 7836 @ https://laws.chanrobles.com/republicacts/79_republicacts.php?id=7840)

Description: This is an “Act to Strengthen the Regulation and Supervision of The Practice of Teaching in the Philippines and
Prescribing a Licensure Examination for Teachers and for other Purposes” promulgated during President
Ramos administration.

Rationale: The 1987 Constitution provides that “All educational institutions shall be under the supervision of; and subject to
regulation by, the State”, and requires that “the State shall establish and maintain a complete, adequate and
integrated system of education relevant to the goals of national development” As a matter of policy, the State
recognizes the vital role of teachers in nation-building and development through a responsible and literate
citizenry. Towards this end, the State shall ensure and promote quality education by proper supervision and
regulation of the licensure examination and professionalization of the practice of the teaching profession.

Salient Features:

1. This Act defined the following terms:

a) "Teaching" - refers to the profession concerned primarily with classroom instruction, at the elementary and
secondary levels in accordance with the curriculum prescribed by the Department of Education, Culture and
Sports, whether on part-time or full-time basis in the private or public schools.
b) "Teachers" - refers to all persons engaged in teaching at the elementary and secondary levels, whether on full-
time or part-time basis, including industrial arts or vocational teachers and all other persons performing
supervisory and/or administrative functions in all schools in the aforesaid levels and qualified to practice
teaching under this Act.
c) "Board" - refers to the Board for Professional Teachers duly established and constituted under this Act.
d) "Commission" - refers to the Professional Regulation Commission.
2. This Act created the Board of Professional Teachers, hereinafter called the Board, a collegial body under the
general supervision and administrative control of the Professional Regulation Commission, hereinafter referred to
as the Commission, composed of five (5) members who shall be appointed by the President of the Philippines from
among the recommendees chosen by the Commission.
3. The Board prescribes and/or adopts a code of ethical and professional standards for the practice of the teaching
profession. Such ethical standards, rules and regulations to take effect sixty (60) days after its publication in the
Official Gazette or in any newspaper of general circulation.
4. The Board regulates the conduct of the Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET).
5. The Board looks into the conditions affecting the practice of the teaching profession and whenever necessary,
adopt such measures as may be deemed proper for the enhancement and maintenance of high professional and
ethical standards of the profession.
6. Except as otherwise specifically allowed under the provisions of this Act, all applicants for registration as
professional teachers shall be required to undergo a written examination which shall be given at least once a year
in such places and dates as the Board may determine upon approval by the Commission. A valid certificate of
 63

registration and a valid professional license from the Commission are required before any person is allowed to
practice as a professional teacher in the Philippines, except as otherwise allowed under this Act.
7. Every registrant who has satisfactorily met all the requirements specified in this Act shall, upon payment of the
registration fee, be issued a certificate of registration as a professional teacher bearing the full name of the
registrant with serial number and date of issuance signed by the chairman of the Commission and the chairman,
vice-chairman, and members of the Board, stamped with the official seal, as evidence that the person named
therein is entitled to practice the profession with all the rights and privileges appurtenant thereto. The certificate
shall remain in full force and effect until withdrawn, suspended and/or revoked in accordance with law.
8. A professional license signed by the chairman of the Commission and bearing the registration number and date of
issuance thereof and the month of expiry or renewability shall likewise be issued to every registrant who has paid
the annual registration fees for three (3) consecutive years. This license shall serve as evidence that the licensee
can lawfully practice his profession until the expiration of its validity.
9. To encourage continuing professional growth and development and to provide additional basis for merit promotion,
in addition to their performance rating, teachers may take an oral and written examination at least once in five (5)
years as basis for merit promotion. In taking this examination, no fee shall be required.

c. Republic Act 9293 – An Act Amending R.A. 7836

(refer to RA 9293 @ https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2004/04/21/republic-act-no-9293/)

Description: This is an “Act Amending Certain Secs of Republic Act Numbered Seventy-Eight Hundred and Thirty-Six
(R.A. No. 7836), otherwise known as the “Philippine Teachers Professionalization Act of 1994”

Rationale: The 1987 Constitution provides that “All educational institutions shall be under the supervision of; and subject
to regulation by, the State”, and requires that “the State shall establish and maintain a complete, adequate
and integrated system of education relevant to the goals of national development” As a matter of policy, the
State recognizes the vital role of teachers in nation-building and development through a responsible and
literate citizenry. Towards this end, the State shall ensure and promote quality education by proper
supervision and regulation of the licensure examination and professionalization of the practice of the teaching
profession.

