Distance Protection of

Transmission Lines
By : Dr. Atul R. Phadke
Associate Professor in Electrical Engineering
COEP Technological University Pune (Maharashtra)
DRAWBACKS OF OVERCURRENT PROTECTION:
Overcurrent relay with
pick-up setting = Ipu gives
a reach up to bus B for
L-L-G fault.
Reach for L-G fault is
only up to point B1.
Whereas the reach for
three-phase fault is up to
point B2.
Thus, the relay may
under-reach or over-
reach depending upon
the type of fault.

Effect of type of fault on reach of overcurrent relay This is not desirable.

DRAWBACKS OF OVERCURRENT PROTECTION:
If the OC relay pick-up
setting = Ipu it gives a
reach up to bus B,
assuming a source
impedance of Zs2.
It under-reaches to point
B1 if the source
impedance increases to
Zs3.
It over-reaches to point B2
if the source impedance
decreases to Zs1.
This is also not desirable.

Effect of source impedance on reach of overcurrent relay

DISTANCE RELAY:
Thus, the fault current is a function of fault type as well as the source impedance,
both of which are variable.
Therefore, a relay whose reach does not depend upon the actual magnitude of the
fault current is required.
Thus, for protection of transmission lines, distance relays are used.
Reach of distance relays is not dependent on the actual magnitude of the fault
current.
It depends on the ratio of voltage at relay location and the fault current.
DISTANCE PROTECTION:
Zone of protection is from
A to B.
Relay is located at A.
Local current and voltage
are available through CT
and PT.
The reach of relay = Zset.
The line can be modelled
as R-L series circuit
without loss of much
accuracy.
DISTANCE PROTECTION:
DISTANCE PROTECTION:
Trip law for relay -

Or

𝑉𝑅
However, = the magnitude of the impedance seen by the relay. Therefore, the
𝐼𝑅
trip law can be written as -
SIMPLE IMPEDANCE RELAY WITH BALANCED BEAM STRUCTURE:

The current coil exerts a torque in such a way that it tends to close the trip contact
(operating torque).
The voltage coil tends to keep the trip contacts open (restraining torque).
The control spring keeps the contacts open when the relay is in unenergized
condition.
SIMPLE DIFFERENTIAL (BASIC) PROTECTION:
The operating torque is proportional to 𝐼𝑅 2 .
The restraining torque is proportional to 𝑉𝑅 2 .
If the effect of spring is neglected, the relay operates when-
2 2
𝑘1 𝐼𝑅 > 𝑘2 𝑉𝑅
Where, 𝑘1 and 𝑘2 are proportionality constants.
2 2
∴ 𝑘2 𝑉𝑅 < 𝑘1 𝐼𝑅
𝑉𝑅 2 𝑘1
∴ 2
<
𝐼𝑅 𝑘2

𝑉𝑅 𝑘1
∴ <
𝐼𝑅 𝑘2

Or 𝑍𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑛 < 𝑍𝑠𝑒𝑡

UNIVERSAL TORQUE EQUATION:
Generic torque equation for distance relay –
2 2
𝑇 = 𝑘1 𝐼𝑅 + 𝑘2 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑘3 𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑅 cos 𝜃 − 𝜏 + 𝑘4
𝑇 = Net torque on the actuating structure of the relay
𝑘1 𝐼𝑅 2 = torque due to the current fed to the relay current coil
𝑘2 𝑉𝑅 2 = torque due to the voltage applied to the relay pressure coil
𝑘3 𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑅 cos 𝜃 − 𝜏 = torque due to the directional unit
𝜃 = the angle between the voltage and current fed to the relay
𝜏 = the maximum torque angle for the directional unit
𝑘4 = the torque due to spring, which can be neglected compared to the operating
torque when the relay is on the verge of operation
UNIVERSAL TORQUE EQUATION (SIMPLE IMPEDANCE RELAY):
2 2
𝑇 = 𝑘1 𝐼𝑅 + 𝑘2 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑘3 𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑅 cos 𝜃 − 𝜏 + 𝑘4
𝑘1 be positive, 𝑘2 be negative, 𝑘3 = 0 and 𝑘4 is neglected
The relay will operate if –
𝑘1 𝐼𝑅 2 > 𝑘2 𝑉𝑅 2

