Food Chain: Introduction producers at the bottom, followed by

primary, secondary and tertiary

A food chain explains which
consumers. Every level in a food
organism eats another organism in
chain is known as a trophic level.
the environment. The food chain is a
linear sequence of organisms where
nutrients and energy is transferred
from one organism to the other. This
occurs when one organism
consumes another organism. It The food chain consists of four major
begins with the producer organism, parts, namely:
follows the chain and ends with the
decomposer organism. After  The Sun: The sun is the
understanding the food chain, we initial source of energy, which
provides energy for
everything on the planet.
 Producers: The producers
in a food chain include all
autotrophs such as
phytoplankton, cyanobacteria,
algae, and green plants. This
is the first stage in a food
chain. The producers make
up the first level of a food
realise how one organism is chain. The producers utilise
dependent upon another organism the energy from the sun to
for survival. make food. Producers are
also known as autotrophs as
What is a Food Chain? they make their own food.
A food chain refers to the order of Producers are any plant or
events in an ecosystem, where one other organisms that produce
living organism eats another their own nutrients through
organism, and later that organism is photosynthesis.
consumed by another larger  Consumers: Consumers
organism. The flow of nutrients and are all organisms that are
energy from one organism to dependent on plants or other
another at different trophic levels organisms for food. This is the
forms a food chain. largest part of a food web, as
it contains almost all living
The food chain also explains the organisms. It includes
feeding pattern or relationship herbivores which are animals
between living organisms. Trophic that eat plants, carnivores
level refers to the sequential stages which are animals that eat
in a food chain, starting with other animals, parasites that
 live on other organisms by Food Web:
harming them and lastly the
Several interconnected food chains
scavengers, which are
form a food web. A food web is
animals that eat dead
similar to a food chain but the food
animals’ carcasses.
web is comparatively larger than a
food chain. Occasionally, a single
organism is consumed by many
Here, herbivores are known as
predators or it consumes several
primary consumers and carnivores
other organisms. Due to this, many
are secondary consumers. The
trophic levels get interconnected.
second trophic level includes
The food chain fails to showcase the
organisms that eat producers.
flow of energy in the right way. But,
Therefore, primary consumers or
the food web is able to show the
herbivores are organisms in the
proper representation of energy flow,
second trophic level.
as it displays the interactions
between different organisms.

 Decomposers: Decomposer
s are organisms that get When there are more cross-
energy from dead or waste interactions between different food
organic material. This is the chains, the food web gets more
last stage in a food chain. complex. This complexity in a food
Decomposers are an integral web leads to a more sustainable
part of a food chain, as they ecosystem.
convert organic waste
Types of Food Chain
materials into inorganic
materials, which enriches the There are two types of food chains,
soil or land with nutrients. namely the detritus food chain and
the grazing food chain. Let’s look at
them more closely:
Decomposers complete a life cycle.
They help in recycling the nutrients  Detritus food chain: The
as they provide nutrients to soil or detritus food chain includes
oceans, that can be utilised by different species of organisms
autotrophs or producers. Thus, and plants like algae,
starting a whole new food chain. bacteria, fungi, protozoa,
mites, insects, worms and so
on. The detritus food chain
begins with dead organic
material. The food energy
passes into decomposers and
 detritivores, which are further I
eaten by smaller organisms
like carnivores. Carnivores, n this type of food chain, the first
like maggots, become a meal energy transfer is from plants to
for bigger carnivores like herbivores. This type of food chain
frogs, snakes and so on. depends on the flow of energy from
Primary consumers like fungi, autotrophs to herbivores. As
bacteria, protozoans, and so autotrophs are the base for all
on are detritivores which feed ecosystems on Earth, the majority of
on detritus. ecosystems in the environment
follow this kind of food chain.
 Grazing food chain: The
grazing food chain is a type of Conclusion
food chain that starts with
green plants, passes through Understanding food chains is vital,
herbivores and then to as they explain the intimate
carnivores. In a grazing food relationships in an ecosystem. A
chain, energy in the lowest food chain shows us how every
trophic level is acquired from living organism is dependent on
photosynthesis. other organisms for survival. The
food

chain explains the path of energy In a food chain, an organism eats a

flow inside an ecosystem. single item, whereas in a food web
an organism consumes multiple
Frequently Asked Questions on items. In a food chain, there is a
Food Chain singular path for energy flow and in a
food web, there are different paths
for energy flow.
What are the first organisms in a
food chain? Producers, also known
as autotrophs, comprise the first What role do humans play in a
level in a food chain. food chain? The role of humans in
the food chain varies, depending on
what the human consumes as food.
What is the difference between If humans consume only plants, they
the food chain and the food web? are known as primary consumers. If
A food chain follows a single path, the human eats an organism that
where animals discover food. But a consumes plants, the human is
food web shows different paths, known as a secondary consumer,
where plants and animals are and so on. So they are referred to as
connected. A food web comprises omnivores.
several food chains.
What are animals called in a food
chain? Animals are known as
consumers in a food chain because who make food, continues with
they eat other plants and animals. consumers who eat the food and
ends with the topmost predator.

What do food chains end with? A

food chain begins with producers

The Water Cycle or hail allows scientists to better

understand precipitation’s impact on
streams, rivers,
surface runoff and groundwater.
Frequent and detailed
measurements help scientists make
models of and determine changes in
Earth’s water cycle.

