Fluid Mechanics:

Fundamentals and Applications

4th Edition in SI Units

Yunus A. Cengel, John M. Cimbala

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Chapter 4

FLUID KINEMATICS

McGraw-Hill | 2
Satellite image of a hurricane near the Florida coast; water droplets move with the air,
enabling us to visualize the counterclockwise swirling motion. However, the major
portion of the hurricane is actually irrotational, while only the core (the eye of the storm)
is rotational.
3
 Objectives
• Understand the role of the material derivative in
transforming between Lagrangian and Eulerian
descriptions
• Distinguish between various types of flow visualizations
and methods of plotting the characteristics of a fluid
flow
• Appreciate the many ways that fluids move and deform
• Distinguish between rotational and irrotational regions
of flow based on the flow property vorticity
• Understand the usefulness of the Reynolds transport
theorem

4
4–1 ■ LAGRANGIAN AND EULERIAN DESCRIPTIONS
Kinematics: The study of motion.
Fluid kinematics: The study of how fluids flow and how to describe fluid motion.

There are two distinct ways to describe motion: Lagrangian and Eulerian
Lagrangian description: To follow the path of individual objects.
This method requires us to track the position and velocity of each individual fluid
parcel (fluid particle) and take to be a parcel of fixed identity.

With a small number of objects, such In the Lagrangian description, one must
as billiard balls on a pool table, keep track of the position and velocity of
individual objects can be tracked. individual particles.
5
A more common method is Eulerian description of fluid motion.
In the Eulerian description of fluid flow, a finite volume called a flow domain
or control volume is defined, through which fluid flows in and out.
Instead of tracking individual fluid particles, we define field variables,
functions of space and time, within the control volume.
The field variable at a particular location at a particular time is the value of
the variable for whichever fluid particle happens to occupy that location at
that time.
For example, the pressure field is a scalar field variable. We define the
velocity field as a vector field variable.

Collectively, these (and other) field variables define the flow field. The
velocity field can be expanded in Cartesian coordinates as

6
 In the Eulerian description we don’t really
care what happens to individual fluid
particles; rather we are concerned with
the pressure, velocity, acceleration, etc.,
of whichever fluid particle happens to be
at the location of interest at the time of
interest.
While there are many occasions in which
the Lagrangian description is useful, the
Eulerian description is often more
convenient for fluid mechanics
applications.
Experimental measurements are
generally more suited to the Eulerian
description.

(a) In the Eulerian description, we define field variables, such as the pressure field and
the velocity field, at any location and instant in time. (b) For example, the air speed
probe mounted under the wing of an airplane measures the air speed at that location.
 A Steady Two-Dimensional Velocity Field

Flow field near

the bell mouth
inlet of a
hydroelectric
dam; a portion of
the velocity field
of Example 4-1
may be used as
a first-order
approximation of
this physical
flow field.

Velocity vectors for the velocity field of Example 4–1. The scale is shown by the top arrow, and the
solid black curves represent the approximate shapes of some streamlines, based on the calculated
velocity vectors. The stagnation point is indicated by the blue circle. The shaded region represents
a portion of the flow field that can approximate flow into an inlet.

8
Acceleration Field
The equations of motion for fluid flow
(such as Newton’s second law) are
written for a fluid particle, which we
also call a material particle.
If we were to follow a particular fluid
particle as it moves around in the
flow, we would be employing the
Lagrangian description, and the
equations of motion would be directly
applicable.
For example, we would define the Newton’s second law applied to a fluid
particle’s location in space in terms of particle; the acceleration vector (purple
a material position vector arrow) is in the same direction as the force
xparticle(t), yparticle(t), zparticle(t) vector (green arrow), but the velocity vector
(blue arrow) may act in a different direction.

9
Local Advective (convective)
acceleration acceleration

10
When following a fluid particle, the x-
component of velocity, u, is defined as The components of the
dxparticle/dt. Similarly, v=dyparticle/dt and acceleration vector in
w=dzparticle/dt. Movement is shown here cartesian coordinates:
only in two dimensions for simplicity.