Which can be written as –

𝑘2 𝑉𝑅 2 < 𝑘1 𝐼𝑅 2

𝑉𝑅 2 𝑘1
∴ 2
<
𝐼𝑅 𝑘2

𝑉𝑅 𝑘1
∴ <
𝐼𝑅 𝑘2
UNIVERSAL TORQUE EQUATION (SIMPLE IMPEDANCE RELAY):
𝑉𝑅 𝑘1
∴ <
𝐼𝑅 𝑘2

𝑉𝑅
= 𝑍𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑛
𝐼𝑅
𝑍𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑛 = the magnitude of impedance seen by the relay

𝑘1
= 𝑍𝑠𝑒𝑡
𝑘2

𝑍𝑠𝑒𝑡 = Impedance setting of the relay

Therefore, for simple impedance relay we can write –
𝐼𝑓 𝑍𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑛 < 𝑍𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝; 𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
CHARACTERISTIC OF SIMPLE IMPEDANCE RELAY ON V-I PLANE:

Characteristic of simple impedance relay on V-I plane

 CHARACTERISTIC OF SIMPLE IMPEDANCE RELAY ON R-X PLANE:
R (Resistance) axis represents
the real part of the ratio (V/I).
X (Reactance) axis represents the
imaginary part of the ratio (V/I).
Fault characteristic of the faulted
line for metallic faults (faults in
which the fault resistance is
negligible) is a straight line.
The angle of fault characteristic is
𝜃𝐿 = tan−1 𝜔𝐿Τ𝑅 .

Characteristic of simple impedance relay on R-X plane

PERFORMANCE OF SIMPLE IMPEDANCE RELAY DURING NORMAL POWER FLOW:

The impedance seen

by the relay under
normal condition falls
outside the trip area
of the relay operating
characteristics.
Thus, the simple
impedance relay is
stable during normal
operating conditions.
EFFECT OF ARC RESISTANCE ON REACH OF SIMPLE IMPEDANCE RELAY:
Considering an arcing fault, with a
fault resistance = Rarc at point C, the
impedance seen by the relay, lies on
the boundary between the trip and
operating regions.
Thus, arcing fault beyond point C
will not be detected.
Therefore, the simple impedance
relay under-reaches because of an
arcing fault.
Percentage under-reach is defined
as the ratio of the distance by which
the relay under-reaches to the reach
setting of the relay.
DIRECTIONAL PROPERTY OF SIMPLE IMPEDANCE RELAY:

The reach of the simple impedance relay is independent of the phase angle between voltage and
current at the relay location.

Thus, the relay does not possess directional property.

Therefore, the simple impedance relay is not useful where selectivity between the forward and
reverse faults has to be maintained.

However, we can get the desired selectivity using a directional element with simple impedance
relay.
EFFECT OF POWER SWING ON SIMPLE IMPEDANCE RELAY:
When a power system is operating in steady state, all the rotor or machine angles are
constant.
Whenever there are sudden and large changes of power in the system, (say due to
outage of a major tie-line), the rotor angles undergo oscillations till the system reaches a
new stable state.
This phenomenon is known as power swing.
At some point during the power swing, the apparent impedance enters the trip region of
the relay operating characteristic.
This causes the relay to trip, putting the line out of service, adding to the disturbance
already present in the system.
Therefore, tripping because of power swing has to be normally blocked.
The simple impedance relay occupies substantial area in all the four quadrants of the R-X
plane.
Therefore, it is very much vulnerable to maloperation during power swing.
REACTANCE RELAY:
Universal torque equation -
2 2
𝑇 = 𝑘1 𝐼𝑅 + 𝑘2 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑘3 𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑅 cos 𝜃 − 𝜏 + 𝑘4
𝑘1 be positive, 𝑘2 = 0, 𝑘3 be negative and 𝑘4 is neglected
Therefore, the trip law can be written as –
𝐼𝑓 𝑘1 𝐼𝑅 2 > 𝑘3 𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑅 cos 𝜃 − 𝜏 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝; 𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
Which can be written as –
𝑘3 𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑅 cos 𝜃 − 𝜏 < 𝑘1 𝐼𝑅 2