The water cycle describes how water

evaporates from the surface of the
earth, rises into the atmosphere,
cools and condenses into rain or
Precipitation is a vital component of snow in clouds, and falls again to the
how water moves through Earth’s surface as precipitation. The water
water cycle, connecting the ocean, falling on land collects in rivers and
land, and atmosphere. Knowing lakes, soil, and porous layers of
where it rains, how much it rains and rock, and much of it flows back into
the character of the falling rain, snow the oceans, where it will once more
evaporate. The cycling of water in many different processes. Liquid
and out of the atmosphere is a water evaporates into water vapor,
significant aspect of condenses to form clouds, and
the weather patterns on Earth. precipitates back to earth in the form
of rain and snow. Water in different
The water cycle is often taught as a phases moves through the
simple circular cycle of evaporation, atmosphere (transportation). Liquid
condensation, and precipitation. water flows across land (runoff), into
Although this can be a useful model, the ground (infiltration and
the reality is much more percolation), and through the ground
complicated. The paths and (groundwater). Groundwater moves
influences of water through Earth’s into plants (plant uptake) and
ecosystems are extremely complex evaporates from plants into the
and not completely understood. atmosphere (transpiration). Solid ice
NOAA is striving to expand and snow can turn directly into gas
understanding of the water cycle at (sublimation). The opposite can also
global to local scales to improve our take place when water vapor
ability to forecast weather, climate, becomes solid (deposition).
water resources, and ecosystem
health.
All of the water on Earth makes up
the hydrosphere. And that water
doesn't stay still. It is always on the
move. Rain falling today may have
been water in a distant ocean days
before. And the water you see in a
river or stream may have been snow
on a high mountaintop. Water is in
the atmosphere, on the land, in the
ocean, and underground. It moves
from place to place through
the water cycle.
The water cycle on Earth
Where's the water?
Water is essential to life on Earth. In
its three phases (solid, liquid, and There are about 1.4 billion km3 of
gas), water ties together the major water (336 million mi3 of water) on
parts of the Earth’s climate system Earth. That includes liquid water in
— air, clouds, the ocean, lakes, the ocean, lakes, and rivers. It
vegetation, snowpackoffsite link, includes frozen water in snow, ice,
and glaciersoffsite link. and glaciers, and water that’s
The water cycle shows the underground in soils and rocks. It
continuous movement of water includes the water that’s in
within the Earth and atmosphere. It
is a complex system that includes
the atmosphere as clouds and with a little added energy from
vapor. the Sun through a process
called evaporation. Snow and ice
If you could put all that water can also turn into water vapor, which
together – like a gigantic water drop is a process known as sublimation.
– it would be 1,500 kilometers (930 And water vapor gets into the
miles) across. atmosphere from plants, too, which
is called transpiration.
Of all the water in the hydrosphere,
the vast majority, about 97% of it, Because air is cooler at higher
fills the ocean. About 2% of the altitude in the troposphere, water
water on Earth is frozen in ice sheets vapor cools as it rises high in the
near the poles and in glaciers. atmosphere and transforms into
Sometimes the ice on Earth is water droplets by a process called
included in the hydrosphere and condensation. The water droplets
sometimes it's seperated into a that form make up clouds. Water
special part of the Earth system vapor can also condense into
called the cryosphere. Most of the droplets near the ground, forming
ice is in Antarctica, a smaller amount fog when the ground is cold. If the
in Greenland in the Arctic, and a tiny temperature is cold enough, ice
fraction in mountain glaciers around crystals form instead of liquid water
the world. Most of the remaining 1% droplets.
of Earth’s water is underground, in
shallow aquifers, as soil moisture, or If the droplets or ice crystals within
deep underground in rock layers. clouds grow in size, they eventually
Only a small fraction of the water on become too heavy to stay in the air,
Earth (0.03%) is in lakes, wetlands, falling to the ground as rain, snow,
and rivers. and other types of precipitation.

Water's on the move. What happens to the rain and

snow that fall?
As it moves through the water cycle,
water often changes from a liquid, to Around the world, each year, about
a solid (ice), to a gas (water vapor). 505,000 km3 (121,000 mi3) of water
Water in oceans and lakes is falls as rain, snow, and other types
typically liquid; but it is solid ice in of precipitation.
glaciers, and often invisible water
vapor in the atmosphere. Clouds are 86% of those raindrops and
tiny droplets of liquid water or small snowflakes come from the ocean
ice crystals. where 434,000 km3(104,000 mi3) of
water evaporates into
Water at the surface of the ocean, the atmosphere each year. Water
rivers, and lakes can become water eventually returns to the ocean as
vapor and move into the atmosphere precipitation that falls directly into the
sea and as precipitation that falls on A drop of water may spend over
land and flows to the ocean through 3,000 years in the ocean before
rivers. evaporating into the air, while a drop
of water spends an average of just
Less water evaporates over the nine days in the atmosphere before
land than falls onto land as falling back to Earth.
precipitation. Evaporation of water
from the land happens directly from Water spends thousands to
lakes, puddles, and other surface hundreds of thousands of years in
water. Also, water also makes its the large ice sheets that cover
way into the atmosphere via a Antarctica and Greenland. The
process called transpiration in which oldest ice in Antarctica has been
plants release water into the air from there for 2.7 million years. However,
their leaves that was pulled up from snow that falls in the winter may only
the soil through roots. Collectively, stick around for a few days in mid-
the water evaporated from the land latitudes locations, where
and from plants is called temperatures often rise above
evapotranspiration. freezing causing the snow to melt, or
up to six months closer to the Arctic,
Some of the snow and ice that falls where temperatures stay below
as precipitation stays on the land as freezing all winter.
a part of icy mountaintop glaciers or
the ice sheets that cover places like Water stays in soil for around one to
Greenland and Antarctica. Some of two months although this varies
the precipitation seeps into the greatly. Water that’s in soil moves
ground and joins the groundwater into the atmosphere by
that is often tapped by wells to evaporation and also by
provide water to farms, towns, and transpiration.
cities.
There are exceptions. For example,
How long does water stay in a while water vapor spends relatively
place before it moves? little time in the atmosphere, vapor
that makes its way into
The length of time that particular the stratosphere, the layer of the
water molecules stay in a part of the atmosphere above
water cycle is quite variable, but the troposphere where weather
water does stay in certain places typically forms, may remain there for
longer than others. a long time. Also, while water
generally spends thousands of years
in the ocean before moving on,
water in warm, shallow coastal areas
may evaporate and leave the ocean
very quickly as compared with other
areas of the ocean.
Climate change is affecting the Some areas may experience heavier
water cycle. than normal precipitation, and other
areas may become prone to
Warming global droughts. Other parts of the water
temperatures increases the rate of cycle - such as clouds, the ocean,
evaporation and precipitation. The glaciers and sea ice - are also
impacts are expected to increase affected by climate change.
over this century as climate warms.