11
Flow of water through the nozzle of a
garden hose illustrates that fluid
particles may accelerate, even in a
steady flow. In this example, the exit
speed of the water is much higher than
the water speed in the hose, implying
that fluid particles have accelerated
even though the flow is steady.

12
 A first-order finite difference
approximation for derivative dq/dx
is simply the change in dependent
variable (q) divided by the change
in independent variable (x).
Residence time Δt is defined as the
time it takes for a fluid particle to
travel through the nozzle from inlet
to outlet (distance Δx).

13
Material Derivative

The total derivative operator d/dt in this equation is given a special

name, the material derivative; it is assigned a special notation, D/Dt,
in order to emphasize that it is formed by following a fluid particle as
it moves through the flow field.
Other names for the material derivative include total, particle,
Lagrangian, Eulerian, and substantial derivative.

The material derivative D/Dt is

defined by following a fluid
particle as it moves throughout
the flow field. In this illustration,
the fluid particle is accelerating
to the right as it moves up and
to the right.

14
The material derivative
D/Dt is composed of a
local or unsteady part
and a convective or
advective part.
15
Material Acceleration of a Steady Velocity Field

Acceleration vectors for the

velocity field of Examples 4–1
and 4–3. The scale is shown
by the top arrow, and the solid
black curves represent the
approximate shapes of some
streamlines, based on the
calculated velocity vectors.
The stagnation point is
indicated by the red circle.
16
4–2 ■ FLOW PATTERNS AND FLOW VISUALIZATION
Flow visualization: The visual
examination of flow field
features.
While quantitative study of fluid
dynamics requires advanced
mathematics, much can be
learned from flow visualization.
Flow visualization is useful not
only in physical experiments but
in numerical solutions as well
[computational fluid dynamics Spinning baseball. The late F. N. M. Brown
(CFD)]. devoted many years to developing and
using smoke visualization in wind tunnels
In fact, the very first thing an
at the University of Notre Dame. Here the
engineer using CFD does after
flow speed is about 23 m/s and the ball is
obtaining a numerical solution
rotated at 630 rpm.
is simulate some form of flow
visualization.
17
Streamlines and Streamtubes
Streamline: A curve that is
everywhere tangent to the
instantaneous local velocity
vector.
Streamlines are useful as
indicators of the instantaneous
direction of fluid motion
throughout the flow field.
For example, regions of
recirculating flow and separation
of a fluid off of a solid wall are
easily identified by the
streamline pattern.
Streamlines cannot be directly
observed experimentally except
in steady flow fields.
18
19
Streamlines for a steady, incompressible, two-dimensional velocity field

Streamlines (solid black

curves) for the velocity
field of Example 4–4;
velocity vectors (blue
arrows) are superimposed
for comparison.
The agreement is
excellent in the sense that
the velocity vectors point
everywhere tangent to the
streamlines. Note that
speed cannot be
determined directly from
the streamlines alone.
20
A streamtube consists of a bundle of
streamlines much like a
communications cable consists of a
bundle of fiber-optic cables.
Since streamlines are everywhere
parallel to the local velocity, fluid
cannot cross a streamline by
definition.
Fluid within a streamtube must
remain there and cannot cross the A streamtube consists of a bundle
boundary of the streamtube. of individual streamlines.

Both streamlines and

streamtubes are
instantaneous
quantities, defined at
a particular instant in
time according to the
velocity field at that In an incompressible flow field, a streamtube
instant. (a) decreases in diameter as the flow
accelerates or converges and (b) increases in
diameter as the flow decelerates or diverges.
21
Pathlines
Pathline: The actual path traveled by an individual fluid particle over
some time period.
A pathline is a Lagrangian concept in that we simply follow the path of
an individual fluid particle as it moves around in the flow field.
Thus, a pathline is the same as the fluid particle’s material position
vector (xparticle(t), yparticle(t), zparticle(t)) traced out over some finite time
interval.

A pathline is formed by
following the actual
path of a fluid particle.