Salient Features: The amended provisions are the following.

SECTION 1. Section 15, (e) (3) of Republic Act No. 7836 is hereby amended as follows:
“SEC. 15. Qualification Requirements of Applicants. – No applicant shall be admitted to take the examination unless, on
the date of filing of the application, he shall have complied with the following requirements:
“(e) A graduate of a school, college or university recognized by the government and possesses the minimum educational
qualifications, as follows:
(1) For teachers in preschool, a bachelor’s degree in early childhood education (BECED) or its equivalent;
(2) For teachers in the elementary grades, a bachelor’s degree in elementary education (BSEED) or its
equivalent;
(3) For teachers in the secondary grades, a bachelor’s degree in education or its equivalent with a major and
minor, or a bachelor degree in arts and sciences with at least eighteen (18) units in professional education;
and
(4) For teachers of vocational and two-year technical courses, a bachelor’s degree in the field of specialization or
its equivalent, with at least eighteen (18) units in professional education.”
SEC 2. Section 26 of the same Act is hereby amended to read as follows:
“SEC. 26. Registration and Exception. – No person shall engage in teaching and/or act as a professional teacher as
defined in this Act, whether in the preschool, elementary or secondary level, unless the person is a duly registered
professional teacher, and a holder of a valid certificate of registration and a valid professional license or a holder of
a valid special/temporary permit.
Upon approval of the application and payment of the prescribed fees, the certificate of registration and professional
license as a professional teacher shall be issued without examination as required in this Act to a qualified
applicant, who is:
(a) A holder of a certificate of eligibility as a teacher issued by the Civil Service Commission and the Department of
Education, Culture and Sports; or
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(b) A registered professional teacher with the National Board for Teachers under the Department of Education,
Culture and Sports (DECS) pursuant to Presidential Decree No. 1006.
Professional teachers who have not practiced their profession for the past five (5) years shall take at least twelve (12)
units of education courses, consisting of at least six (6) units of pedagogy and six (6) units of content courses, or
the equivalent training and number of hours, to be chosen from a list of courses to be provided by the Board and
the Department of Education, before they can be allowed to practice their profession in the country.
Those who have failed the licensure examination for professional teachers, with a rating of not lower than five percentage
points from the passing general average rating, shall be eligible as para-teachers upon issuance by the Board of a
two-year special permit, renewable for a non-extendible period of two (2) years. The para-teachers shall be
assigned to areas where there is a shortage or absence of a professional teacher, as identified and provided by the
Department of Education and the Autonomous Region for Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) education department to the
Board for professional teachers and to the Commission. The special permit shall indicate the area of assignment of
the para-teacher.
A special permit may also be issued by the Board to a person who has excelled and gained international recognition and
is a widely acknowledged expert in his or her respective field of specialization.”

Watch the Video entitled “Competences for Teaching in a Multicultural Classroom”

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MwM7kYUGUzA

While watching the video, be guided by the questions below:

1. How do we recognize that diversity exists in our classroom or community?
2. How do we intentionally include linguistic and cultural diversity to activities in our teching?

 For Online students, Answer the Ten-Item Quiz in Google Classroom entitled “Lesson 4-C
Quiz” (Do not forget to turn in your assignment).
 For those without connection, you will receive your test questions through text.

Create a convincing rationale of your “Community Engagement Program” you have

conceptualized Lesson 3, Unit 2.

 For online students, Access the Assessment Activity entitled “Unit 3 Test” in the Google
Classroom.
 For non-online students, answer the test which will be sent to you through text.

