MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

4TH YEAR MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING

SECOND SEMISTER
Manufacturing Engineering II
Code -MEng4191
YEAR 2016 EC.
LECTUROR ERMIAS A.

CHAPTER ONE
Traditional machining process
Cont.

• Shaper Machine:
• A shaper machine is a precision machining tool primarily
used for producing flat and contoured surfaces on
workpieces made of metal or other materials.
• it operates by removing material in a linear, reciprocating
motion.
• The key components of a shaper include:
• Cutting Tool: Mounted on a ram that moves back and forth.
Cont.
• Shaping flat and contoured surfaces.
• Cutting keyways, grooves, and slots in metal components.
• Producing external and internal gear teeth.
• Machining intricate profiles and shapes in materials like steel and
aluminum.
• Manufacturing tooling and dies for various industries.
• Repairing or restoring worn or damaged metal surfaces.
• Forming notches and chamfers in engineering components.
• Shaping automobile parts like brake drums and engine components.
• Fabricating specialized components for custom machinery.
Planer Machine:
• A planer machine is a heavy-duty, precision machining tool designed for
shaping and leveling large, flat surfaces on workpieces made of metal or
other materials.
• How does it differ from a shaper?
• The key difference lies in the cutting motion:
• Shaper: Reciprocating motion.
• Planer: Linear motion.
• Planer machines are commonly used for:
• Shaping and leveling large surfaces.
• Achieving precise flatness.
• Handling heavy-duty workpieces.
• Creating square or rectangular forms.
 Orthogonal Cutting Model
A simplified 2-D model of machining that describes
the mechanics of machining fairly accurately

Figure - Orthogonal cutting: (a) as a three-dimensional process

Chip Thickness Ratio

to
r =
tc
where r = chip thickness ratio; to = thickness of the chip
prior to chip formation; and tc = chip thickness after
separation
• Chip thickness after cut is always greater than
before, so chip ratio is always less than 1.0
Determining Shear Plane Angle

• Based on the geometric parameters of the

orthogonal model, the shear plane angle  can be
determined as:
r cos 
tan  =
1 − r sin

where r = chip ratio, and  = rake angle

Figure - More realistic view of chip formation, showing shear zone rather than shear plane.
Also shown is the secondary shear zone resulting from tool-chip friction
Four Basic Types of Chip in Machining
1. Discontinuous chip
2. Continuous chip
3. Continuous chip with Built-up Edge (BUE)
4. Serrated chip
 Segmented Chip
• Brittle work materials (e.g., cast irons)
• Low cutting speeds
• Large feed and depth of cut
• High tool-chip friction

Figure - Four types of chip formation in metal cutting: (a) segmented

 Continuous Chip
• Ductile work materials (e.g., low carbon
steel)
• High cutting speeds
• Small feeds and depths
• Sharp cutting edge on the tool
• Low tool-chip friction

Figure - Four types of chip formation in metal cutting:

(b) continuous
 Continuous with BUE
• Ductile materials
• Low-to-medium cutting speeds
• Tool-chip friction causes portions of chip to
adhere to rake face
• BUE formation is cyclical; it forms, then breaks
off

Figure - Four types of chip formation in metal cutting: (c)

continuous with built-up edge
 Serrated Chip
• Semi-continuous - saw-tooth appearance
• Cyclical chip formation of alternating high
shear strain then low shear strain
• Most closely associated with difficult-to-
machine metals at high cutting speeds

Figure - Four types of chip formation in metal

cutting: (d) serrated
 Forces Acting on Chip
• Friction force F and Normal force to friction N
• Shear force Fs and Normal force to shear Fn

Figure - Forces in metal cutting: (a)

forces acting on the chip in orthogonal
cutting
Resultant Forces
• Vector addition of F and N = resultant R
• Vector addition of Fs and Fn = resultant R'
• Forces acting on the chip must be in balance:
• R' must be equal in magnitude to R
• R’ must be opposite in direction to R
• R’ must be collinear with R
Coefficient of Friction

