METU Civil Engineering Department Geotechnical Engineering Division

CE 363 SOIL MECHANICS

FALL 2020-2021
CHAPTER 2: EFFECTIVE STRESS
This chapter includes:
 Definition of effective stress in a soil body
 Response of effective stress to a change in total stress
 Effect of capillary rise and artesian pressure
 Bottom heave at excavations
 METU Civil Engineering Department Geotechnical Engineering Division

Definition of effective stress:

Soil is composed of solid particles, water and air.
The reduction in volume of dry or partially compressible
air
saturated soils is possible since air is
water
compressible (remember compaction).
incompressible
solids
For fully saturated soils, a reduction in the volume F
is possible only if pore water can escape from the
system.

Let’s put the fully-saturated soil into an impervious

vessel and apply a force F on the top!

On the a-a plane, where the soil particles

contacted, inter-partical forces occur.
 METU Civil Engineering Department Geotechnical Engineering Division
F
Definition of effective stress:

These inter-partical forces has normal (parallel to

force F) and transverse (perpendicular to force F)
components.

The total force F is resisted by the soil skeleton 𝐹 = ∑ 𝑃𝑉 + 𝑢 × 𝐴

through the increase in the inter-partical forces
and by the water filling the voids.
u: pressure of the
water filling the voids A: Cross sectional
area
 METU Civil Engineering Department Geotechnical Engineering Division

Definition of effective stress:

𝐹 = ∑ 𝑃𝑉 + 𝑢 × 𝐴
σ: total normal stress within the soil mass
𝐹 ∑ 𝑃𝑉 𝑢 × 𝐴 σ’: effective stress, representing the stress
= +
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 transmitted through the soil skeleton
u: pore water pressure
𝜎 = 𝜎′ + 𝑢

NOTE: the total and effective stresses are acting only at the direction of loading
whereas the pore water pressure acts equally in every direction.
 METU Civil Engineering Department Geotechnical Engineering Division

Calculating the effective stress: 𝜎 = 𝜎′ + 𝑢

Let’s learn how to calculate the total

zA
and effective stresses at a point: A

At Point A, because the soil is dry,

zB
no pore water pressure exist.
B
The total force at Point A is equal to
γdry x volume of the soil mass.

𝐹 𝛾𝑑𝑑𝑑 × 𝑉 𝛾𝑑𝑑𝑑 × 𝐴 × 𝑍𝐴
= = At Point B, the applied force is
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
resisted by the soil skeleton and the
𝜎𝐴 = 𝛾𝑑𝑑𝑑 × 𝑍𝐴
pore water pressure.
𝜎 = 𝜎′ 𝜎𝐵 = 𝛾𝑑𝑑𝑑 × 3 + 𝛾𝑠𝑠𝑠 × (𝑍𝐵 −3)
𝑢𝐵 = 𝛾𝑤 × (𝑍𝐵 −3)
Remember the buoyant
unit weight: 𝜎 ′ = 𝜎 − u = 𝛾𝑑𝑑𝑑 × 3 + 𝛾𝑠𝑠𝑠 × (𝑍𝐵 −3) − 𝛾𝑤 × (𝑍𝐵 −3)
𝛾 ′ = 𝛾𝑠𝑠𝑠 − 𝛾𝑤 𝜎 ′ = 𝛾𝑑𝑑𝑑 × 3 + (𝛾𝑠𝑠𝑠 −𝛾𝑤 ) × (𝑍𝐵 −3)
𝜎 ′ = 𝛾𝑑𝑑𝑑 × 3 + 𝛾′ × (𝑍𝐵 −3)
 METU Civil Engineering Department Geotechnical Engineering Division

Example:
σ u σ’ Ground surface
0 0 0

5m
Sand
γdry=19 kN/m3
95 0 95

6m Clay
γdry=19 kN/m3 152 0 152
γsat=20 kN/m3 GWT

212 30 182

Incompressible Bedrock

 Magnitude of the pore water pressure at water table - zero.

 Below the water table, pore water pressure - positive.

𝜎 = 𝜎′ + 𝑢
 METU Civil Engineering Department Geotechnical Engineering Division
Response of effective stress to a change in total stress:
q kPa Initial value of the pore water
u pressure is called the “static
pore water pressure” or
0 q “hydrostatic pwp”. us

In case of a total stress

increase, the pore water
pressure increases above the
us static level immediately. u=u +q
s
130 130+q

WHY? Because the water is incompressible and the soil is confined.

The increase in the total stress is equal to the increase in

the pore water pressure.
∆𝜎 = ∆𝑢
This is the “undrained” or “short term”
condition.
 METU Civil Engineering Department Geotechnical Engineering Division
Response of effective stress to a change in total stress:
q kPa
u
Increase in the pwp results in a
pressure gradient, causing flow
or drainage of pore water.
0 q

us
130 130+q

This flow or drainage will

continue until the excess pore
water pressure is dissipated.
 METU Civil Engineering Department Geotechnical Engineering Division
Response of effective stress to a change in total stress:
q kPa
u
As the excess pore water
dissipates, the solid particles
take up the load. This:
0 q
 Increase the inter particle
forces
 Causes the reduction in
volume
 ∆𝜎 = ∆𝜎′
us
130 130+q

This is the “drained” or “long term”

condition.

The time taken for drainage to be

completed depends on the
permeability of the soil .
 METU Civil Engineering Department Geotechnical Engineering Division
Response of effective stress to a change in total stress:

This whole process is called “consolidation”.