22
Pathlines produced by white tracer particles suspended in water and
captured by time-exposure photography; as waves pass horizontally,
each particle moves in an elliptical path during one wave period.

23
Particle image velocimetry (PIV): A modern experimental
technique that utilizes short segments of particle pathlines
to measure the velocity field over an entire plane in a flow.
Recent advances also extend the technique to three
dimensions.
In PIV, tiny tracer particles are suspended in the fluid.
However, the flow is illuminated by two flashes of light
(usually a light sheet from a laser) to produce two bright
spots (recorded by a camera) for each moving particle.
Then, both the magnitude and direction of the velocity
vector at each particle location can be inferred, assuming
that the tracer particles are small enough that they move
with the fluid.

24
Stereo PIV measurements of
the wing tip vortex in the wake
of a NACA-66 airfoil at angle
of attack. Color contours
denote the local vorticity,
normalized by the minimum
value, as indicated in the color
map. Vectors denote fluid
motion in the plane of
measurement. The black line
denotes the location of the
upstream wing trailling edge.
Coordinates are normalized by
the airfoil chord, and the origin
is the wing root.

25
26
Streaklines
Streakline: The locus of
fluid particles that have
passed sequentially
through a prescribed point
in the flow.
Streaklines are the most
common flow pattern
generated in a physical
experiment.
If you insert a small tube
into a flow and introduce a
continuous stream of
tracer fluid (dye in a water
flow or smoke in an air A streakline is formed by continuous
flow), the observed introduction of dye or smoke from a
pattern is a streakline. point in the flow. Labeled tracer particles
(1 through 8) were introduced
sequentially. 27
 Streaklines produced by
colored fluid introduced
upstream; since the flow is
steady, these streaklines
are the same as
streamlines and pathlines.

Streaklines, streamlines, and pathlines are identical in steady flow but

they can be quite different in unsteady flow.
The main difference is that a streamline represents an instantaneous
flow pattern at a given instant in time, while a streakline and a pathline
are flow patterns that have some age and thus a time history associated
with them.
A streakline is an instantaneous snapshot of a time-integrated flow
pattern.
A pathline, on the other hand, is the time-exposed flow path of an
individual particle over some time period.
28
In the figure, streaklines are introduced from a smoke wire located just
downstream of a circular cylinder of diameter D aligned normal to the plane
of view.
When multiple streaklines are introduced along a line, as in the figure, we
refer to this as a rake of streaklines.
The Reynolds number of the flow is Re = 93.

Smoke streaklines introduced by a smoke wire at two different locations in

the
wake of a circular cylinder: (a) smoke wire just downstream of the cylinder
and 29
Because of unsteady vortices shed in an
alternating pattern from the cylinder, the
smoke collects into a clearly defined
periodic pattern called a Kármán vortex
street.
A similar pattern can be seen at much
larger scale in the air flow in the wake of
an island.

Kármán vortices visible in

the clouds in the wake of
Alexander Selkirk Island in
the southern Pacific Ocean.
30
31
Comparison of Flow Patterns in an Unsteady Flow

An unsteady, incompressible,
two-dimensional velocity field

Streamlines, pathlines, and

streaklines for the oscillating
velocity field of Example 4–5.
The streaklines and pathlines
are wavy because of their
integrated time history, but the
streamlines are not wavy since
they represent an
instantaneous snapshot of the
velocity field. 32
Timelines
Timeline: A set of adjacent fluid
particles that were marked at the
same (earlier) instant in time.
Timelines are particularly useful in
situations where the uniformity of a
flow (or lack thereof) is to be
examined.

Timelines are formed by marking a line

of fluid particles, and then watching
that line move (and deform) through
the flow field; timelines are shown at
t = 0, t1, t2, and t3.

Velocity vector plot generated from the

timeline at t = t2. A suitable reference
scale must be calculated so that the
lengths of the arrows scale
proportionally to that scale. 33
Timelines produced by a hydrogen bubble wire are used
to visualize the boundary layer velocity profile shape.
Flow is from left to right, and the hydrogen bubble wire is
located to the left of the field of view. Bubbles near the
wall reveal a flow instability that leads to turbulence.