Or
𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑅 𝑘1
2
cos 𝜃 − 𝜏 <
𝐼𝑅 𝑘3
REACTANCE RELAY:
𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑅 𝑘1
2
cos 𝜃 − 𝜏 <
𝐼𝑅 𝑘3
𝑉𝑅 𝑘1
∴ cos 𝜃 − 𝜏 <
𝐼𝑅 𝑘3
𝑉𝑅
= 𝑍𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑛 = the apparent impedance seen by the relay.
𝐼𝑅

𝑘1
∴ 𝑍𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑛 cos 𝜃 − 𝜏 <
𝑘3
If the maximum torque angle of the directional element (𝜏) is set 900, and let
𝑘1
= 𝑋𝑛
𝑘3

𝑍𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑛 cos 𝜃 − 900 < 𝑋𝑛

REACTANCE RELAY:
𝑍𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑛 cos 𝜃 − 900 = 𝑍𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑛 sin 𝜃 = 𝑋𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑛

𝑋𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑛 = the reactive part of the impedance seen by the relay

The trip law can be written as –
𝐼𝑓 𝑋𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑛 < 𝑋𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝; 𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
The relay is sensitive only to the reactive part of the impedance seen.
Hence, such a relay is called a reactance relay.
CHARACTERISTIC OF REACTANCE RELAY ON R-X PLANE:
The operating characteristic of the
relay on the R-X plane is a
straight line with intercept of Xn,
on the reactance axis.
The entire area below this straight
line represents the trip region.
Thus, the area occupied on the R-
X plane is too large.

Characteristic of reactance relay on R-X plane

PERFORMANCE OF REACTANCE RELAY DURING NORMAL POWER FLOW:
The reactance relay occupies all the
area below the straight-line X = Xn,
on the R-X plane.
The impedance seen by the relay
during normal load flow conditions
falls in the trip region of the
reactance relay characteristic.
Thus, a reactance relay will operate
during normal load flow.
This is not unacceptable.
Therefore, the reactance relay needs
to be supervised from another relay
to prevent its operation on load.
EFFECT OF ARC RESISTANCE ON REACH OF REACTANCE RELAY:

The relay measures only the

reactive part of the ratio of
phasors V and I.
Thus, the reach of the
reactance relay remains
unaffected in spite of the
presence of arc resistance.
DIRECTIONAL PROPERTY OF REACTANCE RELAY:

The first quadrant represents the forward faults whereas the third quadrant
represents the reverse faults.
The trip characteristic of the reactance relay occupies areas in both these
quadrants.
Reactance relay does not exhibit any directional property.
EFFECT OF POWER SWING ON REACTANCE RELAY:
The reactance relay occupies a large area on the R-X plane.
It operates even during normal load flow.
Therefore, the reactance relay operates on power swing as well.
This is not desirable.
MHO RELAY:
Universal torque equation -
2 2
𝑇 = 𝑘1 𝐼𝑅 + 𝑘2 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑘3 𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑅 cos 𝜃 − 𝜏 + 𝑘4
If we set 𝑘1 = 0, 𝑘2 negative, and 𝑘3 positive, and 𝑘4 is negligible
Voltage provides restraining torque, and the directional element provides the
operating torque.
Therefore, the trip law can be written as –
𝑘3 𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑅 cos 𝜃 − 𝜏 > 𝑘2 𝑉𝑅 2

Which can be written as –

𝑘2 𝑉𝑅 2 < 𝑘3 𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑅 cos 𝜃 − 𝜏
Or
𝑉𝑅 2 𝑘3
< cos 𝜃 − 𝜏
𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑅 𝑘2
MHO RELAY:
𝑉𝑅 2 𝑘3
< cos 𝜃 − 𝜏
𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑅 𝑘2
𝑉𝑅 𝑘3
< cos 𝜃 − 𝜏
𝐼𝑅 𝑘2
𝑉𝑅
= the impedance seen by the relay, 𝑍𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑛
𝐼𝑅
𝑘3
We can set the ratio = 𝑍𝑛 , the setting of impedance.
𝑘2

The trip law can be written as –

𝐼𝑓 𝑍𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑛 < 𝑍𝑛 cos 𝜃 − 𝜏 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝; 𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
This relay is called a Mho relay (admittance relay) because its characteristic is a
straight line when plotted on an admittance diagram (G-B axes).
CHARACTERISTIC OF MHO RELAY:
PERFORMANCE OF MHO RELAY ON LOAD:

