Module 1/3

Q) Explain ISO OSI reference model

The ISO OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) reference model is a conceptual framework used to
understand and design how network systems communicate with each other. It divides network
communication into seven layers, each with specific functions. These layers work together to enable data to
travel from one device to another, regardless of the underlying hardware or software differences.

The Seven Layers of the OSI Model:

1. Physical Layer (Layer 1)

Function: Handles the physical connection between devices, including cables, switches, and electrical
signals.
Examples: Ethernet cables, fiber optics, radio frequencies.

2. Data Link Layer (Layer 2)

Function: Manages data transfer between directly connected devices. It detects and corrects errors in the
physical layer.
Sub-layers:
Logical Link Control (LLC)
Media Access Control (MAC)
Examples: MAC addresses, Ethernet frames, Wi-Fi.

3. Network Layer (Layer 3)

Function: Determines how data is sent to its destination using logical addressing and routing.
Examples: IP addresses, routers, IPv4/IPv6.

4. Transport Layer (Layer 4)

Function: Ensures reliable data transfer through error detection, retransmission, and flow control. It
segments data for efficient transmission.
Examples: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), UDP (User Datagram Protocol).

5. Session Layer (Layer 5)

Function: Manages sessions or connections between applications. It handles opening, maintaining, and
closing communication sessions.
Examples: Session management in online banking or video calls.

6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6)

Function: Translates data into a format suitable for the application layer, including encryption,
compression, and formatting.
Examples: SSL/TLS encryption, JPEG, MP4.

7. Application Layer (Layer 7)

Function: Provides network services directly to end-user applications, such as web browsing, email, or file
transfer.
Examples: HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS.
Key Benefits of the OSI Model:

Standardization: Provides a universal standard for networking, enabling compatibility between different
devices and systems.
Modularity: Separates functions, making troubleshooting and development easier.
Scalability: Allows for new protocols and technologies to be implemented without redesigning the entire
system.

Q) State and explain the design issues of OSI layer

The general design issues in the OSI model revolve around ensuring reliable, efficient, and secure
communication across a network. These issues cut across multiple layers and are critical for the seamless
functioning of a network. Here are the primary concerns:

1. Reliability
Ensuring error-free data transmission despite issues like noise, signal degradation, or hardware failures.
Mechanisms like error detection, correction, and retransmissions are essential.

2. Interoperability
Ensuring that systems from different vendors can communicate effectively using standard protocols and
interfaces.
Adhering to global standards for compatibility.

3. Scalability
Designing the system to support an increasing number of users, devices, and data volumes without
performance degradation.

4. Security
Protecting data from unauthorized access, tampering, or interception.
Mechanisms include encryption, authentication, and secure protocols.

5. Addressing and Identification

Assigning unique addresses to devices and processes to ensure proper identification and communication.
Logical (IP) and physical (MAC) addressing must work seamlessly.

6. Resource Optimization
Efficient utilization of bandwidth, memory, and processing power to prevent waste and bottlenecks.
Techniques like flow control and congestion management are crucial.

7. Error Handling
Detecting and correcting errors that occur during transmission or processing.
Includes packet loss recovery and duplication prevention.

8. Standardization
Establishing universal rules and protocols to ensure consistency and interoperability across different
systems and networks.

9. Connection Establishment and Termination

Managing the lifecycle of a connection, including setup, maintenance, and termination, to ensure stability
and avoid resource leaks.

10. Flexibility and Adaptability

Adapting to various technologies, protocols, and data formats without requiring major changes to the
network infrastructure.

11. Data Integrity and Consistency

Ensuring that data remains consistent, unaltered, and delivered in the correct order from sender to receiver.

12. Quality of Service (QoS)

Providing guaranteed performance for specific applications, such as video streaming or VoIP, by managing
latency, jitter, and packet loss.

Q) Explain CSMA protocol. Explain how collisions are handled in CSMA/CD.

Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) is a network protocol used to manage access to a shared
communication medium (e.g., Ethernet). The primary goal of CSMA is to avoid collisions (situations
where two devices transmit simultaneously) by requiring devices to sense the channel before transmitting
data.

Key Steps in CSMA:

1. Carrier Sensing: A device checks whether the channel is idle (no ongoing transmission).
If the channel is idle, the device transmits data.
If the channel is busy, the device waits and retries after a random interval.

2. Multiple Access: All devices on the network share the same communication medium and follow
the same procedure for accessing it.

CSMA Types:

1. CSMA/CA (Collision Avoidance): Tries to avoid collisions by using techniques like RTS/CTS
(Request to Send / Clear to Send).