Coefficient of friction between tool and chip:

F
=
N

Friction angle related to coefficient of friction as follows:

 = tan 
Shear Stress

Shear stress acting along the shear plane:

Fs
S=
As
where As = area of the shear plane

t ow
As =
sin 
Shear stress = shear strength of work material during cutting
 Cutting Force and Thrust Force
• Forces F, N, Fs, and Fn cannot be directly measured
• Forces acting on the tool that can be measured:
• Cutting force Fc and Thrust force Ft

Figure - Forces in metal cutting: (b) forces acting

on the tool that can be measured
Merchant’s circle
Forces in Metal Cutting
• Equations can be derived to relate the forces that cannot be
measured to the forces that can be measured:
F = Fc sin + Ft cos
N = Fc cos - Ft sin
Fs = Fc cos - Ft sin
Fn = Fc sin + Ft cos
• Based on these calculated force, shear stress and coefficient of
friction can be determined
The Merchant Equation
• Of all the possible angles at which shear deformation
could occur, the work material will select a shear plane
angle  which minimizes energy, given by
 
 = 45 + −
2 2
• Derived by Eugene Merchant
• Based on orthogonal cutting, but validity extends to 3-
D machining
What the Merchant Equation Tells Us

 
 = 45 + −
2 2

• To increase shear plane angle

• Increase the rake angle
• Reduce the friction angle (or coefficient of friction)
• Higher shear plane angle means smaller shear plane
which means lower shear force
• Result: lower cutting forces, power, temperature, all of
which mean easier machining

Figure 16 - Effect of shear plane angle : (a) higher  with a resulting

lower shear plane area; (b) smaller  with a corresponding larger
shear plane area. Note that the rake angle is larger in (a), which tends
to increase shear angle according to the Merchant equation
Power and Energy Relationships
• A machining operation requires power
The power to perform machining can be computed from:
Pc = Fc v
where Pc = cutting power; Fc = cutting force; and v = cutting speed
Power and Energy Relationships
In U.S. customary units, power is traditional expressed
as horsepower (dividing ft-lb/min by 33,000)

Fcv
HPc =
33,000
where HPc = cutting horsepower, hp
Power and Energy Relationships

Gross power to operate the machine tool Pg or HPg

is given by
Pc HPc
Pg = or HPg =
E E
where E = mechanical efficiency of machine tool
• Typical E for machine tools =  90%
Unit Power in Machining
• Useful to convert power into power per unit
volume rate of metal cut
• Called the unit power, Pu or unit horsepower, HPu
Pc HPc
Pu = or HPu =
MRR MRR
where MRR = material removal rate
Specific Energy in Machining

Unit power is also known as the specific energy U

Pc Fcv Fc
U = Pu = = =
MRR vt ow t ow

Units for specific energy are typically N-m/mm3 or J/mm3 (in-lb/in3)

Cutting Temperature
• Approximately 98% of the energy in machining is converted into heat
• This can cause temperatures to be very high at the tool-chip
• The remaining energy (about 2%) is retained as elastic energy in the
chip
 Cutting Temperature
• Several analytical methods to calculate cutting
temperature
• Method by N. Cook derived from dimensional analysis
using experimental data for various work materials
0.333
0.4U  vt o 
T =  
C  K 
where T = temperature rise at tool-chip interface; U = specific energy; v
= cutting speed; to = chip thickness before cut; C = volumetric specific
heat of work material; K = thermal diffusivity of the work material
Cutting Temperature
• Experimental methods can be used to measure temperatures in
machining
• Most frequently used technique is the tool-chip thermocouple
• Using this method, K. Trigger determined the speed-temperature
relationship to be of the form:
T = K vm
where T = measured tool-chip interface temperature
Cont…
Metal Cutting theory
• Plastically deform a material using a hard tool in order to obtain
desired physical shape and properties
• Very complex phenomena
• Essential for high precision; high performance products
CUTTING TOOL TECHNOLOGY
•Tool Life
•Cutting Fluids
What is Tool Life?