The impedance seen by the

relay during normal load is
well outside the trip region
of the characteristic.
Thus, the relay is stable
during load conditions.
EFFECT OF ARC RESISTANCE ON THE REACH OF MHO RELAY:

Consider an arcing fault at point B and let the fault resistance is BC.
The impedance seen by the relay considering the fault resistance lies on the verge of the trip
region.
The relay will restrain for any fault beyond point B.
The reach of relay reduces from OA to OB.
DIRECTIONAL PROPERTY OF MHO RELAY:

Mho relay is a directional

relay with voltage restraint.
Therefore, Mho relay
possesses the directional
property.
It detects faults only in the
forward direction.
PERFORMANCE OF MHO RELAY DURING POWER SWINGS:
The Mho relay occupies much smaller area on the R-X plane as compared to the
simple impedance and reactance relay.
Therefore, Mho relay is less affected by power swings.
However, when the swing is very large, the impedance seen by the relay enters the
mho circle and the relay trips (maloperates).
COMPARISON BETWEEN DISTANCE RELAYS:
Simple impedance Reactance relay Mho
relay
Operating quantity Current Current Directional element,
MTA = 𝜏
Restraining quantity Voltage Directional element, Voltage
MTA = 900
Performance on load Restrains Trips Restrains
Directional property No No Yes
Effect of fault Under-reaches Reach unaffected Under-reaches, more
resistance than SIR
Area occupied on the Moderate Very large Smallest
R-X plane
Effect of power swing Maloperates Maloperates Maloperates, effect is
less than SIT
THREE STEPPED DISTANCE PROTECTION:

First zone of protection:

The first step of distance protection is set to reach up to 80 to 90% of the length of the line
section.
This unit is not set to protect the entire line to avoid undesired tripping due to overreach.
Its operation is instantaneous (about 1 to 2 cycles).
THREE STEPPED DISTANCE PROTECTION:

Second zone of protection:

The second step is required to provide primary protection to the remaining to 10% of the
line, which is left out of the first step.
In addition, it is set to cover up to 50% of the next line section.
This extended reach is required to take care of the under-reach caused by the arc
resistance.
 THREE STEPPED DISTANCE PROTECTION:

Second zone of protection:

The operating time of second step has to be delayed so as to be selective with step I.
Operating time of step II = Operating time of step I + Selective time interval
Selective time interval = CB operating time + Relay over-travel time
THREE STEPPED DISTANCE PROTECTION:

Second zone of protection:

If there are more than one adjoining lines, the second step should extend up to 50%
of the shortest adjoining line.
If it is set to reach up to 50% of longest adjoining line, then there is a loss of
selectivity with second step of shortest adjoining line.
THREE STEPPED DISTANCE PROTECTION:

Third zone of protection:

The third step is provided to give full back-up to the adjoining line section.
It covers the line section under consideration, 100% of the next line section and reaches
further into the system.
The extended reach of this step is to give full back-up to the next line section in spite of the
maximum under-reach of the third step.
THREE STEPPED DISTANCE PROTECTION:
Purpose Reach Operating Remarks
time
First step Primary protection 80 to 90% of line Instantaneous Avoids undesired tripping of
section next section due to over-
reach of relay.
Second step Primary protection of 100% of line under 𝑇1 = Shortest adjoining line is to be
remaining 20 or 10% line consideration + 50% 𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 considered. If the longest
and back-up protection to of shortest adjoining + Selective adjoining line is considered,
the bus and some part of line time interval then it causes loss of
the next section selectivity.
Third step Back-up protection 100% of line under 𝑇2 = 𝑇1 + Longest adjoining line is to be
consideration + Selective time considered, otherwise the
100% of longest interval longest line will not get
adjoining line + 10 complete back-up protection.
to 20% extra Complete back-up protection
is to be provided to the
adjoining line even in case of
maximum under-reach.
NUMERICAL PROBLEM:
Draw impedance relay characteristics to protect 100% of the line having an
impedance of 3 + 𝑗4 . If an arcing fault having an arc impedance 1 + 𝑗0  occurs
anywhere on the line find the maximum portion of the line that can be protected by
impedance relay.
Restrain
Ans: 𝑋