References:

Lesson 2: Other Related Laws in the Practice of the Teaching Profession

a. R.A. 4670 – Magna Carta for Public School Teachers (enacted in 1966)

The term "teacher" shall mean all persons engaged in classroom teaching, in any level of instruction, on full-time
basis, including guidance counselors, school librarians, industrial arts or vocational instructors, and all other persons
performing supervisory and/or administrative functions in all schools, colleges and universities operated by the
Government or its political subdivisions; but shall not include school nurses, school physicians, school dentists, and other
school employees.
Sec. 7. Code of Professional Conduct for Teachers. Within six months from the approval of this Act, the Secretary
of Education shall formulate and prepare a Code of Professional Conduct for Public School Teachers. A copy of the Code
shall be furnished each teacher: Provided, however, That where this is not possible by reason of inadequate fiscal
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resources of the Department of Education, at least three copies of the same Code shall be deposited with the office of the
school principal or head teacher where they may be accessible for use by the teachers.
Sec. 11. Married Teachers. Whenever possible, the proper authorities shall take all steps to enable married
couples, both of whom are public school teachers, to be employed in the same locality.
Sec. 12. Academic Freedom. Teachers shall enjoy academic freedom in the discharge of their professional duties,
particularly with regard to teaching and classroom methods.
Sec. 19. Special Hardship Allowances. In areas in which teachers are exposed to hardship such as difficulty in
commuting to the place of work or other hazards peculiar to the place of employment, as determined by the Secretary of
Education, they shall be compensated special hardship allowances equivalent to at least twenty-five per cent of their
monthly salary.

b. Sec. 16, Batas Pambansa 232 – Education Act of 1982

Teacher's Obligations - Every teacher shall:

1. Perform his duties to the school by discharging his responsibilities in accordance with the philosophy,
goals, and objectives of the school.
2. Be accountable for the efficient and effective attainment of specified learning objectives in pursuance of
national development goals within the limits of available school resources.
3. Render regular reports on performance of each student and to the latter and the latter's parents and
guardians with specific suggestions for improvement.
4. Assume the responsibility to maintain and sustain his professional growth and advancement and
maintain professionalism in his behavior at all times.
5. Refrain from making deductions in students' scholastic rating for acts that are clearly not manifestations
of poor scholarship.
6. Participate as an agent of constructive social, economic, moral, intellectual, cultural and political change
in his school and the community within the context of national policies.

c. Article XIV, Sec. 3, 1987 Philippine Constitution

1. All educational institutions shall include the study of the Constitution as part of the curricula.
2. They shall inculcate patriotism and nationalism, foster love of humanity, respect for human rights,
appreciation of the role of national heroes in the historical development of the country, teach the rights and
duties of citizenship, strengthen ethical and spiritual values, develop moral character and personal
discipline, encourage critical and creative thinking, broaden scientific and technological knowledge, and
promote vocational efficiency.
3. At the option expressed in writing by the parents or guardians, religion shall be allowed to be taught to their
children or wards in public elementary and high schools within the regular class hours by instructors
designated or approved by the religious authorities of the religion to which the children or wards belong,
without additional cost to the Government.

d. R.A. 7610 – Special Protection of Children against Abuse, Exploitation, and Discrimination Act