Biogeochemical Cycles common of these are the carbon and

nitrogen cycles.
There are a few types of atoms that
can be a part of a plant one day, an
animal the next day, and then travel
downstream as a part of a river’s Tiny atoms of carbon and nitrogen
water the following day. These are able to move around the planet
atoms can be a part of both living through these cycles. For example,
things like plants and animals, as an atom of carbon is absorbed from
well as non-living things like water, the air into the ocean water where it
air, and even rocks. The same is used by little floating plankton
atoms are recycled over and over in doing photosynthesis to get the
different parts of the Earth. This type nutrition they need. There is the
of cycle of atoms between living and possibility that this little carbon atom
non-living things is known as a becomes part of the plankton’s
biogeochemical cycle. skeleton, or a part of the skeleton of
the larger animal that eats it, and
then part of a sedimentary rock
when the living things die and only
All of the atoms that are building bones are left behind. Carbon that is
blocks of living things are a part of a part of rocks and fossil fuels like
biogeochemical cycles. The most oil, coal, and natural gas may be
held away from the rest of the to produce food made from
carbon cycle for a long time. These carbon for plant growth.
long-term storage places are called  Carbon moves from plants to
“sinks”. When fossil fuels are animals. Through food chains,
burned, carbon that had been the carbon that is in plants
underground is sent into the air as moves to the animals that eat
carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas. them. Animals that eat other
animals get the carbon from
their food too.
 Carbon moves from plants
Recently, people have been causing and animals to soils. When
these biogeochemical cycles to plants and animals die, their
change. When we cut down forests, bodies, wood and leaves
make more factories, and drive more decays bringing the carbon
cars that burn fossil fuels, the way into the ground. Some is
that carbon and nitrogen move buried and will become fossil
around the Earth changes. These fuels in millions and millions
changes add more greenhouse of years.
gases in our atmosphere and this  Carbon moves from living
causes climate change. things to the atmosphere.
Each time you exhale, you
are releasing carbon dioxide
gas (CO2) into the
The Carbon Cycle The element atmosphere. Animals and
plants need to get rid of
carbon is a part of seawater, the
carbon dioxide gas through a
atmosphere, rocks such as
process called respiration.
limestone and coal, soils, as well as  Carbon moves from fossil
all living things. On our dynamic fuels to the atmosphere when
planet, carbon is able to move from fuels are burned. When
one of these realms to another as a humans burn fossil fuels to
part of the carbon cycle. power factories, power plants,
cars and trucks, most of the
carbon quickly enters the
atmosphere as carbon dioxide
gas. Each year, five and a half
 Carbon moves from the
billion tons of carbon is
atmosphere to plants. In the
released by burning fossil
atmosphere, carbon is
fuels. Of this massive amount,
attached to oxygen in a gas
3.3 billion tons stays in the
called carbon dioxide (CO2).
atmosphere. Most of the
Through the process of
remainder becomes dissolved
photosynthesis, carbon
in seawater.
dioxide is pulled from the air
  Carbon moves from the Carbon moves through our planet
atmosphere to the oceans. over longer time scales as well. For
The oceans, and other bodies example, over millions of years
of water, absorb some carbon weathering of rocks on land can add
from the atmosphere. The carbon to surface water which
carbon is dissolved into the eventually runs off to the ocean.
water. Over long time scales, carbon is
removed from seawater when the
Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas shells and bones of marine animals
and traps heat in the atmosphere. and plankton collect on the sea floor.
Without it and other greenhouse These shells and bones are made of
gases, Earth would be a frozen limestone, which contains carbon.
world. But since the start of the When they are deposited on the sea
Industrial Revolution about 150 floor, carbon is stored from the rest
years ago humans have burned so of the carbon cycle for some amount
much fuel and released so much of time. The amount of limestone
carbon dioxide into the air that global deposited in the ocean depends
climate has risen over one degree somewhat on the amount of warm,
Fahrenheit. The atmosphere has not tropical, shallow oceans on the
held this much carbon for at least planet because this is where prolific
420,000 years according to data limestone-producing organisms such
from ice cores. The recent increase as corals live. The carbon can be
in amounts of greenhouse gases released back to the atmosphere if
such as carbon dioxide is having a the limestone melts or is
significant impact on the warming of metamorphosed in a subduction
our planet. zone.

