Chapter 1

Introduction
1.1. Review on Laplace and Fourier Transform
• The physical world is described by differential • Time domain x(t) =⇒ F.T =⇒ Frequency
equations. domain X(ω)
R∞
• Solutions to differential equations must be either • X(σ, ω) = −∞ [x(t).e−σt ]e−ωt dt
d at
– Exponential: eat =⇒ e = aeat e−σt .e−ωt = e(−σ−jω)t (1.1)
dt
d2 s = σ + jω (1.2)
– Sinusoids: sin(at) =⇒ sin(at) =
dt2
−a2 sin(at) where, σ is real Exponential and ω is Imaginary
• The solution may be eat or e−ωt or combination of both Sinusoidal Z ∞
R∞
• Fourier Transform: X(ω) = −∞ x(t)e−ωt dt Laplace Transform = X(s) = x(t).e−st dt (1.3)
−∞

1.2. The Need for Control System

1. Safety

2. Automation

3. Convenience

4. Technology Evolution

System Dynamics

The discipline of System Dynamics focuses on the synthesis of mathematical models to represent dynamic
responses of physical systems for the purpose of analysis, design, and/or control.

• Analysis: is the mathematical inspection of the dynamic characteristics of a system and its responses to
inputs.

• Design: is the methodical synthesis of a system or selection of its parameters to meet specified criteria.

• Control: is the use of sensor & actuators to automate a process or system.

1.3. Basic Concepts of Control System Engineering

• System: A combination of devices & components connected together to act together & perform a certain
function.

• Control Systems: is the combination of devices & components connected or related so as to command, direct or
regulate itself or another system.

• Control Theory: A strategy to select appropriate inputs.

1
 Input Output
System (Plant)

How do I change this?

To get what I want?

Input is also called Output is also called System is also called

• Reference • Response • Plant

• Command • Controlled output • Process

• Set point • Desired output • Controlled system

1.4. Basic Components of a Control System

The components shown in the diagram above are defined as follows:

1. Reference Input: This provides input signal for the desired output.

2. Error Detector: It is an element in which one system variable (feedback signal) is subtracted from another
variable (reference signal) to obtain a third variable (error signal). It is also called comparator.

3. Feedback Element: Feedback signal is a function of the controlled output which is compared with the
reference signal to obtain the error or the actuating signal. Feedback element measures the controlled
output, converts or transforms to a suitable value for comparison with the reference input.

4. Error Signal: It is an algebraic sum of the reference input and the feedback.

5. Controller: The controller is an element that is required to generate the appropriate control signal. The
controller operates until the error between the controlled output and desired output is reduced to zero.

6. Controlled System: It is a body, a plant, a process or a machine of which a particular condition is to be

controlled.

7. Controlled Output: Controlled output is produced by the actuating signal available as input to the
controller. Controlled output is made equal to the desired output with the help of the feedback system.

Comparator Controlled
Controlled Output
+ Controller
Reference − e(t) System
Input

Feedback

Figure 1.1: Basic Components of a Control System

1.5. Classification of Control Systems

1.5.1. Open-loop and Closed-loop Control Systems

Open-loop Control Systems

• The systems in which output has no effect on the control action.

Introduction to Control System 2

 • In other words, the output is neither measured nor fed back for comparison with reference input as
shown in Figure 1.2.

Actuating Controlled
Input Signal Output
Controller System (Plant)
Reference

Figure 1.2: Elements of an open-loop control system

Application: Volume audio system, Hair dryer, Door lock system, and Washing machine
For example, let us consider a washing machine in which soaking, washing and rinsing in the washer operates on the
time basis.

• The machine does not measure the output signal(cleanliness of clothes).

• The required time for the level of dirtiness of clothes is to be known.

[Remember] There ia also a Closed loop Washing Machine

Closed-loop Control Systems

• The actuating error signal, e(t) is fed to the controller so as to reduce the error and bring the output of the
system to the desired value.

• The operation of a system may be controlled externally or automatically (by the system itself)

Comparator
Control Output or
+ System (Plant)
Input − e(t) Element Response

Feedback

Figure 1.3: Closed-loop System

Some more examples of open-loop and closed-loop control systems are as follows:

1. Traffic-light systems vary in operation. Some systems are closed-loop and some are open-loop. In
the open-loop type, there is a timing mechanism which is set to switch the lights at regular intervals,
irrespective of the volume of traffic. In the closed-loop type, however, the amount of traffic passing
through the junctions is measured (electronically or otherwise), and the duration of the “red” and “green”
conditions are adjusted for each side of the roads of the junction accordingly.