Section 1. Title. This Act shall be known as the “Special Protection of Children Against Abuse, Exploitation and
Discrimination Act.”
Section 2. Declaration of State Policy and Principles. – It is hereby declared to be the policy of the State to
provide special protection to children from all firms of abuse, neglect, cruelty exploitation and discrimination and other
conditions, prejudicial their development; provide sanctions for their commission and carry out a program for prevention
and deterrence of and crisis intervention in situations of child abuse, exploitation and discrimination. The State shall
intervene on behalf of the child when the parent, guardian, teacher or person having care or custody of the child fails or is
unable to protect the child against abuse, exploitation and discrimination or when such acts against the child are
committed by the said parent, guardian, teacher or person having care and custody of the same.
It shall be the policy of the State to protect and rehabilitate children gravely threatened or endangered by
circumstances which affect or will affect their survival and normal development and over which they have no control.
The best interests of children shall be the paramount consideration in all actions concerning them, whether
undertaken by public or private social welfare institutions, courts of law, administrative authorities, and legislative bodies,
consistent with the principle of First Call for Children as enunciated in the United Nations Convention of the Rights of the
Child. Every effort shall be exerted to promote the welfare of children and enhance their opportunities for a useful and
happy life.
Section 13. Non-formal Education for Working Children. The Department of Education, Culture and Sports
shall promulgate a course design under its non-formal education program aimed at promoting the intellectual, moral and
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vocational efficiency of working children who have not undergone or finished elementary or secondary education. Such
course design shall integrate the learning process deemed most effective under given circumstances.

e. BPT Resolution 435, s. 1997 – Code of Ethics for Professional Teachers

The code of ethics for professional teachers is a set of well-stipulated laws mandating the members or as listed in
the PRC’s rosters of teachers to behave in accordance to its standards and regulations. Professional ethics is defined as
a “systematic rules or principles governing right conduct. Each practitioner, upon entering a profession, is invested with
the responsibility to adhere to the standards of ethical practice and conduct set by the profession”.

CODE OF ETHICS FOR PROFESSIONAL TEACHERS

(BPT Resolution No. 435 Series of 1997)

Pursuant to the provisions of Paragraph €, Article II, of R.A. No. 7836, otherwise known as the “Philippine
Teachers Professionalization Act of 1994” and Paragraph (a), Section 6, P.D. No. 223, as amended, the Board for
Professional Teachers hereby adopts and promulgates the following “Code of Ethics for Professional Teachers”.

Preamble
Teachers are duly licensed professionals who possesses dignity and reputation with high moral values as well as
technical and professional competence in the practice of their noble profession, and they strictly adhere to, observe, and
practice this set of ethical and moral principles, standards, and values.

Article I: Scope and Limitations

Section 1. The Philippine Constitution provides that all educational institution shall offer quality education for all
competent teachers. Committed to its full realization, the provision of this Code shall apply, therefore, to all teachers in
schools in the Philippines.
Section 2. This Code covers all public and private school teachers in all educational institutions at the preschool,
primary, elementary, and secondary levels whether academic, vocational, special, technical, or non-formal. The term
“teacher” shall include industrial arts or vocational teachers and all other persons performing supervisory and /or
administrative functions in all school at the aforesaid levels, whether on full time or part-time basis.

Article II: The Teacher and the State

Section 1. The schools are the nurseries of the future citizens of the state; each teacher is a trustee of the cultural
and educational heritage of the nation and is under obligation to transmit to learners such heritage as well as to elevate
national morality, promote national pride, cultivate love of country, instill allegiance to the constitution and for all duly
constituted authorities, and promote obedience to the laws of the state.
Section 2. Every teacher or school official shall actively help carry out the declared policies of the state, and shall
take an oath to this effect.
Section 3. In the interest of the State and of the Filipino people as much as of his own, every teacher shall be
physically, mentally and morally fit.
Section 4. Every teacher shall possess and actualize a full commitment and devotion to duty.
Section 5. A teacher shall not engage in the promotion of any political, religious, or other partisan interest, and
shall not, directly or indirectly, solicit, require, collect, or receive any money or service or other valuable material from any
person or entity for such purposes.
Section 6. Every teacher shall vote and shall exercise all other constitutional rights and responsibility.
Section 7. A teacher shall not use his position or official authority or influence to coerce any other person to follow
any political course of action.
Section 8. Every teacher shall enjoy academic freedom and shall have privilege of expounding the product of his
researches and investigations; provided that, if the results are inimical to the declared policies of the State, they shall be
brought to the proper authorities for appropriate remedial action.