What about a reduction in total stress (e.g. excavation)?

 Excess pwp is negative, This process is
 Flow takes place into the soil, known as
 The soil will expand (limited) “swelling”.
 METU Civil Engineering Department Geotechnical Engineering Division
30 kPa
Example:
σ u σ’ 30 Ground surface
30 0

5m
Sand
γdry=19 kN/m3
125 0 125

6m Clay
γdry=19 kN/m3 182 0 30 182
γsat=20 kN/m3 152
GWT
ST
242 ST LT
30 60 182 212

Incompressible Bedrock

∆𝜎 = ∆𝑢 = 30 𝑘𝑘𝑘 ST

∆𝜎 = ∆𝜎 ′ = 30 𝑘𝑘𝑘 LT
 METU Civil Engineering Department Geotechnical Engineering Division

Example: Lets do the same example, but this time, the GWT is right on the
ground surface…
30 kPa

σ 30 u
0 σ’ 30 Ground surface
GWT
5m Sand
γdry=19 kN/m3
γsat=20 kN/m3
130 80
50
Clay 80 50
6m
γdry=19 kN/m3 ST LT
γsat=20 kN/m3 LT ST
250 140 110 140
110

Incompressible Bedrock

NOTE: The short term for sands and gravels (coarse-grained soils) are too short to
consider in the calculations! Their short term values are ignored in the plots…
 METU Civil Engineering Department Geotechnical Engineering Division

Effect of capillary rise and artesian pressure:

Two forces are responsible for the
movement of water within the voids:
 Gravity
 Capillarity

 Small soil pores act as capillary tubes

 Capillary action holds water in the small
pores against the force of gravity Why?
 Smaller the pores, the higher the water
will rise

Because of adhesion and cohesion:

 Adhesion: the attraction of water molecules for
solid surfaces
 Cohesion: the attraction of water molecules for
each other
 METU Civil Engineering Department Geotechnical Engineering Division

Effect of capillary rise and artesian pressure:

 Adhesion: the attraction of water molecules for solid surfaces
 Cohesion: the attraction of water molecules for each other

Similar to these
tubes, the amount
of capillary rise in
soils is related to
the radius of the
soil pore and
particle size.

Remember the experiment where

thin tubes are immersed into a cup
full of water?
 METU Civil Engineering Department Geotechnical Engineering Division

Effect of capillary rise and artesian pressure:

Because the water is held by the negative pressure
T
created by the capillary tension, the pore water
T
pressure is negative in the capillary rise zone.

What do we do when
there is a capillary rise
zone in our profile?
1. Use γsat to calculate
the stresses
2. Pore water pressure
is equal to zero at the
GWT level as usual.
3. Above GWT, the pwp
will be negative, use
the same slope in u-
diagram!
 METU Civil Engineering Department Geotechnical Engineering Division

Example:
σ0 u
0 σ’0 Ground surface

4m
64 -10 64
1m Capillary rise zone 74
84 0
84 GWT
5m
γdry=16 kN/m3
γsat=20 kN/m3
184 50 134

Incompressible Bedrock
 METU Civil Engineering Department Geotechnical Engineering Division

Effect of capillary rise and artesian pressure:

Excess pore water pressure (above the static GWT level) may be found in layers
confined by impermeable layers.
 METU Civil Engineering Department Geotechnical Engineering Division

Example:
2m σ0 u
0 σ’0 Ground surface
GWT
Clay
γsat=19 kN/m3
4m

76 60 16
Sand
2m γsat=16 kN/m3 80 28
108
Incompressible Bedrock
What happens if the artesian pressure drops to 1m?
1m σ0 u
0 σ’0 Ground surface
GWT
Clay
γsat=19 kN/m3
4m
ST ST
76 60 16
50 26
Sand
2m γsat=16 kN/m3 70 38
108

Incompressible Bedrock
 METU Civil Engineering Department Geotechnical Engineering Division

Example:

uA=-20 kPa
uB= 0 kPa
uC=10 kPa
uD=100 kPa
uE=120 kPa
 METU Civil Engineering Department Geotechnical Engineering Division

Example:
For the construction of Dubai Palm Island project in the sea, the sea-bottom sediments
composed of clay are loaded with 7.5 m thick fill made of boulders and gravel. Before and after
construction of the fill, the sea level is at 5 m above the soil surface at sea bottom, and
hydrostatic water pressures exist. Assume that the fill is constructed rapidly. Calculate and
sketch the distribution of total stress, effective stress, and pore water pressures in the clay
layer,
 before the construction of the fill
 immediately after the construction of the fill.
 Long time after the construction of the fill
 METU Civil Engineering Department Geotechnical Engineering Division

Example:
Before the construction of the fill
Total stress, Pore pressure, Effective stress,
kPa kPa kPa
5x10 = 50 5x10 = 50 0

Clay 6m

50+6x20 11x10 170-110

=170 =110 =60

Immediately after construction of the fill

Total stress, Pore pressure, Effective stress,
kPa kPa kPa

2.5x21+5x21= 157.5 50+107.5=157. 0

5

Clay 6m

157.5+6x20 110+107.5 60
=277.5 =217.5

Increase in total stress = 107.5 kPa

Example:
Long time after construction of the fill

Total stress, Pore pressure, Effective stress,

kPa kPa kPa

157.5 50 107.5

Clay 6m

277.5 110 167.5