2. CSMA/CD (Collision Detection): Detects collisions during transmission and takes steps to
recover. It is commonly used in wired networks like Ethernet.

CSMA/CD (Collision Detection)

CSMA/CD enhances basic CSMA by detecting collisions that occur during transmission. It operates as
follows:

How CSMA/CD Works:

1. Carrier Sensing: A device senses the channel to ensure it is idle before starting transmission.
2. Transmission: If the channel is idle, the device transmits its data.

3. Collision Detection:
While transmitting, the device monitors the channel for signals from other devices.
If a collision is detected (indicated by a sudden increase in signal amplitude or garbled data), the device
stops transmitting.

4. Collision Handling:
The device sends a jam signal to inform other devices of the collision.
The jam signal ensures all devices involved in the collision stop transmitting.
 5. Backoff Algorithm:
After sending the jam signal, each device involved in the collision waits for a random time before
attempting to retransmit.
The random waiting time is determined by the binary exponential backoff algorithm, which increases the
waiting time after successive collisions to reduce the chance of repeated collisions.

6. Retransmission: The device attempts to retransmit after the backoff period, repeating the process if
another collision occurs.

Collision Handling in CSMA/CD:

Collision Detection: Devices monitor the channel for unexpected changes in signal strength or patterns
during transmission.
Jam Signal: A 32-bit signal is sent to all devices on the network to notify them of the collision.
Binary Exponential Backoff:
The backoff time is calculated as:
T = k \times \text{slot time}
This increases the waiting time exponentially with each collision, reducing the likelihood of repeated
collisions.

Advantages of CSMA/CD:

Simple and effective for managing access in wired networks.

Reduces network congestion by handling collisions efficiently.

Limitations of CSMA/CD:

Not suitable for high-latency or wireless networks where collision detection is difficult.
Performance decreases as the number of devices increases due to higher chances of collisions.

CSMA/CD is widely used in traditional Ethernet (IEEE 802.3) but is less relevant in modern switched
Ethernet networks where dedicated links eliminate collisions.

Q) Explain Sliding window protocol using Selective repeat method

The Sliding Window Protocol is a method used in data communication to ensure reliable transmission of
data packets between sender and receiver. It uses a “window” mechanism that allows multiple packets to be
sent before receiving acknowledgments, improving efficiency. The Selective Repeat (SR) method is a
specific variation of the sliding window protocol that handles lost or corrupted packets more efficiently.

Sliding Window Protocol with Selective Repeat

Key Features:

1. Window Size: The sender and receiver each maintain a window that determines how many packets
can be sent or received at a time without waiting for an acknowledgment.
2. Acknowledgments: The receiver sends individual acknowledgments (ACKs) for each correctly
received packet.
3. Resending Lost Packets: Only the packets that are lost or corrupted are retransmitted, instead of
retransmitting all unacknowledged packets (as in Go-Back-N).

How Selective Repeat Works:

At the Sender:

1. Transmit Window: The sender maintains a window of sequence numbers for packets that are sent
but not yet acknowledged.
The size of this window is typically , where is the number of bits used for sequence numbers.

2. Transmission: The sender transmits packets within its window without waiting for
acknowledgments.

3. ACK Handling:
If an acknowledgment for a packet is received, the sender slides the window forward, allowing new packets
to be sent.
If a packet is reported as lost or corrupted, only that specific packet is retransmitted.

At the Receiver:

1. Receive Window: The receiver also maintains a window of expected sequence numbers.

2. Out-of-Order Packets:
The receiver accepts and buffers out-of-order packets that fall within its window.
Packets outside the window are discarded.

3. Acknowledgments: The receiver sends an ACK for each correctly received packet, even if it is out
of order.

4. Delivery to Application Layer: Packets are delivered to the application layer in order once all
preceding packets have been received.

Example of Selective Repeat:

1. Initial State:
Sender’s window: [1, 2, 3, 4]
Receiver’s window: [1, 2, 3, 4]

2. Transmission: The sender sends packets 1, 2, 3, and 4.

3. Loss/Corruption: Packet 2 is lost during transmission.

4. Acknowledgment:
Receiver acknowledges packets 1 and 3, and buffers packet 3.
No acknowledgment is sent for packet 2.

5. Retransmission:
The sender retransmits only packet 2 after detecting its loss (timeout or duplicate ACK).

6. Completion: Once packet 2 is successfully received and acknowledged, the receiver delivers
packets 1, 2, and 3 to the application layer.