Article III: The Teacher and the Community

Section 1. A teacher is a facilitator of learning and of the development of the youth; he shall, therefore, render the
best service by providing an environment conducive to such learning and growth.
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Section 2. Every teacher shall provide leadership and initiative to actively participate in community movements for
moral, social, educational, economic and civic betterment.
Section 3. Every teacher shall merit reasonable social recognition for which purpose he shall behave with honor
and dignity at all times and refrain from such activities as gambling, smoking, drunkenness, and other excesses, much
less illicit relations.
Section 4. Every teacher shall live for and with the community and shall, therefore, study and understand local
customs and traditions in order to have sympathetic attitude, therefore, refrain from disparaging the community.
Section 5. Every teacher shall help the school keep the people in the community informed about the school’s work
and accomplishments as well as its needs and problems.
Section 6. Every teacher is intellectual leader in the community, especially in the barangay, and shall welcome the
opportunity to provide such leadership when needed, to extend counseling services, as appropriate, and to actively be
involved in matters affecting the welfare of the people.
Section 7. Every teacher shall maintain harmonious and pleasant personal and official relations with other
professionals, with government officials, and with the people, individually or collectively.
Section 8. A teacher posses freedom to attend church and worships as appropriate, but shall not use his positions
and influence to proselyte others.

Article IV: A Teacher and the Profession

Section 1. Every teacher shall actively insure that teaching is the noblest profession, and shall manifest genuine
enthusiasm and pride in teaching as a noble calling.
Section 2. Every teacher shall uphold the highest possible standards of quality education, shall make the best
preparations for the career of teaching, and shall be at his best at all times and in the practice of his profession.
Section 3. Every teacher shall participate in the Continuing Professional Education (CPE) program of the
Professional Regulation Commission, and shall pursue such other studies as will improve his efficiency, enhance the
prestige of the profession, and strengthen his competence, virtues, and productivity in order to be nationally and
internationally competitive.
Section 4. Every teacher shall help, if duly authorized, to seek support from the school, but shall not make
improper misrepresentations through personal advertisements and other questionable means.
Section 5. Every teacher shall use the teaching profession in a manner that makes it dignified means for earning a
decent living.

Article V: The Teachers and the Profession

Section 1. Teachers shall, at all times, be imbued with the spirit of professional loyalty, mutual confidence, and faith
in one another, self-sacrifice for the common good, and full cooperation with colleagues. When the best interest of the
learners, the school, or the profession is at stake in any controversy, teachers shall support one another.
Section 2. A teacher is not entitled to claim credit or work not of his own, and shall give due credit for the work of
others which he may use.
Section 3. Before leaving his position, a teacher shall organize for whoever assumes the position such records and
other data as are necessary to carry on the work.
Section 4. A teacher shall hold inviolate all confidential information concerning associates and the school, and shall
not divulge to anyone documents which has not been officially released, or remove records from files without permission.
Section 5. It shall be the responsibility of every teacher to seek correctives for what may appear to be an
unprofessional and unethical conduct of any associate. However, this may be done only if there is incontrovertible
evidence for such conduct.
Section 6. A teacher may submit to the proper authorities any justifiable criticism against an associate, preferably
in writing, without violating the right of the individual concerned.
Section 7. A teacher may apply for a vacant position for which he is qualified; provided that he respects the system
of selection on the basis of merit and competence; provided, further, that all qualified candidates are given the opportunity
to be considered.

Article VI: The Teacher and Higher Authorities in the Profession

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Section 1. Every teacher shall make it his duty to make an honest effort to understand and support the legitimate
policies of the school and the administration regardless of personal feeling or private opinion and shall faithfully carry them
out.
Section 2. A teacher shall not make any false accusations or charges against superiors, especially under
anonymity. However, if there are valid charges, he should present such under oath to competent authority.
Section 3. A teacher shall transact all official business through channels except when special conditions warrant a
different procedure, such as when special conditions are advocated but are opposed by immediate superiors, in which
case, the teacher shall appeal directly to the appropriate higher authority.
Section 4. Every teacher, individually or as part of a group, has a right to seek redress against injustice to the
administration and to extent possible, shall raise grievances within acceptable democratic possesses. In doing so, they
shall avoid jeopardizing the interest and the welfare of learners whose right to learn must be respected.
Section 5. Every teacher has a right to invoke the principle that appointments, promotions, and transfer of teachers
are made only on the basis of merit and needed in the interest of the service.
Section 6. A teacher who accepts a position assumes a contractual obligation to live up to his contract, assuming
full knowledge of employment terms and conditions.