2. An example of the action of an open-loop system is a car-wash machine in which all cars receive the
same amount of washing irrespective of how dirty they are. Here, the output is the cleanliness of the
cars, which corresponds to a given setting of the machine (amount of water and washing time). A human
being, however, who washes cars, automatically makes sure that the dirtier cars receive more attention
than others. Car washing by a responsible human being is, therefore, a closed-loop control system. An
ordinary washing machine is an open-loop system.

3. A refrigerator is a closed-loop system. Its temperature is measured by a thermostat which turns the motor
ON when the temperature rises above the desired value and turns the motor OFF when the temperature
again reaches the desired value.

Introduction to Control System 3

 4. The lighting of a room is an open-loop system. Once the light is turned on, it will stay on (until it is
switched off) irrespective of whether the room is dark or light.

Figure 1.4: Comparison for OLCS and CLCS

Open Loop System Closed Loop System

1. Control action is independent of desired OP. 1. Control action is dependent of desired OP.
2. Feedback path is not present. 2. Feedback path is present.
3. Called as non-feedback CS. 3. Called as feedback CS.
4. Easy to design 4. Difficult to design
5. These are economical. 5. These are costlier.
6. Inaccurate 6. Accurate
7. Affected by non-linearities in the system. 7. Adjusts to the effects of non-linearities present
8. Examples: Washing machine, fixed time traffic 8. Examples: Servomotor, generator o/p voltage,
CS, room heater, etc. refrigerator, biological control system · · ·

Example 1.1. Car cruise Control

Solution 1.1. Using both OLCS and CLCS

m
100
s 90, 100, 110· · ·
Car
Gas Pedal Speed

Figure 1.5: Open-loop control of Car

Controller to Slow-down
100−110 = −10
Controller to Speed-UP
100 − 100 = 0
100 m
s 100−90 = 10 Speed
+ Controller Car
Gas Pedal − e(t)
110
100
90
Speedometer

Figure 1.6: Closed-loop control of Car

1.5.2. Linear and non-linear control systems

A system is said to be linear in terms of the system input x(t) and the system output y(t) if it satisfies the
following two properties of

1. Zero-input Zero-Output

2. Superposition and

3. Homogeneity.

Let, x1 (t) LTI y1 (t) and x2 (t) LTI y2 (t)

x1 (t) + x2 (t) LTI y1 (t) + y2 (t)

Figure 1.7: Superposition (Additivity)

Introduction to Control System 4

 αx1 (t) LTI αy1 (t)

Figure 1.8: Homogeneity

Linear control System

• A Control System in which output varies linearly with the input

• Does not exist in practice.

• Are idealized models fabricated by the analyst purely for the simplicity of analysis and design.

Nonlinear Systems

• When the input and output has nonlinear relationship the system is said to be nonlinear.

• Examples

1. magnetization curve or no load curve of a DC machine.

2. Hysteresis, Saturation

To test for linearity, we must

• Input x1 (t) to the system and measure the output y1 (t)

• Input x2 (t) to the system and measure y2 (t)

• Input x3 (t) = αx1 (t) + βx2 (t) to the system and measure y3 (t)

• If y3 (t) = αy1 (t) + βy2 (t) for all possible delays α and β values, x1 (t) and x2 (t), then the system is linear.

1.5.3. Linearity of Differential equations

d d2
• Both and 2 are linear systems
dx dx

d
x(t) y(t)
dx

Example: f (x) = x2
d
y1 (t) = x1 (t) = 2x1 (1.7)
dx
x1 (t) = x21 (1.4) d
y2 (t) = x2 (t) = 2x2 (1.8)
x2 (t) = x22 (1.5) dx
d
x1 (t) + x1 (t) = x21 + x22 (1.6) y3 (t) = (x1 (t) + x2 (t)) = 2x1 + 2x2 (1.9)
dx

Example 1.2. Show that the functions given below are Linear or Non-linear
1. consider a sequare-law system y(t) = (x1 (t))2
2. ẏ(t) + ty(t) = x(t)
3. y = nx
4. y = x3
5. y = kx + c

Introduction to Control System 5

 Solution 1.2. for linearity
1. y1 (t) = (x1 (t))2
y2 (t) = (x2 (t))2
x3 (t) = αx1 (t) + βx2 (t) and measure y3 (t)

y3 (t) = (x3 (t))2 (1.10)

= (αx1 (t) + βx2 (t))2 (1.11)
= α2 (x1 (t))2 + 2αβx1 (t)x2 (t) + β 2 (x2 (t))2 (1.12)
2 2
6= α(x1 (t)) + β(x2 (t)) (1.13)

So. the sequare-law system is not linear (it is nonlinear system)

2.