34
Refractive Flow Visualization Techniques
It is based on the refractive property of light waves.
The speed of light through one material may differ somewhat from
that in another material, or even in the same material if its density
changes. As light travels through one fluid into a fluid with a
different index of refraction, the light rays bend (they are refracted).
Two primary flow visualization techniques that utilize the fact that
the index of refraction in air (or other gases) varies with density: the
shadowgraph technique and the schlieren technique.
Interferometry is a visualization technique that utilizes the related
phase change of light as it passes through air of varying densities
as the basis for flow visualization.
These techniques are useful for flow visualization in flow fields
where density changes from one location in the flow to another,
such as such as natural convection flows (temperature differences
cause the density variations), mixing flows (fluid species cause the
density variations), and supersonic flows (shock waves and
expansion waves cause the density variations).
35
Unlike flow visualizations involving streaklines, pathlines, and
timelines, the shadowgraph and schlieren methods do not require
injection of a visible tracer (smoke or dye).
Rather, density differences and the refractive property of light provide
the necessary means for visualizing regions of activity in the flow field,
allowing us to “see the invisible.”
The image (a shadowgram) produced by the shadowgraph method is
formed when the refracted rays of light rearrange the shadow cast
onto a viewing screen or camera focal plane, causing bright or dark
patterns to appear in the shadow.
The dark patterns indicate the location where the refracted rays
originate, while the bright patterns mark where these rays end up, and
can be misleading.
As a result, the dark regions are less distorted than the bright regions
and are more useful in the interpretation of the shadowgram.

36
Color schlieren image of Mach
3.0 flow from left to right over
a sphere. A curved shock wave
called a bow shock forms in
front of the sphere and curves
downstream; its forward-most
location appears as the thin
red band to the left of the
yellow band in this image. The
yellow band is caused by the
bow shock wrapping around
the sphere. Shocks coming off
the sphere downstream are
due to boundary layer
separation.

37
A shadowgram is not a true optical image; it is,
after all, merely a shadow.
A schlieren image, involves lenses (or mirrors)
and a knife edge or other cutoff device to block
the refracted light and is a true focused optical
image.
Schlieren imaging is more complicated to set up
than is shadowgraphy but has a number of
advantages.
A schlieren image does not suffer from optical
distortion by the refracted light rays.
Schlieren imaging is also more sensitive to
weak density gradients such as those caused
by natural convection or by gradual phenomena
like expansion fans in supersonic flow. Color
schlieren imaging techniques have also been
developed.
One can adjust more components in a schlieren Schlieren image of natural
setup. convection due to a barbeque grill.

38
Surface Flow Visualization Techniques
The direction of fluid flow immediately above a solid surface can
be visualized with tufts—short, flexible strings glued to the
surface at one end that point in the flow direction.
Tufts are especially useful for locating regions of flow separation,
where the flow direction suddenly reverses.
A technique called surface oil visualization can be used for the
same purpose—oil placed on the surface forms streaks called
friction lines that indicate the direction of flow.
If it rains lightly when your car is dirty (especially in the winter
when salt is on the roads), you may have noticed streaks along
the hood and sides of the car, or even on the windshield.
This is similar to what is observed with surface oil visualization.
Lastly, there are pressure-sensitive and temperature-sensitive
paints that enable researchers to observe the pressure or
temperature distribution along solid surfaces.

39
4–3 ■ PLOTS OF FLUID FLOW DATA
Regardless of how the results are obtained (analytically,
experimentally, or computationally), it is usually necessary to plot
flow data in ways that enable the reader to get a feel for how the
flow properties vary in time and/or space.
You are already familiar with time plots, which are especially
useful in turbulent flows (e.g., a velocity component plotted as a
function of time), and xy-plots (e.g., pressure as a function of
radius).
In this section, we discuss three additional types of plots that are
useful in fluid mechanics:
profile plots
vector plots
contour plots

40
 Profile Plots
A profile plot indicates how the value of a scalar property
varies along some desired direction in the flow field.
In fluid mechanics, profile plots of any
scalar variable (pressure, temperature,
density, etc.) can be created, but the
most common one used in this book is
the velocity profile plot.
Since velocity is a vector quantity, we
usually plot either the magnitude of
velocity or one of the components of
the velocity vector as a function of
distance in some desired direction.