Article VII: School Officials, Teachers, and Other Personnel

Section 1. All school officials shall at all times show professional courtesy, helpfulness and sympathy towards
teachers and other personnel, such practices being standards of effective school supervision, dignified administration,
responsible leadership and enlightened directions.
Section 2. School officials, teachers, and other school personnel shall consider it their cooperative responsibility to
formulate policies or introduce important changes in the system at all levels.
Section 3. School officials shall encourage and attend the professional growth of all teachers under them such as
recommending them for promotion, giving them due recognition for meritorious performance, and allowing them to
participate in conferences in training programs.
Section 4. No school officials shall dismiss or recommend for dismissal a teacher or other subordinates except for
cause.
Section 5. School authorities concern shall ensure that public school teachers are employed in accordance with
pertinent civil service rules, and private school teachers are issued contracts specifying the terms and conditions of their
work; provided that they are given, if qualified, subsequent permanent tenure, in accordance with existing laws.

Article VIII: The Teachers and Learners

Section 1. A teacher has a right and duty to determine the academic marks and the promotions of learners in the
subject or grades he handles, provided that such determination shall be in accordance with generally accepted
procedures of evaluation and measurement. In case of any complaint, teachers concerned shall immediately take
appropriate actions, observing due process.
Section 2. A teacher shall recognize that the interest and welfare of learners are of first and foremost concern, and
shall deal justifiably and impartially with each of them.
Section 3. Under no circumstance shall a teacher be prejudiced or discriminate against a learner.
Section 4. A teacher shall not accept favors or gifts from learners, their parents or others in their behalf in
exchange for requested concessions, especially if undeserved.
Section 5. A teacher shall not accept, directly or indirectly, any remuneration from tutorials other what is authorized
for such service.
Section 6. A teacher shall base the evaluation of the learner’s work only in merit and quality of academic
performance.
Section 7. In a situation where mutual attraction and subsequent love develop between teacher and learner, the
teacher shall exercise utmost professional discretion to avoid scandal, gossip and preferential treatment of the learner.
Section 8. A teacher shall not inflict corporal punishment on offending learners nor make deductions from their
scholastic ratings as a punishment for acts which are clearly not manifestation of poor scholarship.
Section 9. A teacher shall ensure that conditions contribute to the maximum development of learners are
adequate, and shall extend needed assistance in preventing or solving learner’s problems and difficulties.
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Article IX: The Teachers and Parents

Section 1. Every teacher shall establish and maintain cordial relations with parents, and shall conduct himself to
merit their confidence and respect.
Section 2. Every teacher shall inform parents, through proper authorities, of the progress and deficiencies of
learner under him, exercising utmost candor and tact in pointing out the learner's deficiencies and in seeking parent’s
cooperation for the proper guidance and improvement of the learners.
Section 3. A teacher shall hear parent’s complaints with sympathy and understanding, and shall discourage unfair
criticism.

Article X: The Teacher and Business

Section 1. A teacher has the right to engage, directly or indirectly, in legitimate income generation; provided that it
does not relate to or adversely affect his work as a teacher.
Section 2. A teacher shall maintain a good reputation with respect to the financial matters such as in the settlement
of his debts and loans in arranging satisfactorily his private financial affairs.
Section 3. No teacher shall act, directly or indirectly, as agent of, or be financially interested in, any commercial
venture which furnish textbooks and other school commodities in the purchase and disposal of which he can exercise
official influence, except only when his assignment is inherently, related to such purchase and disposal; provided they
shall be in accordance with the existing regulations; provided, further, that members of duly recognized teachers
cooperatives may participate in the distribution and sale of such commodities.