The Nitrogen Cycle nitrogen atoms bonded together

(N2). All plants and animals need
Nitrogen is an element that is found nitrogen to make amino acids,
in both the living portion of our planet proteins and DNA, but the nitrogen
and the inorganic parts of the Earth in the atmosphere is not in a form
system. Nitrogen moves slowly that they can use. The molecules of
through the cycle and is stored in nitrogen in the atmosphere can
reservoirs such as the atmosphere, become usable for living things when
living organisms, soils, and oceans they are broken apart during
along the way. lightning strikes or fires, by certain
types of bacteria, or by bacteria
Most of the nitrogen on Earth is in associated with legume plants. Other
the atmosphere. Approximately 80% plants get the nitrogen they need
of the molecules in Earth's from the soils or water in which they
atmosphere are made of two live mostly in the form of inorganic
nitrate (NO3-). Nitrogen is a limiting nitrogen cycle by burning fossil fuels
factor for plant growth. Animals get and forests, which releases various
the nitrogen they need by consuming solid forms of nitrogen. Farming also
plants or other animals that contain affects the nitrogen cycle. The waste
organic molecules composed associated with livestock farming
partially of nitrogen. When releases a large amount of nitrogen
organisms die, their bodies into soil and water. In the same way,
decompose bringing the nitrogen sewage waste adds nitrogen to soils
into soil on land or into the oceans. and water.
As dead plants and animals
decompose, nitrogen is converted Nitrogen and Air Pollution
into inorganic forms such as
ammonium salts (NH4+) by a Nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen
process called mineralization. The dioxide(NO2) are together known
ammonium salts are absorbed onto as nitrogen oxides. These nitrogen
clay in the soil and then chemically oxides contribute to the problem of
altered by bacteria into nitrite (NO2-) air pollution, playing roles in the
and then nitrate (NO3-). Nitrate is formation of both smog and acid
the form commonly used by plants. It rain. They are released into Earth's
is easily dissolved in water and atmosphere by both natural and
leached from the soil system. human-generated sources.
Dissolved nitrate can be returned to
the atmosphere by certain bacteria Nitric oxide is a colorless, flammable
through a process called gas with a slight odor. Nitrogen
denitrification. dioxide is a deep red-orange gas
that is poisonous but not flammable.
Certain actions of humans are It, along with aerosols, is responsible
causing changes to the nitrogen for the reddish-brown color of smog.
cycle and the amount of nitrogen At high concentrations, it is highly
that is stored in reservoirs. The use toxic and can cause serious lung
of nitrogen-rich fertilizers can cause damage. Nitrogen dioxide is a strong
nutrient loading in nearby waterways oxidizing agent, and is thus very
as nitrates from the fertilizer wash reactive with other compounds.
into streams and ponds. The
increased nitrate levels cause plants Scientists estimate that between 20
to grow rapidly until they use up the and 90 million tons of nitrogen
nitrate supply and die. The number oxides in produced naturally each
of herbivores will increase when the year from sources such as
plant supply increases and then the volcanoes, oceans, biological decay,
herbivores are left without a food and lightning strikes. Human
source when the plants die. In this activities add another 24 million tons
way, changes in nutrient supply will of nitrogen oxides to our atmosphere
affect the entire food chain. annually.
Additionally, humans are altering the
Both NO and NO2 are formed during (Peroxyacytyl nitrate), yet another
high-temperature combustion in the element in smog. Nitrogen dioxide in
atmosphere, when oxygen combines the air also reacts with water vapor
with nitrogen. The exhaust gases of to form nitric acid, one of the types of
cars and trucks are major sources of acid in acid rain. Nitric oxide
nitrogen oxides, as are the concentration in unpolluted air is
emissions from electrical power around 0.01 ppm. In smog, the
generation plants. Automobile concentration rises twenty-fold to
exhaust has more NO than NO2, but about 0.2 ppm.
once the NO is released into the
atmosphere it quickly combines with Although nitrogen oxides have
oxygen in the air to form NO2. gained dubious distinction as
pollutants, they are also used
Nitrogen oxides are at least partially beneficially in some industrial
responsible for several types of air processes. Nitric oxide is
pollution. Nitrogen dioxide lends its manufactured on a large scale, and
color to the reddish-brown haze we is subsequently used to make nitric
call smog. Photodissociation of acid (HNO3). To create nitric oxide
nitrogen dioxide by sunlight for industrial uses, chemists combine
produces nitric oxide and ozone in ammonia (NH3) with oxygen (O2),
the troposphere, which is another releasing water (H2O) as a
component of smog. A series of byproduct. Nitrogen compounds
chemical reactions transform Volatile derived from nitric acid are used to
Organic Compounds (VOCs) into create chemical fertilizers,
substances that combine with explosives, and other useful
nitrogen dioxide to produce PAN substances.
SULFUR CYCLE They are commercially important as
a source of enzymes that operate
The sulfur cycle describes the under similar conditions.
movement of sulfur through the
geosphere and biosphere. Sulfur is assimilatory sulfate reduction:
released from rocks through The reduction of 3′-
weathering, and then assimilated by Phosphoadenosine-5′-
microbes and plants. It is then phosphosulfate, a more elaborated
passed up the food chain and sulfateester, leads also to hydrogen
assimilated by plants and animals, sulfide, the product used in
and released when they decompose. biosynthesis (e.g., for the production
of cysteine because the sulfate
Many bacteria can reduce sulfur in sulfur is assimilated).
small amounts, but some specialized
bacteria can perform respiration The Sulfur Cycle describes the
entirely using sulfur. They use sulfur movement of sulfur through the
or sulfate as an electron receptor in atmosphere, mineral forms, and
their respiration, and release sulfide through living things. Although sulfur
as waste. This is a common form of is primarily found in sedimentary
anaerobic respiration in microbes. rocks or sea water, it is particularly
important to living things because it
Sulfur reducing pathways are found is a component of many proteins.
in many pathogenic bacteria
species. Tuberculosis and leprosy Sulfur is released from geologic
are both caused by bacterial species sources through the weathering of
that reduce sulfur, so the sulfur rocks. Once sulfur is exposed to the
reduction pathway is an important air, it combines with oxygen, and
target of drug development. becomes sulfate SO4. Plants and
microbes assimilate sulfate and
extremophile: An organism that convert it into organic forms. As
lives under extreme conditions of animals consume plants, the sulfur is
temperature, salinity, and so on. moved through the food chain and
released when organisms die and bacteria reduce small amounts of
decompose. sulfates to synthesize sulfur-
containing cell components; this is
Some bacteria – for example known as assimilatory sulfate
Proteus, Campylobacter, reduction. By contrast, the sulfate-
Pseudomonas and Salmonella – reducing bacteria considered here
have the ability to reduce sulfur, but reduce sulfate in large amounts to
can also use oxygen and other obtain energy and expel the resulting
terminal electron acceptors. Others, sulfide as waste. This process is
such as Desulfuromonas, use only known as dissimilatory sulfate
sulfur. These bacteria get their reduction. In a sense, they breathe
energy by reducing elemental sulfur sulfate.
to hydrogen sulfide. They may
combine this reaction with the Sulfur metabolic pathways for
oxidation of acetate, succinate, or bacteria have important medical
other organic compounds. implications. For example,
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (the
The most well known sulfur reducing bacteria causing tuberculosis) and
bacteria are those in the domain Mycobacterium leprae (which
Archea, which are some of the causes leoprosy) both utilize sulfur,
oldest forms of life on Earth. They so the sulfur pathway is a target of
are often extremophiles, living in hot drug development to control these
springs and thermal vents where bacteria.
other organisms cannot live. Lots of