Profile plots of the horizontal

component of velocity as a function of
vertical distance; flow in the boundary
layer growing along a horizontal flat
plate: (a) standard profile plot and (b)
profile plot with arrows. 41
Vector Plots
A vector plot is an array of arrows indicating
the magnitude and direction of a vector
property at an instant in time.

Streamlines indicate the direction of the

instantaneous velocity field, they do not directly
indicate the magnitude of the velocity (i.e., the speed).
A useful flow pattern for both experimental and
computational fluid flows is thus the vector plot, which
consists of an array of arrows that indicate both
magnitude and direction of an instantaneous vector
property.
Vector plots can also be generated from
experimentally obtained data (e.g., from PIV
measurements) or numerically from CFD calculations.

Fig. 4-4: Velocity vector plot

Fig. 4-14: Acceleration vector plot.
Both generated analytically. 42
Results of CFD calculations of flow
impinging on a block:
(a) streamlines
(b) velocity vector plot of the upper
half of the flow
(c) velocity vector plot, close-up view
revealing more details in the separated
flow region

43
A contour plot shows curves of constant Contour Plots
values of a scalar property (or magnitude of
a vector property) at an instant in time.

Contour plots (also called isocontour plots) are

generated of pressure, temperature, velocity
magnitude, species concentration, properties of
turbulence, etc.
A contour plot can quickly reveal regions of high
(or low) values of the flow property being studied.
A contour plot may consist simply of curves
indicating various levels of the property; this is
called a contour line plot.
Alternatively, the contours can be filled in with
either colors or shades of gray; this is called a
filled contour plot.

Contour plots of the pressure field due to flow

impinging on a block, as produced by CFD
calculations; only the upper half is shown due
to symmetry; (a) filled color scale contour plot and
(b) contour line plot where pressure values are
displayed in units of Pa gage pressure. 44
 4–4 ■ OTHER KINEMATIC DESCRIPTIONS
Types of Motion or Deformation of
Fluid Elements

In fluid mechanics, an element may undergo four

fundamental types of motion or deformation:
(a) translation, (b) rotation,
(c) linear strain (also called extensional strain), and
(d) shear strain.
All four types of motion or deformation usually occur
simultaneously.
It is preferable in fluid dynamics to describe the motion and
deformation of fluid elements in terms of rates such as
velocity (rate of translation),
angular velocity (rate of rotation),
linear strain rate (rate of linear strain), and
shear strain rate (rate of shear strain).
Fundamental types of fluid element
In order for these deformation rates to be useful in the motion or deformation: (a)
calculation of fluid flows, we must express them in terms of translation, (b) rotation, (c) linear
velocity and derivatives of velocity. strain, and (d) shear strain.
 A vector is required in order to fully describe the rate of translation in three
dimensions. The rate of translation vector is described mathematically as
the velocity vector.

Rate of rotation (angular velocity) at a point:

The average rotation rate of two initially
perpendicular lines that intersect at that
point.
Rate of rotation of fluid
element about point P

For a fluid element that translates and deforms

as sketched, the rate of rotation at point P is
defined as the average rotation rate of two
initially perpendicular lines (lines a and b).
46
The rate of rotation vector is equal to the angular velocity vector.

Linear strain rate: The rate of increase in length per unit length.
Mathematically, the linear strain rate of a fluid element depends on the
initial orientation or direction of the line segment upon which we measure
the linear strain.