Article XI: The Teacher as a Person

Section 1. A teacher is, above all, a human being endowed with life for which it is the highest obligation to live with
dignity at all times whether in school, in the home, or elsewhere.
Section 2. A teacher shall place premium upon self-discipline as the primary principle of personal behavior in all
relationships with others and in all situations.
Section 3. A teacher shall maintain at all times a dignified personality which could serve as a model worthy of
emulation by learners, peers and all others.
Section 4. A teacher shall always recognize the Almighty God as guide of his own destiny and of the destinies of
men and nations.

Article XII: Disciplinary Actions

Section 1. Any violation of any provision of this code shall be sufficient ground for the imposition against the erring
teacher of the disciplinary action consisting of revocation of his Certification of Registration and License as a Professional
Teacher, suspension from the practice of teaching profession, or reprimand or cancellation of his temporary/special permit
under causes specified in Sec. 23, Article III or R.A. No. 7836, and under Rule 31, Article VIII, of the Rules and
Regulations Implementing R.A. 7836.

Article XIII: Effectivity

Section 1. This Code shall take effect upon approval by the Professional Regulation Commission and after sixty
(60) days following its publication in the Official Gazette or any newspaper of general circulation, whichever is earlier.

f. R.A. 9155 – Framework of Governance of Basic Education

SECTION 1. Short Title. – This Act shall be known as the “Governance of Basic Education Act of 2001.”

SEC. 2. Declaration of Policy. – It is hereby declared the policy of the State to protect and promote the right of all
citizens to quality basic education and to make such education accessible to all by providing all Filipino children a free and
compulsory education in the elementary level and free education in the high school level. Such education shall also
include alternative learning systems for out-of-school youth and adult learners. It shall be the goal of basic education to
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provide them with the skills, knowledge and values they need to become caring, self- reliant, productive and patriotic
citizens.

The school shall be the heart of the formal education system. It is where children learn. Schools shall have a single
aim of providing the best possible basic education for all learners.

Governance of basic education shall begin at the national level. It is at the regions, divisions, schools and learning
centers — herein referred to as the field offices — where the policy and principle for the governance of basic education
shall be translated into programs, projects and services developed, adapted and offered to fit local needs.

The State shall encourage local initiatives for improving the quality of basic education. The State shall ensure that
the values, needs and aspirations of a school community are reflected in the program of education for the children, out-of-
school youth and adult learners. Schools and learning centers shall be empowered to make decisions on what is best for
the learners they serve.

SEC. 3. Purposes and Objectives. – The purposes and objectives of this Act are:

(a) To provide the framework for the governance of basic education which shall set the general directions for
educational policies and standards and establish authority, accountability and responsibility for achieving higher
learning outcomes;
(b) To define the roles and responsibilities of, and provide resources to, the field offices which shall implement
educational programs, projects and services in communities they serve;
(c) To make schools and learning centers the most important vehicle for the teaching and learning of national values
and for developing in the Filipino learners love of country and pride in its rich heritage;
(d) To ensure that schools and learning centers receive the kind of focused attention they deserve and that
educational programs, projects and services take into account the interests of all members of the community;
(e) To enable the schools and learning centers to reflect the values of the community by allowing teachers/learning
facilitators and other staff to have the flexibility to serve the needs of all learners;
(f) To encourage local initiatives for the improvement of schools and learning centers and to provide the means by
which these improvements may be achieved and sustained; and
(g) To establish schools and learning centers as facilities where schoolchildren are able to learn a range of core
competencies prescribed for elementary and high school education programs or where the out-of-school youth
and adult learners are provided alternative learning programs and receive accreditation for at least the equivalent
of a high school education.

Case Analysis: Resolutions of Cases Violating Ethical Standards

 Lesson 1: Case Analysis: Violations of Ethical Standards in the Practice of Teaching Profession

- G.R. No. 183678 - Supreme Court of the Philippines

- G.R. No. 198755 – LawPhil
- A decided case on immorality of a public-school teacher
- GR No. 173150 - Supreme Court of the Philippines
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