PHOSPHORUS CYCLE deposits, from which it is released

by weathering, leaching, and mining.
,circulation of phosphorus in various
Some of it passes through
forms through nature. Of all the
freshwater and terrestrial
elements recycled in the biosphere,
ecosystems via plants, grazers,
phosphorus is the scarcest and
predators, and parasites, to be
therefore the one most limiting in any
returned to those ecosystems by
given ecological system. It is
death and decay. Much of it,
indispensable to life, being intimately
however, is deposited in the sea, in
involved in energy transfer and in the
shallow sediments, where it
passage of genetic information in the
circulates readily, or in ocean deeps,
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) of all
whence it wells up only occasionally.
cells.
Phosphorus is brought back to the
land through fish harvests and
through collection of guano
Much of the phosphorus on Earth is
deposited by seabirds. Although
tied up in rock and sedimentary
there are seasonal pulses of
availability, there appears to be a Decomposition
steady loss of phosphorus to the
ocean deeps.

Because of its high reactivity,

phosphorus exists in combined form
with other elements. Microorganisms
produce acids that form soluble
phosphate from insoluble
phosphorus compounds. The
phosphates are utilized by algae and
terrestrial green plants, which in turn
pass into the bodies of animal
consumers. Upon death and decay
of organisms, phosphates are
released for recycling.

Because of the steady diversion of

phosphorus into the oceans, the
element must be added (in
fertilizers) to soils to maintain fertility
and agricultural productivity.

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
ABSORPTION BY PLANTS
Consumption by Animals
Decomposition

Weathering and Run off

Uptake by phytoplankton
Food web transfer (zooplankton,
small fish, big fish)
 Nitrogen gas exists in both organic
and inorganic forms. Organic
nitrogen exists in living organisms,
and they get passed through the
food chain by the consumption of
other living organisms.
Nitrogen Cycle Definition
Inorganic forms of nitrogen are found
in abundance in the atmosphere.
“Nitrogen Cycle is a This nitrogen is made available to
biogeochemical process plants by symbiotic bacteria which
which transforms the inert can convert the inert nitrogen into a
nitrogen present in the usable form – such as nitrites and
atmosphere to a more nitrates.
usable form for living
organisms.” Nitrogen undergoes various types of
transformation to maintain a balance
Furthermore, nitrogen is a key in the ecosystem. Furthermore, this
nutrient element for plants. However, process extends to various biomes,
the abundant nitrogen in the with the marine nitrogen cycle being
atmosphere cannot be used directly one of the most complicated
by plants or animals. Read on to biogeochemical cycles.
explore how the Nitrogen cycle
makes usable nitrogen available to Nitrogen Cycle Explained –
plants and other living organisms. Stages of Nitrogen Cycle
Process of the Nitrogen Cycle
What is the Nitrogen Cycle?
consists of the following steps –
Nitrogen Cycle is a biogeochemical Nitrogen fixation, Nitrification,
process through which nitrogen is Assimilation, Ammonification
converted into many forms, and Denitrification. These processes
consecutively passing from the take place in several stages and are
atmosphere to the soil to organism explained below:
and back into the atmosphere.
Nitrogen Fixation Process
It involves several processes such
It is the initial step of the nitrogen
as nitrogen fixation, nitrification,
cycle. Here, Atmospheric nitrogen
denitrification, decay and
(N2) which is primarily available in
putrefaction.
an inert form, is converted into the
usable form -ammonia (NH3).