47
Using the lengths marked in the figure, the linear strain rate in the xa-direction is

48
Volumetric strain rate or bulk strain rate: The rate of increase of
volume of a fluid element per unit volume.
This kinematic property is defined as positive when the volume
increases.
Another synonym of volumetric strain rate is also called rate of
volumetric dilatation, (the iris of your eye dilates (enlarges) when
exposed to dim light).
The volumetric strain rate is the sum of the linear strain rates in
three mutually orthogonal directions.

The volumetric strain rate is

zero in an incompressible flow.

49
Air being compressed by a piston in a
cylinder; the volume of a fluid element in
the cylinder decreases, corresponding to
a negative rate of volumetric dilatation.

50
Shear strain rate at a point:
Half of the rate of decrease
of the angle between two
initially perpendicular lines
that intersect at the point.

For a fluid element that

translates and deforms as
sketched, the shear strain
rate at point P is defined as
half of the rate of decrease
of the angle between two
initially perpendicular lines
(lines a and b).
51
52
Figure shows a general (although
two-dimensional) situation in a
compressible fluid flow in which all
possible motions and deformations
are present simultaneously.
In particular, there is translation,
rotation, linear strain, and shear
strain.
Because of the compressible nature
of the fluid flow, there is also
volumetric strain (dilatation).
You should now have a better
appreciation of the inherent
complexity of fluid dynamics, and
the mathematical sophistication A fluid element illustrating
required to fully describe fluid translation, rotation, linear strain,
motion. shear strain, and volumetric
strain.
53
54
55
4–5 ■ VORTICITY AND ROTATIONALITY
Another kinematic property of great importance to the analysis of fluid flows is
the vorticity vector, defined mathematically as the curl of the velocity vector

Vorticity is equal to twice the

angular velocity of a fluid particle

The direction
of a vector
cross product
is determined The vorticity vector is equal to
by the right- twice the angular velocity
hand rule. vector of a rotating fluid particle.
If the vorticity at a point in a flow field is nonzero, the fluid particle that
happens to occupy that point in space is rotating; the flow in that region is
called rotational.
Likewise, if the vorticity in a region of the flow is zero (or negligibly small),
fluid particles there are not rotating; the flow in that region is called irrotational.
Physically, fluid particles in a rotational region of flow rotate end over end as
they move along in the flow.

The difference between rotational and irrotational flow:

fluid elements in a rotational region of the flow rotate, but
those in an irrotational region of the flow do not. 57
For a two-dimensional flow in the xy-plane, the vorticity vector always
points in the z- or z-direction. In this illustration, the flag-shaped fluid
particle rotates in the counterclockwise direction as it moves in the xy-
plane; its vorticity points in the positive z-direction as shown. 58
Contour plot of the vorticity field 𝜁z due to flow impinging on a
block, as produced by CFD calculations; only the upper half is
shown due to symmetry. Blue regions represent large negative
vorticity, and red regions represent large positive vorticity.
59
 Determination of Rotationality in a Two-Dimensional Flow

steady, incompressible, two-

dimensional velocity field:

Vorticity

Deformation of an initially
square fluid parcel subjected
to the velocity field of Example
4–8 for a time period of 0.25 s
and 0.50 s. Several
streamlines are also plotted in
the first quadrant. It is clear
that this flow is rotational.

60
For a two-dimensional flow in
the r-plane, the vorticity
vector always points in the z
(or z) direction. In this
illustration, the flag-shaped
fluid particle rotates in the
clockwise direction as it
moves in the ru-plane; its
vorticity points in the z-
direction as shown.
61
Comparison of Two Circular Flows

Streamlines and
velocity profiles for (a)
flow A, solid-body
rotation and (b) flow
B, a line vortex. Flow
A is rotational, but
flow B is irrotational
everywhere except
at the origin.
The (oversized) fluid
elements in flow B
would also distort as
they move, but in
order to illustrate
only particle rotation,
such distortion is not
shown here.

62
A simple analogy: (a) rotational circular flow is analogous to a roundabout, while (b)
irrotational circular flow is analogous to a Ferris wheel.