• Tool life refers to the duration a cutting tool

remains effective in machining or cutting
operations before it requires reconditioning, re-
sharpening, or replacement.

• It is a crucial parameter in manufacturing and

machining processes, indicating the efficiency
and longevity of a tool during actual use.
What is Tool Life?

• Longer tool life is generally desirable as it

contributes to increased productivity and
reduced downtime associated with tool
maintenance.
• Various factors, including cutting
conditions, tool material, and workpiece
material, influence the tool life of cutting
tools.
cont
• Taylor’s Tool Life Equation
• Taylor’s tool life equation As per F.W. Taylor, the
relationship between Cutting Speed and Tool Life can be
expressed as
• VT^n = C
• If V1, T1 initial condition and V2, T2 second condition
then can be written as,
• V1 × T1^n = V2 × T2^n
• (V1/V2) = (T2/T1)^n
Cont.
• Where,
• V= Cutting speed (m/min)
• T= Tool life (minutes)
• n= a constant whose value depends upon the material
of the cutting tool & job, called tool life Index
• (Commonly, n=0.08 to 0.02 for H.S.S tools, n=0.2 to
0.4 for cemented carbide tools, n= 0.5 to 0.7 for
Ceramic Tools, n = 0.1 to 0.15 for cast alloys)
• C = a constant, called machining constant
• Taylor’s tool life equations modified

• VT^n × f^n1 × d^n2 = C

Where,
• f = feed rate in mm/rev
• d = depth of cut in mm
• The cutting speed stands out as a critical parameter
impacting both tool wear and, consequently, tool life.
• Factor Affecting Tool Life
• The various parameters affecting the tool life are:
• Cutting Speed
• Cutting Temperature
• Feed and Depth of Cut
• Tool Geometry
• Tool Material
• Workpiece Material
• Nature and Cutting
• Use of Cutting Fluids
• Operator’s Skill
Typical Values of n and C in
Taylor Tool Life Equation
Tool material n C (m/min) C (ft/min)

High speed steel:

Non-steel work 0.125 120 350
Steel work 0.125 70 200
Cemented carbide
Non-steel work 0.25 900 2700
Steel work 0.25 500 1500
Ceramic
Steel work 0.6 3000 10,000
Three Modes of Tool Failure
• Fracture failure
• Cutting force becomes excessive and/or dynamic, leading to brittle fracture
• Temperature failure
• Cutting temperature is too high for the tool material
• Gradual wear
• Gradual wearing of the cutting tool
Preferred Mode of Tool Failure:
Gradual Wear
• Fracture and temperature failures are premature failures
• Gradual wear is preferred because it leads to the longest possible use
of the tool
• Gradual wear occurs at two locations on a tool:
• Crater wear – occurs on top rake face
• Flank wear – occurs on flank (side of tool)
Figure - Diagram of worn cutting tool, showing the principal
locations and types of wear that occur
Figure