During the process of Nitrogen

fixation, the inert form of nitrogen
gas is deposited into soils from the
atmosphere and surface waters, 3. Biological nitrogen
mainly through precipitation. fixation: We already know
that nitrogen is not used
The entire process of Nitrogen directly from the air by plants
fixation is completed by symbiotic and animals. Bacteria
bacteria, which are known as like Rhizobium and blue-
Diazotrophs. Azotobacter and Rhizo green algae transform the
bium also have a major role in this unusable form of nitrogen into
process. These bacteria consist of a other compounds that are
nitrogenase enzyme, which has the more readily usable. These
capability to combine gaseous nitrogen compounds get fixed
nitrogen with hydrogen to form in the soil by these microbes.
ammonia.

Nitrogen fixation can occur either by

Nitrification
atmospheric fixation- which involves
lightening, or industrial fixation by In this process, the ammonia is
manufacturing ammonia under high converted into nitrate by the
temperature and pressure presence of bacteria in the
conditions. This can also be fixed soil. Nitrites are formed by the
through man-made processes, oxidation of ammonia with the help
primarily industrial processes that of Nitrosomonas bacteria species.
create ammonia and nitrogen-rich Later, the produced nitrites are
fertilisers. converted into nitrates
by Nitrobacter. This conversion is
Types of Nitrogen Fixation very important as ammonia gas is
toxic for plants.
1. Atmospheric
fixation: A natural The reaction involved in the process
phenomenon where the of Nitrification is as follows:
energy of lightning breaks the
nitrogen into nitrogen oxides, 2NH3 + 3O2 → 2NO2– + 2H+ +
which are then used by 2H2O
plants.
2NO2– + O2 → 2NO3–
2. Industrial nitrogen
fixation: It is a man-made Assimilation
alternative that aids in
Primary producers – plants take in
nitrogen fixation by the use of
the nitrogen compounds from the
ammonia. Ammonia is
soil with the help of their roots, which
produced by the direct
are available in the form of
combination of nitrogen and
ammonia, nitrite ions, nitrate ions or
hydrogen. Later, it is
ammonium ions and are used in the
converted into various
formation of the plant and animal
fertilisers such as urea.
proteins. This way, it enters the food form sedimentary rock. Due to the
web when the primary consumers geological uplift, these sedimentary
eat the plants. rocks move to land. Initially, it was
not known that these nitrogen-
Ammonification containing sedimentary rocks are an
When plants or animals die, essential source of nitrogen. But,
the nitrogen present in the organic recent researches have proved that
matter is released back into the soil. the nitrogen from these rocks is
The decomposers, namely bacteria released into the plants due to the
or fungi present in the soil, convert weathering of rocks.
the organic matter back into
Importance of Nitrogen Cycle
ammonium. This process of
decomposition produces ammonia, The importance of the nitrogen cycle
which is further used for other are as follows:
biological processes.
1. Helps plants
Denitrification to synthesise chlorophyll from
Denitrification is the process in which the nitrogen compounds.
the nitrogen compounds make their 2. Helps in converting inert
way back into the atmosphere nitrogen gas into a usable
by converting nitrate (NO3-) into form for the plants through the
gaseous nitrogen (N). This process biochemical process.
of the nitrogen cycle is the final 3. In the process of
stage and occurs in the absence of ammonification, the bacteria
oxygen. Denitrification is carried out help in decomposing the
by the denitrifying bacterial animal and plant matter,
species- Clostridium and Pseudomo which indirectly helps to clean
nas, which will process nitrate to up the environment.
gain oxygen and gives out free 4. Nitrates and nitrites are
nitrogen gas as a byproduct. released into the soil, which
helps in enriching the soil with
Nitrogen Cycle in Marine
the necessary nutrients
Ecosystem
required for cultivation.
The process of the nitrogen cycle 5. Nitrogen is an integral
occurs in the same manner in the component of the cell and it
marine ecosystem as in the forms many crucial
terrestrial ecosystem. The only compounds and important
difference is that it is carried out by biomolecules.
marine bacteria.
Nitrogen is also cycled by human
The nitrogen-containing compounds activities such as the combustion of
fall into the ocean as sediments get fuels and the use of nitrogen
compressed over long periods and fertilisers. These processes increase
the levels of nitrogen-containing nitrogen gas. Eventually, it
compounds in the atmosphere. The goes back to the atmosphere.
fertilisers containing nitrogen are  These sets of processes
washed away in lakes, rivers and repeat continuously and thus
result in eutrophication. maintain the percentage of
nitrogen in the atmosphere.
Conclusion

 Nitrogen is abundant in the

atmosphere, but it is unusable Why is nitrogen important for life?
to plants or animals unless it
is converted into nitrogen
compounds. Nitrogen constitutes many cellular
 Nitrogen-fixing
bacteria play components and is essential in many
a crucial role in fixing biological processes. For instance,
atmospheric nitrogen into the amino acids contain nitrogen and
nitrogen compounds that can form building blocks that make up
be used by plants. various components of the human
body such as hair, tissues and
 The plants absorb the usable
muscles.
nitrogen compounds from the
soil through their roots. Then,
these nitrogen compounds Why do plants need nitrogen?
are used for the production of
proteins and other
compounds in the plant cell. Plants need nitrogen as this element
 Animals assimilate nitrogen is an important component of
by consuming these plants or chlorophyll.
other animals that contain Consequently, chlorophyll is vital for
nitrogen. Humans consume the process of photosynthesis, so
proteins from these plants lack of nitrogen can cause deficiency
and animals. The nitrogen disorders such as stunted growth
then assimilates into our body and other abnormalities
system.
 During the final stages of the List the different steps that
nitrogen cycle, bacteria and explain the Nitrogen Cycle
fungi help decompose organic process.
matter, where the nitrogenous
compounds get dissolved into
 Nitrogen Fixation
the soil which is again used
by the plants.  Assimilation

 Some bacteria then convert  Ammonification

these nitrogenous compounds  Nitrification
in the soil and turn it into
  Denitrification The process of nitrogen fixation is
What is Ammonification? carried out naturally in the soil within
nodules in the plant’s root systems.