As children revolve around a roundabout, they also rotate at the same angular
velocity as that of the ride itself. This is analogous to a rotational flow.
In contrast, children on a Ferris wheel always remain oriented in an upright
position as they trace out their circular path. This is analogous to an irrotational
flow.
63
Streamlines in the
r𝜃-plane for the
case of a line sink.

64
 4–6 ■ THE REYNOLDS TRANSPORT THEOREM

Two methods of analyzing the

spraying of deodorant from a spray
can:
(a) We follow the fluid as it moves
and deforms. This is the system
approach—no mass crosses the
boundary, and the total mass of the
system remains fixed.
(b) We consider a fixed interior
volume of the can. This is the control
volume approach—mass crosses the
boundary.

The relationship between the time rates of change of an extensive property

for a system and for a control volume is expressed by the Reynolds transport
theorem (RTT).
65
The Reynolds transport theorem (RTT)
provides a link between the system
approach and the control volume
approach.

66
 The time rate of change of the property
B of the system is equal to the time rate
of change of B of the control volume
plus the net flux of B out of the control
volume by mass crossing the control
surface.
This equation applies at any instant in
time, where it is assumed that the
system and the control volume occupy
the same space at that particular
instant in time.

A moving system (hatched region) and a

fixed control volume (shaded region) in a
diverging portion of a flow field at times
t and t+t. The upper and lower bounds
are streamlines of the flow.
67
68
69
70
Relative velocity crossing a
control surface is found by
vector addition of the
absolute velocity of the
fluid and the negative of
the local velocity of the
control surface.
71
Reynolds transport
theorem applied to a
control volume
moving at constant
velocity.
72
73
An example control volume in which there
is one well-defined inlet (1) and two well-
defined outlets (2 and 3). In such cases,
the control surface integral in the RTT can
be more conveniently written in terms of
the average values of fluid properties
crossing each inlet and outlet.

74
Alternate Derivation of the Reynolds Transport Theorem

A more elegant mathematical derivation of the Reynolds transport

theorem is possible through use of the Leibniz theorem.

The Leibniz theorem takes into

account the change of limits a(t)
and b(t) with respect to time, as
well as the unsteady changes of
integrand G(x, t) with time.

The one-dimensional Leibniz

theorem is required when
calculating the time derivative of an
integral (with respect to x) for which
the limits of the integral are
functions of time. 75
76
The three-dimensional Leibniz
theorem is required when
calculating the time derivative of
a volume integral for which the
volume itself moves and/or
deforms with time. It turns out
that the three-dimensional form
of the Leibniz theorem can be
used in an alternative derivation
of the Reynolds transport
theorem. 77
The material volume
(system) and control volume
occupy the same space at
time t (the blue shaded area),
but move and deform
differently. At a later time
they are not coincident.

78
Relationship between Material Derivative and RTT
While the Reynolds
transport theorem deals
with finite-size control
volumes and the material
derivative deals with
infinitesimal fluid particles,
the same fundamental
physical interpretation
applies to both.
Just as the material
derivative can be applied to
The Reynolds transport theorem for finite
any fluid property, scalar or
volumes (integral analysis) is analogous
vector, the Reynolds
to the material derivative for infinitesimal
transport theorem can be
volumes (differential analysis). In both
applied to any scalar or
cases, we transform from a Lagrangian or
vector property as well.
system viewpoint to an Eulerian or control
volume viewpoint.
79
 Summary
Lagrangian and Eulerian Descriptions
• Acceleration Field
• Material Derivative
Flow Patterns and Flow Visualization
• Streamlines and Streamtubes, Pathlines,
• Streaklines, Timelines
• Refractive Flow Visualization Techniques
• Surface Flow Visualization Techniques
Plots of Fluid Flow Data
• Vector Plots, Contour Plots
Other Kinematic Descriptions
• Types of Motion or Deformation of Fluid Elements
Vorticity and Rotationality
• Comparison of Two Circular Flows
The Reynolds Transport Theorem
• Alternate Derivation of the Reynolds Transport Theorem
• Relationship between Material Derivative and RTT
80
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