(a) Crater wear, and

(b) flank wear on a cemented

carbide tool, as seen
through a toolmaker's
microscope

(Courtesy Manufacturing
Technology Laboratory,
Lehigh University, photo by
J. C. Keefe)
 Figure - Tool wear as a function of cutting time
Flank wear (FW) is used here as the measure of tool wear
Crater wear follows a similar growth curve
Figure - Effect of cutting speed on tool flank wear (FW) for three cutting
speeds, using a tool life criterion of 0.50 mm flankwear
Figure - Natural log-log plot of cutting speed vs tool life
Cutting Fluids
Any liquid or gas applied directly to machining operation to improve
cutting performance
• Two main problems addressed by cutting fluids:
1. Heat generation at shear zone and friction zone
2. Friction at the tool-chip and tool-work interfaces
• Other functions and benefits:
• Wash away chips (e.g., grinding and milling)
• Reduce temperature of workpart for easier handling
• Improve dimensional stability of workpart
Cutting Fluid Functions
• Cutting fluids can be classified according to function:
• Coolants - designed to reduce effects of heat in machining
• Lubricants - designed to reduce tool-chip and tool-work friction
Coolants
• Water used as base in coolant-type cutting fluids
• Most effective at high cutting speeds where heat generation and high
temperatures are problems
• Most effective on tool materials that are most susceptible to
temperature failures (e.g., HSS)
Lubricants
• Usually oil-based fluids
• Most effective at lower cutting speeds
• Also reduces temperature in the operation
Cutting Fluid Contamination
• Tramp oil (machine oil, hydraulic fluid, etc.)
• Garbage (cigarette butts, food, etc.)
• Small chips
• Molds, fungi, and bacteria
Dealing with Cutting Fluid Contamination
• Replace cutting fluid at regular and frequent intervals
• Use filtration system to continuously or periodically clean the fluid
• Dry machining
Cutting Fluid Filtration
Advantages:
• Prolong cutting fluid life between changes
• Reduce fluid disposal cost
• Cleaner fluids reduce health hazards
• Lower machine tool maintenance
• Longer tool life
Dry Machining
• No cutting fluid is used
• Avoids problems of cutting fluid contamination, disposal, and
filtration
• Problems with dry machining:
• Overheating of the tool
• Operating at lower cutting speeds and production rates to prolong tool life
• Absence of chip removal benefits of cutting fluids in grinding and milling
Calculation of Tool Life

• Question
• A cutting speed of 80 m/min with a material removal
exponent (n) of 0.09 was observed to have a tool life of 50
minutes during machining cast iron at a cutting speed of
100 m/min. Calculate the tool life at the reduced cutting
speed.
• Solution
• Given Data
• T = 50 min
• V = 100 m/min
• n = 0.09
Calculation of Tool Life
• For finding tool life firstly we have to calculate the
machining constant
• Taylor’s Tool Life Equation,
• VT^n = C
• Taking both side log then we can write it,
• log V + log T^n = log C
• log V + n log T = log C
• Putting value,
• log (100) + 0.09 log (50) = log C
• 2 + 0.1529 = log C
• 2.159 = log C
Calculation of Tool Life

• Then,
• C = 144.2
• Now we can find tool life at a speed of 80 m/min.
• VT^n = C
• 80 × (T)^0.09 = 144.2
• (T)^0.09 = 144.2/80
• = 1.775
• T = 587.31 min
Question:

• In a machining test, a cutting speed of 100 m/min indicated the tool

life as 16 min, and a cutting speed of 200 m/min indicated the tool
life as 4 min. What are the values of n and C?

• This is a straightforward problem on tool life that can be solved simply

by using Taylor’s Tool Life equation. Here, two cutting velocities and
the corresponding tool life values are given. So, let us first formulate
the basic equations to apply Taylor’s Tool Life formula.
Cont..

• Step-1: Apply Taylor’s Tool Life equation

• Let us first denote the two set of given values as 1 and 2. Therefore,
from the given values, the following can be written:
• T1 = 16 min when V1 = 100 m/min
• T2 = 4 min when V2 = 200 m/min
• Among these two given cases, the workpiece material, tool material,
cutting environment, feed and depth of cut can be assumed as
unchanged. Accordingly, the Taylor’s Tool Life equation can be applied
for both the cases.
 Cont..

• That means:

Step-2: Solve for Taylor’s exponent (n)

Equating the above two equations, the value of n can be easily calculated as
solved below.
 Cont.

Therefore, the calculated value of Taylor’s exponent for the given case is n =
0.5. It is one unitless constant.
Cont.
• Step-3: Solve for Taylor’s constant (C)
• When the n value is known, the value of C can be easily calculated
using any one of the above two basic equations. The solution is
shown below.
Cont..
• Therefore, the intended value of C = 400. It is also one unitless
constant.
• Now the required values are calculated. As an extension, you can also
get the Taylor’s Tool Life equation for the given case, as expressed
below. The variation of tool life with velocity is also shown below in
the V-T curve.