Ammonification occurs during the Forest

decomposition of organic matter,
where ammonifying bacteria convert
organic nitrogen into inorganic
components like ammonia or
ammonium ions.

What is Nitrification?

Nitrification is a process that

converts ammonia into nitrate by
bacteria. Initially, the ammonia is
converted to nitrite (NO2−) by the
bacteria Nitrosomonas,
or Nitrococcus, etc., and then to
nitrate (NO3–) by Nitrobacter.

What is Denitrification?

Denitrification is the process of

converting the nitrate back into
molecular nitrogen by bacterias such
as Pseudomonas,
Thiobacillus, Bacillus subtilis etc.

What is the function of nitrifying

bacteria?

Nitrifying bacteria are a small group

of aerobic bacteria, which are mainly
involved in the conversion of
ammonia into nitrates.

Which part of the plant is involved

in nitrogen fixation?
 study of life forms found in a forest
and their ecological roles. Forest is a
diverse natural habitat system
representing the most sumptuous
biological areas on Earth. Nearly
30% of the Earth’s surface is
covered with forests but it is
dwindling because of commercial
exploitation.

As per the Convention on Biological

Diversity (CBD), Forest biodiversity
is a result of the evolutionary
processes which occurred over
thousands and millions of years.
FOREST This process of evolution itself was
driven by ecological forces like fire,
The ecosystem, biomes, biodiversity, climate, water, temperature,
and species or population interaction exposure to light, and ecological
in such communities are an phenomena like competition and
important aspect of Biology. Forest disturbance.
is a large geographical area
dominated by trees, animals of Forest Ecosystem
various species, aquatic biomes and
Study of interdependent relations of
microorganisms. Study of forest and
flora and fauna in a forest is termed
its various aspects becomes
as Forest Ecosystem. In
imperative if you want to learn about
such ecosystems, the entire
the biological interaction of species
interaction happens naturally
on a large scale.
between all abiotic and biotic
Forest Biology components. The ecological
potential of any species depends on
Forest Biology is a multidisciplinary their habitat requirements like
field consisting of molecular temperature, climate, frugality, their
transmission and population lifespan and, reproducing capacity.
genetics, physical limits of tree
height, causes of drought, landscape Types of Forest Ecosystem
genomics, forest pathology and
entomology, biogeography and Temperate Forest Ecosystem
ecosystem ecology of the forest.
The Tropical Rainforest Ecosystem
Forest Biodiversity
Boreal or Taiga Forests
Forest Biodiversity or Forest
Biological Diversity refers to the
There are Producers who prepare The trees of these forests are
food for the entire forest ecosystem. broadleaved and are shed between
Trees and plants are thus called the late summer to early autumn. The
primary producers. Consumers are leaves are usually green but later
the one who cannot produce their acquires yellow, red and orange
own food and thus depend on colours gradually. These forests are
producers for their food and energy found in America, Western and
sources. Organisms that only eat Central Europe, and Northeastern
plants are referred to as primary Asia where the winters are cold and
consumers. For example, herbivores summers are warm.
such as deer and rabbits are primary
consumers. Secondary consumers 3) Mixed Forests
feed on herbivores and are called as
Deciduous and Coniferous trees as
Carnivores. Omnivores are the
both types constitute mixed forests,
consumers that feed both on plant
which are mostly found in
and animals.
mountainous areas. These are found
Organisms like worms, microbes, almost every part of the world.
fungi, ants, and other bugs are
4) Mediterranean Forests
called Decomposers as they break
down the plant and animal wastes They are also called scrublands as
into small particles which ultimately its temperature is suitable for short
blends with the environment. Human oaks and pines to grow. The
beings are omnivores as they feed Mediterranean forest contains a wide
on both flora and fauna and thus are variety of wildflowers and insect-
a part of this forest ecosystem. eating birds. This forest is also
termed as “maquis”.
Forest Biome
Forests can be divided into 5 main 5) Tropical Rainforest
categories, depending on the types
These forests are situated in the
of trees found in them. They are –
areas with hot temperatures like
1) Coniferous Forest South America, Africa, Asia and
Australia. Thus they are called
As the name suggests, the trees Tropical and due to continuous
found in these forests mainly rainfall throughout the year, they are
consists of cone-bearing trees like called Rainforests. It is a habitat for
the spruce, pine, fir, and hemlock. various insects, colourful birds and
These are found mostly in the mammals.
northern parts of North America,
Asia, and Europe.

2) Deciduous Forest
FIVE BENEFITS OF PROTECTED
AREAS

by Madison Lemelin

Rainforest Trust’s mission for over

30 years has been to prevent
destruction and deforestation of
tropical habitat through the creation
of protected areas. Critical habitat
around the world faces increasing
threats, ranging from forest fires due
to slash and burn agriculture, to land
clearing for large scale development,
to desertification. The results put our
planet and all its inhabitants at risk.

The top five reasons protected areas

matter are:

1. Safeguard Biodiversity
We are currently living in the sixth ecosystems intact, thus playing a
mass extinction. Species are being vital role in disease prevention.
lost at an alarming rate. Protected
areas guard critical habitat for
species so that they can thrive in
A rainforest at sunrise
nature, unimpacted by human
disturbance. Recent studies have
shown that on average the number
3. Provide Local Economic
of species in a protected area is
Success
10.6% higher than outside, and the
populations of those species are
When created in collaboration with
nearby communities, local
economies stand to benefit from
protected areas. Many protected
areas are hotspots for ecotourism,
bringing new revenue that directly
benefits communities. Community
members often find employment in
14.5% greater when they live on
the protected area or within an
protected land.
industry supporting tourism.