Magnitude of impedance
= 32 + 42 = 5 . Trip
The circle with ‘𝑂’ as a
center and radius equal
to 5  on 𝑅 − 𝑋 plane, 𝑂 𝑅
represents the
characteristics of an
impedance relay.
NUMERICAL PROBLEM:
−1 4
Phase angle = tan = 53.13°
3

𝑂𝐴 = 5  Restrain
𝑋 𝐴
𝑂𝐵 = 3 
𝐶 𝐷
𝐴𝐵 = 4 
Trip
Let
53.13°
𝐶𝐷 = 1 , which represents the resistance
of the arcing fault. 𝑂 𝐵 𝑅

𝑂𝐷 = the impedance seen by the relay in

case of earthing fault.
The relay will under-reach and the reach of
the relay will reduce from 𝑂𝐴 to 𝑂𝐶.
NUMERICAL PROBLEM:

𝑂𝐴 = 𝑂𝐷 = 5  Restrain
2 2
∴ 𝑂𝐷2 = 𝑂𝐶 cos(53.13° ) +1 + 𝑂𝐶 sin 53.13° 𝑋 𝐴

∴ 52 = 0.6 𝑂𝐶 + 1 2
+ 0.8 𝑂𝐶 2 𝐶 𝐷
∴ 25 = 0.36𝑂𝐶 2 + 1.2 𝑂𝐶 + 1 + 0.64𝑂𝐶 2 Trip

∴ 𝑂𝐶 2 + 1.2 𝑂𝐶 − 24 = 0 53.13°
∴ 𝑂𝐶 =4.25 𝑂 𝐵 𝑅
% of line protected by impedance relay
4.25
= × 100 = 85%
5
𝐴𝐶 0.75
% Under-reach × 100 = × 100 = 15%
𝑂𝐴 5
NUMERICAL PROBLEM:
Draw reactance relay characteristics to protect 100% of the line having an
impedance of 3 + 𝑗4 . If an arcing fault having an arc impedance 1 + 𝑗0  occurs
anywhere on the line find the maximum portion of the line that can be protected by
reactance relay.
𝑋 Restrain

Trip
Ans:
Magnitude of reactance = 4 .
The line parallel to the
resistance axis at a distance of 𝑂 𝑅
4  (reactance), represents
the characteristics of a
reactance relay.
NUMERICAL PROBLEM:

𝑋 Restrain

Reactance relay is unaffected by Trip

the presence of arc resistance.
Hence the % of line protected by
reactance relay in the presence of
arcing fault = 100%. 𝑂 𝑅
NUMERICAL PROBLEM:
The impedance of line section 𝐴𝐵 is 3 + 𝑗7.5  (primary side). CT ratio: 400/1 A and
PT ratio: 132000/110 V.
First zone covers 80% of the first line. Second zone covers 150% of line section 𝐴𝐵,
and third zone covers 220% of 𝐴𝐵. Find the first, second and third zone setting of
an impedance relay at A.
Ans:
Impedance of line section 𝐴𝐵 = 3 + 𝑗7.5  (primary) = 8.0768.2° 
The impedance is to be transferred on relay side (secondary side)
𝐶𝑇𝑅
Impedance of line section on relay side (secondary side) = × 𝑍(𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦)
𝑃𝑇𝑅
400/1
= × 8.0768.2° 
132000/110

= 2.6968.2° 
NUMERICAL PROBLEM:
The impedance of line section 𝐴𝐵 is 3 + 𝑗7.5  (primary side). CT ratio: 400/1 A and
PT ratio: 132000/110 V.
First zone covers 80% of the first line. Second zone covers 150% of line section 𝐴𝐵,
and third zone covers 220% of 𝐴𝐵. Find the first, second and third zone setting of
an impedance relay at A.
Ans:
Impedance of line section on relay side (secondary side) = 2.6968.2° 
Setting of impedance relay used for first zone protection = 0.8 × 2.69 = 2.152 
Setting of second zone = 1.5 × 2.69 = 4.035 
Setting of zone 3 = 2.2 × 2.69 = 5.918 