ẏ1 (t) + ty1 (t) = x1 (t) (1.14)

ẏ2 (t) + ty2 (t) = x2 (t) (1.15)
ẏ3 (t) + ty3 (t) = x3 (t) (1.16)

but x3 (t) = αx1 (t) + βx2 (t), so

ẏ3 (t) + ty3 (t) = αx1 (t) + βx2 (t) (1.17)

ẏ2 (t) + ty2 (t) = α(ẏ1 (t) + ty1 (t)) + β(ẏ2 (t) + ty2 (t)) (1.18)
d
ẏ3 (t) + ty3 (t) = (α(y1 (t) + ty1 (t)) + β(y2 (t) + ty2 (t))) (1.19)
dt
y3 (t) = αy1 (t) + βy2 (t) (1.20)

∴ the system is linear

1.5.4. Time invariant vs Time variant

x(t − a) LTI y(t − a)

• When the characteristics of the system do not depend upon time itself then the system is said to time
invariant control system.

• Time varying control system is a system in which one or more parameters vary with time.

• A system is either time-varying or time invariant, not both.

• A time varying system does not change its fundamental behaviour over different periods of time.

– Its parameter values are constant

• A time invariant system satisfies the property (for any x(t), τ )

x(t − τ ) =⇒ y(t − τ )whenx(t) =⇒ y(t) (1.21)

• We can test a system for this property using from the figure

Introduction to Control System 6

 • A time-invariant system will have y2 (t) = y1 (t − τ ) for all x1 (t) and τ

• To test for time-invariance, we must

– Input x1 (t) to the system and measure the output y1 (t)

– Input x2 (t) = x1 (t − τ ) to the system and measure y2 (t)

– If y2 (t) = y1 (t − τ ) for all possible delays τ and signal x1 (t), then the system is time invariant.

Example 1.3. consider a sequare-law system y(t) = (x1 (t))2

Solution 1.3. y1 (t) = (x1 (t))2

y2 (t) = (x2 (t))2
x2 (t) = x1 (t − τ ) so y2 (t) = (x1 (t − τ ))2 = y1 (t − τ )
Since the relationship holds for all τ and all x1 (t), it is time-invariant

1.5.5. Lumped parameter vs Distributed

Parameter

• Control system that can be described

by ordinary differential equations are
• A discrete time control system involves one or
lumped-parameter control systems.
more variables that are known only at discrete
d2 x dx time intervals.
M =C + kx (1.22)
dt2 dt

• Whereas the distributed parameter control

systems are described by partial differential
equations. 1.5.7. Deterministic vs Stochastic Control
System
∂x ∂x ∂2x
f1 + f2 =g 2 (1.23)
dy dz dz • A control System is deterministic if the response
to input is predictable and repeatable.

1.5.6. Continuous Data Vs Discrete Data

System

• In continuous data control system all system

variables are function of a continuous time t. • If not, the control system is a stochastic control

Introduction to Control System 7

 system than one output.

input var. G(S) Output var.

Figure 1.9: SISO control system

1.5.8. SISO and MIMO Control Systems

input var. 1 Output var. 1
CS can be classified based on the number of inputs input var. 2 Output var. 2
and outputs present. G(S)
.. ..
. .
1. SISO CS have one input and one output.
input var. n Output var. n
Whereas,

2. MIMO CS have more than one input and more Figure 1.10: MIMO control system

1.5.9. Static and Dynamic Systems

• A system is called dynamic or time dependent if its present output depends on past input

• Static system is the one whose current output depends only on current input.

To use/understand a control system properly, we must learn how to: How to use/understand a control system
properly We must learn how to:

1. Develop mathematical system descriptions and reduce them to block diagram forms: (Modelling/Mathematical
Representation);

2. Manipulate and solve the resulting system equations;

3. Design system to satisfy general performance specifications and

4. Evaluate results by analytical and simulation studies.

• Time invariance → System Vs Time

• Stability → Range, Life span
Control Systems
• Linearity → Output Vs Input

Natural Man Made

Manual
Automatic

Open loop
Closed loop

Linear Non-Linear
Non-Linear
Linear
Time inVariant
Time Variant
Time Variant
Time inVariant

Figure 1.11: LTI Control System broad classification

Introduction to Control System 8