Red Panda, photo by Mathias Appel

2. Prevent the Spread of Disease

Clearing habitat displaces

biodiversity and renders ecosystems
unbalanced. As wildlife is pushed to
marginal habitats and increasingly
comes into contact with humans,
ideal conditions are created for the
emergence of zoonotic disease. An
estimated 60% of infectious Photo by Ami Vitale
diseases –including SARS-CoV-2,
4. Ensure Food and Water
Lyme and Ebola–are zoonotic in
Security
origin. Protected areas keep
Millions of people depend on the
food produced or obtained in and
around protected areas. Protected
areas safeguard and foster the
biodiversity in ecosystems that has
Photo by Rainforest Trust
long served as important dietary
components for local communities
for thousands of years, such as fish, Protected areas matter. We all
plants, fruits, honey and much more. benefit when nature is protected and
Management plans often promote healthy. The need has never been
best practices for sustainable more urgent. Be a part of our impact
agriculture that result in greater and donate today.
supplies for local communities to
consume or sell. These areas also
protect watersheds that ensure a
clean water supply.

Photo by Rainforest Trust

5. Build Resilience Against
Climate Change

Many of our planet’s habitats–

including forests, peat swamps and
oceans–store excess greenhouse
gases like carbon and keep them
from our atmosphere, regulating the
global climate. But when they are
wiped out for unsustainable
development, our planet’s climate
becomes less predictable and more
extreme, making us more
susceptible to the disastrous effects
of climate change. Creating and
maintaining protected areas is the
simplest solution to halting these
harmful human-induced activities,
and, in turn, sequestering carbon to
reduce climate change.
 emergency. A mature tree absorbs
and stores carbon dioxide – the
greenhouse gas we emit from
What is Deforestation?
burning fossil fuels, like coal, gas,
Deforestation is happening around and oil. These gases cause climate
the world with all forest types but change and lead to a warming in the
occurs mostly in tropical areas. planet’s temperature. As more
Tropical primary forest loss in 2022 forests are destroyed, so too is our
totaled 4.1 million hectares, the ability to trap these greenhouse
equivalent of losing 11 football fields gases and slow rising temperatures
of forest every minute. All this forest around the world which cause
loss produced 2.7 gigatonnes (Gt) of droughts, forest fires, and more
carbon dioxide emissions, equivalent frequent hurricanes and typhoons.
to India’s annual fossil fuel
emissions. Other Consequences of
Deforestation
Deforestation means cutting or
Deforestation is a critical
clearing trees and forests covering a
environmental concern. The loss of
large area, and not replanting them.
trees and forests can cause
desertification, soil erosion, fewer
Forest degradation is a related
crops, flooding, and a host of other
term that indicates when a forest is
problems:
no longer functioning as a healthy
ecosystem: A degraded forest can
 Food problems Once
no longer sustain populations the
deprived of their forest cover,
way it used to. For instance, it might
lands rapidly degrade in
not offer enough quality habitat or
quality, losing their fertility,
food to animals. In other words,
and arability
when a forest is degraded it still
 Exposure of soil to heat
exists, but it can no longer function
and rainHeavy rainfall and
well. It becomes a shell of its former
high sunlight quickly damage
self.
the topsoil in clearings of the
tropical rainforests. In such
There are four different types of
circumstances, the forest will
forests worldwide: tropical forests,
take much longer to
temperate forests, and boreal forests
regenerate. The land will not
and plantations.
be suitable for agricultural use
Deforestation and the Climate for quite some time.
 Flooding Fertile topsoil is
Emergency
eroded and flooded into the
Deforestation is a major contributor lower regions. Many coastal
to global warming and the climate fisheries and coral reefs suffer
from the sedimentation
 brought on by the flooding. valuable minerals in tropical
This results in adverse effects forests is furthering damage
on the economic viability of due to the rising demand and
many businesses and high mineral prices. This
damage to the wildlife causes environmental
population. impacts like soil erosion, the
 Loss of formation of sinkholes, and
biodiversity through contamination of soil,
destruction and extinction of groundwater and surface
many plants and animal water by chemicals from
species. mining processes.
 Displacement of  Logging or cutting of
indigenous trees for paper production,
communities The loss of firewood, building materials
forests threatens some and furniture-making
indigenous people’s way of  Commercial
life and survival – as they agriculture, such as palm oil
have to move out of the which destroy mangrove
forests to town and cities. plantations
 Economic loss A forest’s  Livestock
value is often higher when it is ranching. Conversion of
left standing than it could be forests to cattle ranching and
worth when it is harvested as deforestation are most vital in
it provides a host of natural Central and South America
services, such as water
purification and carbon In a nutshell, agricultural expansion
dioxide storage. It also is the main driver of deforestation in
provides a home to millions of Africa, Latin America, and
flora and fauna that are the (Sub)tropical Asia alike. Agriculture
source of ancient and modern is especially responsible for
medicines. deforestation in Latin America,
where it accounts for over 90% of
Causes of Deforestation deforestation (whereas in Africa and
subtropical Asia, it accounts for 70 –
 Population growth: To 75%).
meet the demands of a
rapidly growing population in
developing countries, forests
are converted for agricultural
lands, new living settlements,
and infrastructure-building of
roads.
 Mining. The increase of
mining for gold and other